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No there is no such consensus as thousands of leading scientists debunk the theory.The work of the UN IPCC admitted openly is less focused on the environment and real climate science , rather it is more a project in economics and wealth distribution with the fear of global warming the cat’s paw to gain supporters.The Working Group #1 of the UN IPCC failed in 1995 with their first major report to find evidence of anthropogenic climate change that could be discerned apart from natural variability. This is critical to seen that the radical view of human caused warming is not settled science. The full story well documented in Bernie Lewin’s recent book.Why this history of the IPCC machinations is so important. E. Calvin BeisnerCompelling historyReviewed in the United States on January 18, 2020Anyone who thinks the science behind global warming alarmism it's simple, objective, empirically sound science in action needs to read this book. The political and financial forces driving toward alarmist conclusions about climate change have been powerful for generations, and that have resulted in scientific claims that go far beyond the evidence. Those in turn have led to government policies that go far beyond not only the science but also the economics, and threaten to undermine the prospects uplifting the world's remaining poor out of their poverty and suffering.The UN are guilty of a swindle about human made climate change as they doctored the key scientific working group report in 1995. The sordid story is presented objectively by Bernie Lewin in his book SEARCHING FOR THE CATASTROPHE SIGNAL.The UN climate science working group of 2000 experts said this when they made their report in 1995. They said we do not have scientific evidence of anthropogenic climate change.In the 1995 2nd Assessment Report of the UN IPCC the scientists included these three statements in the draft:1. “None of the studies cited above has shown clear evidence that we can attribute the observed (climate) changes to the specific cause of increases in greenhouse gases.”2. “No study to date has positively attributed all or part (of observed climate change) to anthropogenic (i.e. man-made) causes.”3. “Any claims of positive detection of significant climate change are likely to remain controversial until uncertainties in the natural variability of the climate system are reducedThe IPCC Working group presented details of the uncertainty about human caused climate that focused mostly on the fact the Co2 thesis is overwhelmed by natural variation and climate history. Here are details in their report where evidence is uncertain.Environment blogClimate changeFriday, December 19, 201497 Articles Refuting The "97% Consensus"The 97% "consensus" study, Cook et al. (2013) has been thoroughly refuted in scholarly peer-reviewed journals, by major news media, public policy organizations and think tanks, highly credentialed scientists and extensively in the climate blogosphere. The shoddy methodology of Cook's study has been shown to be so fatally flawed that well known climate scientists have publicly spoken out against it,"The '97% consensus' article is poorly conceived, poorly designed and poorly executed. It obscures the complexities of the climate issue and it is a sign of the desperately poor level of public and policy debate in this country [UK] that the energy minister should cite it."- Mike Hulme, Ph.D. Professor of Climate Change, University of East Anglia (UEA)The following is a list of 97 articles that refute Cook's (poorly conceived, poorly designed and poorly executed) 97% "consensus" study. The fact that anyone continues to bring up such soundly debunked nonsense like Cook's study is an embarrassment to science.Summary: Cook et al. (2013) attempted to categorize 11,944 abstracts [brief summaries] of papers (not entire papers) to their level of endorsement of AGW and found 7930 (66%) held no position on AGW. While only 64 papers (0.5%) explicitly endorsed and quantified AGW as +50% (humans are the primary cause). A later analysis by Legates et al. (2013) found there to be only 41 papers (0.3%) that supported this definition. Cook et al.'s methodology was so fatally flawed that they falsely classified skeptic papers as endorsing the 97% consensus, apparently believing to know more about the papers than their authors. The second part of Cook et al. (2013), the author self-ratings simply confirmed the worthlessness of their methodology, as they were not representative of the sample since only 4% of the authors (1189 of 29,083) rated their own papers and of these 63% disagreed with the abstract ratings.Methodology: The data (11,944 abstracts) used in Cook et al. (2013) came from searching the Web of Science database for results containing the key phrases "global warming" or "global climate change" regardless of what type of publication they appeared in or the context those phrases were used. Only a small minority of these were actually published in climate science journals, instead the publications included ones like the International Journal Of Vehicle Design, Livestock Science and Waste Management. The results were not even analyzed by scientists but rather amateur environmental activists with credentials such as "zoo volunteer" (co-author Bärbel Winkler) and "scuba diving" (co-author Rob Painting) who were chosen by the lead author John Cook (a cartoonist) because they all comment on his deceptively named, partisan alarmist blog 'Skeptical Science' and could be counted on to push his manufactured talking point.Peer-review: Cook et al. (2013) was published in the journal Environmental Research Letters (ERL) which conveniently has multiple outspoken alarmist scientists on its editorial board (e.g. Peter Gleick and Stefan Rahmstorf) where the paper likely received substandard "pal-review" instead of the more rigorous peer-review.Update: The paper has since been refuted five times in the scholarly literature by Legates et al. (2013), Tol (2014a), Tol (2014b), Dean (2015) and Tol (2016).* All the other "97% consensus" studies: e.g. Doran & Zimmerman (2009), Anderegg et al. (2010) and Oreskes (2004) have been refuted by peer-review.Popular Technology.netThe claim of a 97% consensus on global warming does not stand upConsensus is irrelevant in science. There are plenty of examples in history where everyone agreed and everyone was wrongRichard Tol: 'There is disagreement on the extent to which humans contributed to the observed warming. This is part and parcel of a healthy scientific debate.' Photograph: Frank Augstein/AP Photograph: Frank Augstein/APRichard TolFri 6 Jun 2014 15.59 BST971The claim of a 97% consensus on global warming does not stand up | Richard TolDana Nuccitelli writes that I “accidentally confirm the results of last year’s 97% global warming consensus study”. Nothing could be further from the truth.I show that the 97% consensus claim does not stand up.Cook and co selected some 12,000 papers from the scientific literature to test whether these papers support the hypothesis that humans played a substantial role in the observed warming of the Earth. 12,000 is a strange number. The climate literature is much larger. The number of papers on the detection and attribution of climate change is much, much smaller.Cook’s sample is not representative. Any conclusion they draw is not about “the literature” but rather about the papers they happened to find.Most of the papers they studied are not about climate change and its causes, but many were taken as evidence nonetheless. Papers on carbon taxes naturally assume that carbon dioxide emissions cause global warming – but assumptions are not conclusions. Cook’s claim of an increasing consensus over time is entirely due to an increase of the number of irrelevant papers that Cook and co mistook for evidence.The abstracts of the 12,000 papers were rated, twice, by 24 volunteers. Twelve rapidly dropped out, leaving an enormous task for the rest. This shows. There are patterns in the data that suggest that raters may have fallen asleep with their nose on the keyboard. In July 2013, Mr Cook claimed to have data that showed this is not the case. In May 2014, he claimed that data never existed.The data is also ridden with error. By Cook’s own calculations, 7% of the ratings are wrong. Spot checks suggest a much larger number of errors, up to one-third.Cook tried to validate the results by having authors rate their own papers. In almost two out of three cases, the author disagreed with Cook’s team about the message of the paper in question.Attempts to obtain Cook’s data for independent verification have been in vain. Cook sometimes claims that the raters are interviewees who are entitled to privacy – but the raters were never asked any personal detail. At other times, Cook claims that the raters are not interviewees but interviewers.The 97% consensus paper rests on yet another claim: the raters are incidental, it is the rated papers that matter. If you measure temperature, you make sure that your thermometers are all properly and consistently calibrated. Unfortunately, although he does have the data, Cook does not test whether the raters judge the same paper in the same way.Consensus is irrelevant in science. There are plenty of examples in history where everyone agreed and everyone was wrong. Cook’s consensus is also irrelevant in policy. They try to show that climate change is real and human-made. It is does not follow whether and by how much greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced.The debate on climate policy is polarised, often using discussions about climate science as a proxy. People who want to argue that climate researchers are secretive and incompetent only have to point to the 97% consensus paper.On 29 May, the Committee on Science, Space and Technology of the US House of Representatives examined the procedures of the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Having been active in the IPCC since 1994, serving in various roles in all its three working groups, most recently as a convening lead author for the fifth assessment report of working group II, my testimony to the committee briefly reiterated some of the mistakes made in the fifth assessment report but focused on the structural faults in the IPCC, notably the selection of authors and staff, the weaknesses in the review process, and the competition for attention between chapters. I highlighted that the IPCC is a natural monopoly that is largely unregulated. I recommended that its assessment reports be replaced by an assessment journal.In an article on 2 June, Nuccitelli ignores the subject matter of the hearing, focusing instead on a brief interaction about the 97% consensus paper co-authored by… Nuccitelli. He unfortunately missed the gist of my criticism of his work.Successive literature reviews, including the ones by the IPCC, have time and again established that there has been substantial climate change over the last one and a half centuries and that humans caused a large share of that climate change.There is disagreement, of course, particularly on the extent to which humans contributed to the observed warming. This is part and parcel of a healthy scientific debate. There is widespread agreement, though, that climate change is real and human-made.I believe Nuccitelli and colleagues are wrong about a number of issues. Mistakenly thinking that agreement on the basic facts of climate change would induce agreement on climate policy, Nuccitelli and colleagues tried to quantify the consensus, and failed.In his defence, Nuccitelli argues that I do not dispute their main result. Nuccitelli fundamentally misunderstands research. Science is not a set of results. Science is a method. If the method is wrong, the results are worthless.Nuccitelli’s pieces are two of a series of articles published in the Guardian impugning my character and my work. Nuccitelli falsely accuses me of journal shopping, a despicable practice.The theologist Michael Rosenberger has described climate protection as a new religion, based on a fear for the apocalypse, with dogmas, heretics and inquisitors like Nuccitelli. I prefer my politics secular and my science sound.Richard Tol is a professor of economics at the University of SussexCO2 is too minute, too variable and not correlated with temperature because it lags not precedes temperature rise. CO2 has no climate effect and is essential to plant life through photosynthesis. We need more CO2 for greening the earth not less.Science unlike politics and religion is based on doubt and skepticism therefore the very idea of finding consensus in evaluating a new and controversial theory like AGW is a false and antiscientific. Therefore, when alarmists talk consensus this is a tip off they are covering up disputed and shoddy science by the laughable claim “the science is settled. “Here in Nakamura, we have a highly qualified and experienced climate modeler with impeccable credentials rejecting the unscientific bases of the climate crisis claims. But he’s up against it — activists are winning at the moment, and they’re fronted by scared, crying children; an unstoppable combination, one that’s tricky to discredit without looking like a heartless bastard (I’ve tried).I published an answer to a similar question recently. See - James Matkin's answer to Is there really scientific consensus that man-made climate change is actually happening?Leading scientists around the world are petitioning governments that there is no climate crisis for them to address. 500 scientists signed this European Climate Declaration as one example. 90 well known Italian scientists added their further petition.Science is not in the consensus business like politics and religion. Doubt is the engine of science. This means just one brilliant skeptic can undo poor research and conventional wisdom.Here is an example of a cogent attack that debunks anthropogenic climate change.ANOTHER CLIMATE SCIENTIST WITH IMPECCABLE CREDENTIALS BREAKS RANKS: “OUR MODELS ARE MICKEY-MOUSE MOCKERIES OF THE REAL WORLD”kikoukagakushanokokuhaku chikyuuonndannkahamikennshounokasetsu: Confessions of a climate scientist The global warming hypothesis is an unproven hypothesis (Japanese Edition) Kindle EditionbyNakamura Mototaka(Author)ArticlesGSMANOTHER CLIMATE SCIENTIST WITH IMPECCABLE CREDENTIALS BREAKS RANKS: “OUR MODELS ARE MICKEY-MOUSE MOCKERIES OF THE REAL WORLD”SEPTEMBER 26, 2019CAP ALLONDr. Mototaka Nakamura received a Doctorate of Science from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and for nearly 25 years specialized in abnormal weather and climate change at prestigious institutions that included MIT, Georgia Institute of Technology, NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, JAMSTEC and Duke University.In his bookThe Global Warming Hypothesis is an Unproven Hypothesis, Dr. Nakamura explains why the data foundation underpinning global warming science is “untrustworthy” and cannot be relied on:“Global mean temperatures before 1980 are based on untrustworthy data,” writes Nakamura. “Before full planet surface observation by satellite began in 1980, only a small part of the Earth had been observed for temperatures with only a certain amount of accuracy and frequency. Across the globe, only North America and Western Europe have trustworthy temperature data dating back to the 19th century.”From 1990 to 2014, Nakamura worked on cloud dynamics and forces mixing atmospheric and ocean flows on medium to planetary scales. His bases were MIT (for a Doctor of Science in meteorology), Georgia Institute of Technology, Goddard Space Flight Center, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Duke and Hawaii Universities and the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology.He’s published 20+ climate papers on fluid dynamics.There is no questioning his credibility or knowledge.Today’s ‘global warming science’ is akin to an upside down pyramid which is built on the work of a few climate modelers. These AGW pioneers claim to have demonstrated human-derived CO2 emissions as the cause of recently rising temperatures and have then simply projected that warming forward. Every climate researcher thereafter has taken the results of these original models as a given, and we’re even at the stage now where merely testing their validity is regarded as heresy.Here in Nakamura, we have a highly qualified and experienced climate modeler with impeccable credentials rejecting the unscientific bases of the climate crisis claims. But he’s up against it — activists are winning at the moment, and they’re fronted by scared, crying children; an unstoppable combination, one that’s tricky to discredit without looking like a heartless bastard (I’ve tried).Climate scientist Dr. Mototaka Nakamura’s recent book blasts global warming data as “untrustworthy” and “falsified”.DATA FALSIFICATIONWhen arguing against global warming, the hardest thing I find is convincing people of data falsification, namely temperature fudging. If you don’t pick your words carefully, forget some of the facts, or get your tone wrong then it’s very easy to sound like a conspiracy crank (I’ve been there, too).But now we have Nakamura.The good doctor has accused the orthodox scientists of “data falsification” in the form adjusting historical temperature data down to inflate today’s subtle warming trend — something Tony Heller has been proving for years on his websiterealclimatescience.com.Nakamura writes: “The global surface mean temperature-change data no longer have any scientific value and are nothing except a propaganda tool to the public.”The climate models are useful tools for academic studies, he admits. However: “The models just become useless pieces of junk or worse (as they can produce gravely misleading output) when they are used for climate forecasting.”Climate forecasting is simply not possible, Nakamura concludes, and the impacts of human-caused CO2 can’t be judged with the knowledge and technology we currently possess.The models grossly simplify the way the climate works.As well as ignoring the sun, they also drastically simplify large and small-scale ocean dynamics, aerosol changes that generate clouds (cloud cover is one of the key factors determining whether we have global warming or global cooling), the drivers of ice-albedo: “Without a reasonably accurate representation, it is impossible to make any meaningful predictions of climate variations and changes in the middle and high latitudes and thus the entire planet,” and water vapor.The climate forecasts also suffer from arbitrary “tunings” of key parameters that are simply not understood.NAKAMURA ON CO2He writes:“The real or realistically-simulated climate system is far more complex than an absurdly simple system simulated by the toys that have been used for climate predictions to date, and will be insurmountably difficult for those naive climate researchers who have zero or very limited understanding of geophysical fluid dynamics. The dynamics of the atmosphere and oceans are absolutely critical facets of the climate system if one hopes to ever make any meaningful prediction of climate variation.”Solar input is modeled as a “never changing quantity,” which is absurd.“It has only been several decades since we acquired an ability to accurately monitor the incoming solar energy. In these several decades only, it has varied by one to two watts per square meter. Is it reasonable to assume that it will not vary any more than that in the next hundred years or longer for forecasting purposes? I would say, No.”Read Mototaka Nakamura’s book for free onKindleSUPERB Demolition Of The ‘97% Consensus’ MythPosted: June 10, 2020 | Author: Jamie Spry |It’s time for us all to recognize the 97% con game | CFACT“The data doesn’t matter. We’re not basing our recommendationson the data. We’re basing them on the climate models.”– Prof. Chris Folland,Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research“The models are convenient fictionsthat provide something very useful.”– Dr David Frame,Climate modeller, Oxford University***A must watch demolition of the “97% Consensus” myth. Ping this to anyone claiming that there is a scientific consensus on CO₂ as the primary driver of earth’s climate.Via Clear Energy Alliance :97 Percent of scientists believe in catastrophic human caused climate change? Of course not! But far too many believe this ridiculous statement that defies basic logic and observation. (Can you think of any highly-political issue where you could get even 65% agreement?) The 97% Myth has succeeded in fooling many people because the phony number is repeated over and over again by those who have a financial and/or ideological stake in the outcome. By the way, what any scientist “believes’ doesn’t matter anyway. Science is what happens during rigorous and repeated experimentation.VISIT Clear Energy Alliance https://clearenergyalliance.com/***SALIENT reminders about “consensus” from science legend, Michael Crichton :“There is no such thing as consensus science. If it’s consensus, it isn’t science. If it’s science, it isn’t consensus. Period.”― Michael Crichton“I would remind you to notice where the claim of consensus is invoked. Consensus is invoked only in situations where the science is not solid enough. Nobody says the consensus of scientists agrees that E=mc2. Nobody says the consensus is that the sun is 93 million miles away. It would never occur to anyone to speak that way.”― Michael Crichton“Historically, the claim of consensus has been the first refuge of scoundrels; it is a way to avoid debate by claiming that the matter is already settled. Whenever you hear the consensus of scientists agrees on something or other, reach for your wallet, because you’re being had.”― Michael CrichtonMUST READ CRICHTON :Fear, Complexity and Environmental Management in the 21st Century (Michael Crichton) | ClimatismNew lists are published that debunks the notion of any overwhelming scientific consensus and human made global warming.Articles“THE LIST” — SCIENTISTS WHO PUBLICLY DISAGREE WITH THE CURRENT CONSENSUS ON CLIMATE CHANGEDECEMBER 20, 2018 CAP ALLONFor those still blindly banging the 97% drum, here’s an in-no-way-comprehensive list of the SCIENTISTS who publicly disagree with the current consensus on climate change.There are currently 85 names on the list, though it is embryonic and dynamic. Suggestions for omissions and/or additions can be added to the comment section below and, if validated, will –eventually– serve to update the list.SCIENTISTS ARGUING THAT GLOBAL WARMING IS PRIMARILY CAUSED BY NATURAL PROCESSES— scientists that have called the observed warming attributable to natural causes, i.e. the high solar activity witnessed over the last few decades.Khabibullo Abdusamatov, astrophysicist at Pulkovo Observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences.[81][82]Sallie Baliunas, retired astrophysicist, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.[83][84][85]Timothy Ball, historical climatologist, and retired professor of geography at the University of Winnipeg.[86][87][88]Ian Clark, hydrogeologist, professor, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Ottawa.[89][90]Vincent Courtillot, geophysicist, member of the French Academy of Sciences.[91]Doug Edmeades, PhD., soil scientist, officer of the New Zealand Order of Merit.[92]David Dilley, B.S. and M.S. in meteorology, CEO Global Weather Oscillations Inc. [198][199]David Douglass, solid-state physicist, professor, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Rochester.[93][94]Don Easterbrook, emeritus professor of geology, Western Washington University.[95][96]William Happer, physicist specializing in optics and spectroscopy; emeritus professor, Princeton University.[39][97]Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera, Theoretical Physicist and Researcher, Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico.[98]Ole Humlum, professor of geology at the University of Oslo.[99][100]Wibjörn Karlén, professor emeritus of geography and geology at the University of Stockholm.[101][102]William Kininmonth, meteorologist, former Australian delegate to World Meteorological Organization Commission for Climatology.[103][104]David Legates, associate professor of geography and director of the Center for Climatic Research, University of Delaware.[105][106]Anthony Lupo, professor of atmospheric science at the University of Missouri.[107][108]Jennifer Marohasy, an Australian biologist, former director of the Australian Environment Foundation.[109][110]Tad Murty, oceanographer; adjunct professor, Departments of Civil Engineering and Earth Sciences, University of Ottawa.[111][112]Tim Patterson, paleoclimatologist and professor of geology at Carleton University in Canada.[113][114]Ian Plimer, professor emeritus of mining geology, the University of Adelaide.[115][116]Arthur B. Robinson, American politician, biochemist and former faculty member at the University of California, San Diego.[117][118]Murry Salby, atmospheric scientist, former professor at Macquarie University and University of Colorado.[119][120]Nicola Scafetta, research scientist in the physics department at Duke University.[121][122][123]Tom Segalstad, geologist; associate professor at University of Oslo.[124][125]Nedialko (Ned) T. Nikolov, PhD in Ecological Modelling, physical scientist for the U.S. Forest Service [200]Nir Shaviv, professor of physics focusing on astrophysics and climate science at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.[126][127]Fred Singer, professor emeritus of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia.[128][129][130][131]Willie Soon, astrophysicist, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.[132][133]Roy Spencer, meteorologist; principal research scientist, University of Alabama in Huntsville.[134][135]Henrik Svensmark, physicist, Danish National Space Center.[136][137]George H. Taylor, retired director of the Oregon Climate Service at Oregon State University.[138][139]Jan Veizer, environmental geochemist, professor emeritus from University of Ottawa.[140][141]SCIENTISTS PUBLICLY QUESTIONING THE ACCURACY OF IPCC CLIMATE MODELSDr. Jarl R. Ahlbeck, chemical engineer at Abo Akademi University in Finland, former Greenpeace member. [203][204]David Bellamy, botanist.[19][20][21][22]Lennart Bengtsson, meteorologist, Reading University.[23][24]Piers Corbyn, owner of the business WeatherAction which makes weather forecasts.[25][26]Susan Crockford, Zoologist, adjunct professor in Anthropology at the University of Victoria. [27][28][29]Judith Curry, professor and former chair of the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at the Georgia Institute of Technology.[30][31][32][33]Joseph D’Aleo, past Chairman American Meteorological Society’s Committee on Weather Analysis and Forecasting, former Professor of Meteorology, Lyndon State College.[34][35][36][37]Freeman Dyson, professor emeritus of the School of Natural Sciences, Institute for Advanced Study; Fellow of the Royal Society.[38][39]Ivar Giaever, Norwegian–American physicist and Nobel laureate in physics (1973).[40]Dr. Kiminori Itoh, Ph.D., Industrial Chemistry, University of Tokyo [202]Steven E. Koonin, theoretical physicist and director of the Center for Urban Science and Progress at New York University.[41][42]Richard Lindzen, Alfred P. Sloan emeritus professor of atmospheric science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and member of the National Academy of Sciences.[39][43][44][45]Craig Loehle, ecologist and chief scientist at the National Council for Air and Stream Improvement.[46][47][48][49][50][51][52]Sebastian Lüning, geologist, famed for his book The Cold Sun. [201]Ross McKitrick, professor of economics and CBE chair in sustainable commerce, University of Guelph.[53][54]Patrick Moore, former president of Greenpeace Canada.[55][56][57]Nils-Axel Mörner, retired head of the Paleogeophysics and Geodynamics Department at Stockholm University, former chairman of the INQUA Commission on Sea Level Changes and Coastal Evolution (1999–2003).[58][59]Garth Paltridge, retired chief research scientist, CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Research and retired director of the Institute of the Antarctic Cooperative Research Centre, visiting fellow Australian National University.[60][61]Roger A. Pielke, Jr., professor of environmental studies at the Center for Science and Technology Policy Research at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[62][63]Denis Rancourt, former professor of physics at University of Ottawa, research scientist in condensed matter physics, and in environmental and soil science.[64][65][66][67]Harrison Schmitt, geologist, Apollo 17 astronaut, former US senator.[68][69]Peter Stilbs, professor of physical chemistry at Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm.[70][71]Philip Stott, professor emeritus of biogeography at the University of London.[72][73]Hendrik Tennekes, retired director of research, Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute.[74][75]Anastasios Tsonis, distinguished professor of atmospheric science at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.[76][77]Fritz Vahrenholt, German politician and energy executive with a doctorate in chemistry.[78][79]Valentina Zharkova, professor in mathematics at Northumbria University. BSc/MSc in applied mathematics and astronomy, a Ph.D. in astrophysics.SCIENTISTS ARGUING THAT THE CAUSE OF GLOBAL WARMING IS UNKNOWNSyun-Ichi Akasofu, retired professor of geophysics and founding director of the International Arctic Research Center of the University of Alaska Fairbanks.[142][143]Claude Allègre, French politician; geochemist, emeritus professor at Institute of Geophysics (Paris).[144][145]Robert Balling, a professor of geography at Arizona State University.[146][147]Pål Brekke, solar astrophycisist, senior advisor Norwegian Space Centre.[148][149]John Christy, professor of atmospheric science and director of the Earth System Science Center at the University of Alabama in Huntsville, contributor to several IPCC reports.[150][151][152]Petr Chylek, space and remote sensing sciences researcher, Los Alamos National Laboratory.[153][154]David Deming, geology professor at the University of Oklahoma.[155][156]Stanley B. Goldenberg a meteorologist with NOAA/AOML’s Hurricane Research Division.[157][158]Vincent R. Gray, New Zealand physical chemist with expertise in coal ashes.[159][160]Keith E. Idso, botanist, former adjunct professor of biology at Maricopa County Community College District and the vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change.[161][162]Kary Mullis, 1993 Nobel laureate in chemistry, inventor of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method.[163][164][165]Antonino Zichichi, emeritus professor of nuclear physics at the University of Bologna and president of the World Federation of Scientists.[166][167]SCIENTISTS ARGUING THAT GLOBAL WARMING WILL HAVE FEW NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCESIndur M. Goklany, electrical engineer, science and technology policy analyst for the United States Department of the Interior.[168][169][170]Craig D. Idso, geographer, faculty researcher, Office of Climatology, Arizona State University and founder of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change.[171][172]Sherwood B. Idso, former research physicist, USDA Water Conservation Laboratory, and adjunct professor, Arizona State University.[173][174]Patrick Michaels, senior fellow at the Cato Institute and retired research professor of environmental science at the University of Virginia.[175][176]DECEASED SCIENTISTS— who published material indicating their opposition to the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming prior to their deaths.August H. “Augie” Auer Jr. (1940–2007), retired New Zealand MetService meteorologist and past professor of atmospheric science at the University of Wyoming.[177][178]Reid Bryson (1920–2008), emeritus professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison.[179][180]Robert M. Carter (1942–2016), former head of the School of Earth Sciences at James Cook University.[181][182]Chris de Freitas (1948–2017), associate professor, School of Geography, Geology and Environmental Science, University of Auckland.[183][184]William M. Gray (1929–2016), professor emeritus and head of the Tropical Meteorology Project, Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University.[185][186]Yuri Izrael (1930–2014), former chairman, Committee for Hydrometeorology (USSR); former firector, Institute of Global Climate and Ecology (Russian Academy of Science); vice-chairman of IPCC, 2001-2007.[187][188][189]Robert Jastrow (1925–2008), American astronomer, physicist, cosmologist and leading NASA scientist who, together with Fred Seitz and William Nierenberg, established the George C. Marshall Institute.[190][191][192]Harold (“Hal”) Warren Lewis (1923–2011), emeritus professor of physics and former department chairman at the University of California, Santa Barbara.[193][194]Frederick Seitz (1911–2008), solid-state physicist, former president of the National Academy of Sciences and co-founder of the George C. Marshall Institute in 1984.[195][196][197]Joanne Simpson (1923-2010), first woman in the United States to receive a Ph.D. in meteorology, [201]SPEAKING OUTA system is in place that makes it incredibly difficult, almost impossible, for scientists to take a public stance against AGW — their funding and opportunities are shutoff, their credibility and character smeared, and their safety sometimes compromised.Example: In 2014, Lennart Bengtsson and his colleagues submitted a paper to Environmental Research Letters which was rejected for publication for what Bengtsson believed to be “activist” reasons.Bengtsson’s paper disputed the uncertainties surrounding climate sensitivity to increased greenhouse gas concentrations contained in the IPCC’s Fourth and Fifth Assessment Reports.Here is a passage from Bengtsson’s resignation letter from soon after:I have been put under such an enormous group pressure in recent days from all over the world that has become virtually unbearable to me. If this is going to continue I will be unable to conduct my normal work and will even start to worry about my health and safety. I see therefore no other way out therefore than resigning from GWPF. I had not expecting such an enormous world-wide pressure put at me from a community that I have been close to all my active life. Colleagues are withdrawing their support, other colleagues are withdrawing from joint authorship etc.I see no limit and end to what will happen. It is a situation that reminds me about the time of McCarthy. I would never have expecting anything similar in such an original peaceful community as meteorology. Apparently it has been transformed in recent years.Lennart BengtssonAny person or body that holds a dissenting view or presents contradictory evidence is immediately labelled a denier — the classic ad-hominem attack designed to smear and silence those who don’t comply with the preferred wisdom of the day.If you still believe in the 97% consensus then by all means find the list of 2,748 scientist that have zero doubts regarding the IPCC’s catastrophic conclusions on Climate Change (given I’ve found 85 names effectively refuting the claims, that’s the minimum number required to reach the 97% consensus).Or go write your own list — it shouldn’t be that hard to do, if the scientists are out there.Whenever you hear the consensus of scientists agrees on something or other, reach for your wallet, because you’re being had.Michael CrichtonAnother name I have yet to add to the list:Earth’s natural & minor warming trend (the modern Grand Solar Maximum) appears to have runs its course. The COLD TIMES are returning, the lower-latitudes are REFREEZING, in line with historically low solar activity, cloud-nucleating Cosmic Rays, and a meridional jet stream flow.Even NASA appear to agree, if you read between the lines, with their forecast for this upcoming solar cycle (25) seeing it as “the weakest of the past 200 years,” with the agency correlating previous solar shutdowns to prolonged periods of global cooling here."The List" - Scientists who Publicly Disagree with the Current Consensus on Climate Change - Electroverse

She would notice that 2,200,000 slaves are held in prisons she would also note that the rest of the slaves, while not free, were allowed to change masters. Although she would see cinema she would not be too surprised for they had a form of moving pictures. Also they wouldn't be too surprised about the automobile.The ancient Greeks had the technology to build an automobile.Applications of the Stirling engine - Wikipediaen.wikipedia.orgCugnot Locomotive, 1771 [Auta5P ID:3506 EN]This automobile came in France in 1769 but the Greeks already knew how to build an automobile a few thousand years earlier.Model Of An Ancient Steam Engine Stock Photo, Picture And Royalty Free Image. Image 8896588.123rf.comThe Greeks had the know how to build an automobile. So seeing all the automobiles she might say, “We told you so.”Yes we also knew about atoms. She would look at our trains and say they are bigger and longer but we had a train with tracks moving not only goods but ships across the ismthus of Corinth. She would tell us about the Suez and Panama canals and say her engineers actually built an ancient Suez canal and invented the lock system.ComputersShe could look at our computers and remark , “Oh we had the first computer, the Antikytheria Mechanism, which had at least 37 moveable gear wheels far more complex than your clocks invented some 2000 years later.” The Antikythera mechanism is the world's first analogical computer, used by ancient Greeks to chart the movement of the sun, moon and planets, predict lunar and solar eclipses and even signal the next Olympic Games.It is possible to purchase an Antikythera Mechanism replica? - see QuoraShe would also say that they invented the odometer and the Water Mill still used today. She might visit a maths class and she would see the students learning Pythagoras’ theorem, “Yes we knew that too.” she would continue with , “Now our Archimedes had worked out the volume of a sphere thousands of years ago but you lost his famous works. Our maths guys were close to using calculus. We calculated the circumference and radius of the Earth and our children played with globes of the Earth as they would have appeared from space. We had theatres in massive theatres with massive scenery changes all moved by mechanically machinery.”Your democracy came from us but we participated and voted all the time you vote only every 4 or so years. We had great libraries especially in Alexandria in Egypt. Our children learned Science and Maths and philosophy, music and poetry and dance and athletics while many of your children learn stupid courses you might call Mickey Mouse courses. When Alexander the Great conquered most of the known world the Greeks spread the Hellenistic culture you on the other hand sent your tanks and destroy cultural heritage sites and failed to protect museums. We on the other hand took the best of all cultures and added and developed those cultures and then we were also original. We had wine and beer and bread and fruit and cheese.She would note that the clothes styles would be similar to the Greeks. She would leave very disappointed that we were not further ahead. She would note that our religions held us back and she would wonder why; noting that dogma and superstition was wide spread and interferring in the progress of Science. She would ask where are our great poets and dramatists and great philosophers such as preSocratics, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. We would quote Einstein but she would tell us they had hundreds and hundreds of Greats in all fields, Aristotle on the natural world foreshadowing the theory of evolution acknowledged by Darwin; Aristotle on political economy, experimentation and so on. She would say we knew about perspective that is why we curved the steps and columns of the Parthenon so that from a distance they would appear straight. You lost or burnt many of our great works of our dramatists such that only a small number survived. On this she might start weeping at the loss. She would complain that we ripped the heart out of the Parthenon and moved the frieze to the British Museum again she would weep.She would just walk away not in awe but in disappointment but pleased that many of their inventions are embodied in much of our technology. But her great disappointment would be to see how we lost the unique Greek way of thinking they knew as reasoning replaced by religious dogma and superstition.See the extent of some of Greek inventions and discoveries below on wikipedia.List of Greek inventions and discoveriesThis list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.This article is a list of major inventions and scientific and mathematical discoveries by Greek people from antiquity through the present day.InventionsEditTechnologyDateDescriptionSouvlakic. 17th century BCExcavations in Santorini, Greece, unearthed sets of stone cooking supports used before the 17th century BC. In the supports there are pairs of indentations that were likely used for holding skewers. The line of holes in the base allowed the coals to be supplied with oxygen.[1]Arch bridgec. 1300 BCPossibly the oldest existing arch bridge is the MycenaeanArkadiko bridge in Greece from about 1300 BC. The stone corbel arch bridge is still used by the local populace.[2]Olympic Games776 BCThe ancient Olympic Games were originally a festival of the god Zeus, observed every four years in Olympia by visitors from all over Greece. Later, events such as a footrace, a javelin contest, and wrestling matches were added, evolving into a series of cut-throat athletic competitions among representatives of the various Greek city-states and one of the Panhellenic Games of ancient Greece. The first Olympics is traditionally dated to 776 BC.[3]Geographyc. 600 BCBuilding on the mapmaking practices of the Near East,[4]the philosopher Anaximander, a student of Thales, was the first known person to produce a scale map of the known word,[5]while some decades later Hecataeus of Miletuswas the first to combine map-making with vivid descriptions of the people and landscapes of each location, taken from interviews with sailors and other travellers,[6]initiating a field of study which Eratosthenes later named γεωγραφία (geography).[7]Rutwayc. 600 BCThe 6 to 8.5 km long Diolkos represented a rudimentary form of railway.[8]Caliper6th century BCEarliest example found in the Gigliowreck near the Italiancoast. The wooden piece already featured one fixed and a movable jaw.[9][10]Theatrec. 6th century BCTheatre, in its modern sense, involving the performance of pre-written tragic, dramatic and comedic plays for an audience, first originated in Classical Athens in the 6th century BC.[11]Truss roof550 BC[12]See List of Greco-Roman roofs.Cranec. 515 BCLabor-saving device that allowed the employment of small and efficient work teams on construction sites. Later winches were added for heavy weights.[13]Democracy508 BCLed by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC. Cleisthenes is referred to as "the father of Athenian democracy."[14]Plumbingc. 5th century BCAlthough there is evidence for Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation, the ancient Greekcivilization of Crete, known as the Minoan civilization, was the first civilization to use underground clay pipes for sanitation and water supply.[15]Excavations at Olympus, as well as Athens, have revealed extensive plumbing systems for baths, fountains, and personal use.Spiral staircase480–470 BCThe earliest spiral staircases appear in Temple A in Selinunte, Sicily, to both sides of the cella. The temple was constructed around 480–470 BC.[16]Winch5th century BCThe earliest literary reference to a winch can be found in the account of Herodotus of Halicarnassus on the Persian Wars(Histories 7.36), where he describes how wooden winches were used to tighten the cables for a pontoon bridge across the Hellespont in 480 BC. Winches may have been employed even earlier in Assyria, though. By the 4th century BC, winch and pulley hoists were regarded by Aristotle as common for architectural use (Mech. 18; 853b10-13).[17]Showers4th century BCThe Ancient Greeks were the first known people to have showers, which were connected to their lead pipe plumbing system. A shower room for female athletes with plumbed-in water is depicted on an Athenian vase. A whole complex of shower-baths was also found in a 2nd-century BC gymnasium at Pergamum.[18]Streetsc. 400 BCExample: The Porta Rosa (4th–3rd century BC) was the main street of Elea(Italy) and connected the northern quarter to the southern quarter. The street is 5 meters wide. At its steepest, it has an inclination of 18%. It is paved with limestone blocks, griders cut in square blocks, and on one side a small gutter for the drainage of rain water. The building is dated during the time of the reorganization of the city during Hellenistic age. (4th to 3rd centuries BC)Catapult399BCThe historian Diodorus Siculusmentions the invention of a mechanical arrow-firing catapult (katapeltikon) by a Greek task force in 399 BC.*Campbell, Duncan (2003), Greek and Roman Artillery 399 BC – AD 363, Oxford: Osprey, p. 3, ISBN 1-84176-634-8Central heatingc. 350 BCThe Temple of Artemis at Ephesuswas warmed by heated air that was circulated through flues laid in the floor, the first known central heating system. Central heating of buildings was later employed throughout the Greek world.Lead sheathingc. 350 BCTo protect a ship's hull from boring creatures. See Kyrenia ship.Astrolabec. 300 BCFirst used around 300 BC by astronomers in Greece. Used to determine the altitude of objects in the sky.[19][20]Canal lockearly 3rd century BCBuilt into Ancient Suez Canal under Ptolemy II (283–246 BC).[21][22][23]Ancient Suez Canalearly 3rd century BCOpened by Greek engineers under Ptolemy II (283–246 BC), following earlier, probably only partly successful attempts.[24]Escapement3rd century BCDescribed by the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium (3rd century BC) in his technical treatise Pneumatics (chapter 31) as part of a washstandautomaton for guests washing their hands. Philon's comment that "its construction is similar to that of clocks" indicates that such escapement mechanisms were already integrated in ancient water clocks.[25]Archimedes' screwc. 3rd century BCThis device, capable of lifting solid or liquid substances from a lower plane to a higher elevation, is traditionally attributed to the Greek mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse.[26][27]Lighthousec. 3rd century BCAccording to Homeric legend, Palamidis of Nafplio invented the first lighthouse, although they are certainly attested with the Lighthouse of Alexandria (designed and constructed by Sostratus of Cnidus) and the Colossus of Rhodes. However, Themistocles had earlier established a lighthouse at the harbor of Piraeusconnected to Athens in the 5th century BC, essentially a small stone column with a fire beacon.[28]Water wheel3rd century BCFirst described by Philo of Byzantium(c. 280–220 BC).[29]Alarm clock3rd century BCThe Hellenisticengineer and inventor Ctesibius (fl.285–222 BC) fitted his clepsydras with a dial and pointer for indicating the time, and added elaborate "alarm systems, which could be made to drop pebbles on a gong, or blow trumpets (by forcing bell-jars down into water and taking the compressed air through a beating reed) at pre-set times" (Vitruv11.11).[30]Odometerc. 3rd century BCOdometer, a device used in the late Hellenistic time and by Romans for indicating the distance travelled by a vehicle. It was invented sometime in the 3rd century BC. Some historians attribute it to Archimedes, others to Heron of Alexandria. It helped revolutionize the building of roads and travelling by them by accurately measuring distance and being able to carefully illustrate this with a milestone.Chain drive3rd century BCFirst described by Philo of Byzantium, the device powered a repeating crossbow, the first known of its kind.[31]Cannonc. 3rd century BCCtesibius of Alexandria invented a primitive form of the cannon, operated by compressed air.Double-action principle3rd century BCUniversal mechanical principle that was discovered and first applied by the engineer Ctesibius in his double action piston pump, which was later developed further by Heron to a fire hose (see below).[32]Leversc. 260 BCFirst described about 260 BC by the ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes. Although used in prehistoric times, they were first put to practical use for more developed technologies in Ancient Greece.[33]Water millc. 250 BCThe use of water power was pioneered by the Greeks: The earliest mention of a water mill in history occurs in Philo'sPneumatics, previously been regarded as a later Arabic interpolation, but according to recent research to be of authentic Greek origin.[34][35]Three-mastedship (mizzen)c. 240 BCFirst recorded for Syracusia as well as other Syracusan(merchant) ships under Hiero II of Syracuse.[36]Gimbal3rd century BCThe inventor Philo of Byzantium (280–220 BC) described an eight-sided ink pot with an opening on each side, which can be turned so that any face is on top, dip in a pen and ink it-yet the ink never runs out through the holes of the side. This was done by the suspension of the inkwell at the center, which was mounted on a series of concentric metal rings which remained stationary no matter which way the pot turns itself.[37]Fore-and-aft rig (spritsail)2nd century BCSpritsails, the earliest fore-and-aft rigs, appeared in the 2nd century BC in the Aegean Sea on small Greek craft.[38]Air and water pumpsc. 2nd century BCCtesibius and various other Greeks of Alexandria of the period developed and put to practical use various air and water pumps which served a variety of purposes,[39]such as a water organ and, by the 1st century AD, Heron's fountain.Sakia gear2nd century BCFirst appeared in 2nd-century BC Hellenistic Egypt, where pictorial evidence already showed it fully developed.[40]Surveying toolsc. 2nd century BCVarious records relating to mentions of surveying tools have been discovered, mostly in Alexandrian sources, these greatly helped the development of the precision of Roman aqueducts.Analog computersc. 150 BCIn 1900–1901, the Antikythera mechanism was found in the Antikythera wreck. It is thought that this device was an analog computer designed to calculate astronomical positions and was used to predict lunar and solar eclipses based on Babylonian arithmetic-progression cycles. Whereas the Antikythera mechanism is considered a proper analog computer, the astrolabe (also invented by the Greeks) may be considered as a forerunner.[41]Differential gearsc. 100-70 BCThe Antikythera mechanism, from the Roman-era Antikythera wreck, employed a differential gear to determine the angle between the eclipticpositions of the sun and moon, and thus the phase of the moon.[42][43]Fire hose1st century BCInvented by Heron in the basis of Ctesibius' double action piston pump.[32]Allowed for more efficient fire fighting.Vending machine1st century BCThe first vending machine was described by Heron of Alexandria. His machine accepted a coin and then dispensed a fixed amount of holy water. When the coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a lever. The lever opened up a valve, which let some water flow out. The pan continued to tilt with the weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a counter-weight would snap the lever back up and turn off the valve.[32]Wind vane50 BCThe Tower of the Winds on the Romanagora in Athensfeatured atop a wind vane in the form of a bronze Triton holding a rod in his outstretched hand rotating to the wind blowing. Below, its frieze was adorned with the eight wind deities. The 8 m high structure also featured sundialsand a water clockinside dates from around 50 BC.[44]Clock tower50 BCSee Clock tower.[45]Steam Engine1st century ADThe aeolipile is a simple bladeless radial steam turbinewhich spins when the central water container is heated. Torque is produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, much like a tip jet. Hero of Alexandria first described the aeolipile in the 1st century AD and many sources give him the credit for its invention.[46][47]Automatic doorsc. 1st century ADHeron of Alexandria, a 1st-century AD inventor from Alexandria, Egypt, created schematics for automatic doors to be used in a temple with the aid of steam power.[32]Algebrac. 2nd century ADDiophantus was an Alexandrian Greek mathematician and the author of a series of books called Arithmetica. These texts deal with solving algebraic equations,[48]and have led, in number theory to the modern notion of Diophantine equation. In the context where algebra is identified with the theory of equations, Diophantus is credited as its inventor and thus the "father of algebra".[49]Pointed arch bridgec. 5th century ADThe earliest known bridge resting on a pointed arch is the 5th or 6th century AD Karamagara Bridgein Cappadocia.[50]Its single arch of 17 m spanned an affluent of the Euphrates.[51]A Greek inscription, citing from the Bible, runs along one side of its arch rib.[52]The structure is today submerged by the Keban Reservoir.[53]Greek firec. 672 ADGreek fire was an incendiary weapon used by the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire that was first developedc.672. The Byzantines typically used it in naval battles to great effect, as it could continue burning while floating on water.Flamethrower7th century ADGreek fire, heated in a brazier and pressurized by means of a pump, was ejected by an operator through a siphon in any direction against the enemy.[54]Alternatively, it could be poured down from swivel cranesor hurled in pottery grenades.[55]Grenades8th century ADGrenades appeared not long after the reign of Leo III (717–741), when Byzantine soldiers learned that Greek fire could not only be projected by flamethrowers, but also be thrown in stone and ceramic jars.[56]Larger containers were hurled by catapultsor trebuchets at the enemy, either ignited before release or set alight by fire arrows after impact.[57]Grenades were later adopted for use by Muslim armies: Vessels of the characteristic spheroconical shape which many authors identify as grenade shells were found over much of the Islamic world.[58]Optical telegraphc. 840 ADIn the 9th century, during the Arab–Byzantine wars, the Byzantine Empire used a system of beacons to transmit messages from the border with the Abbasid Caliphate across Asia Minor to the Byzantine capital, Constantinople.The main line of beacons stretched over some 450 miles (720 km). In the open spaces of central Asia Minor, the stations were placed over 60 miles (97 km) apart, while in Bithynia, with its more broken terrain, the intervals were reduced to ca. 35 miles (56 km). Based on modern experiments, a message could be transmitted the entire length of the line within an hour.[59]The system was reportedly devised in the reign of Emperor Theophilos (ruled 829–842) by Leo the Mathematician, and functioned through two identical water clocks placed at the two terminal stations, Loulon and the Lighthouse. Different messages were assigned to each of twelve hours, so that the lighting of a bonfire on the first beacon on a particular hour signalled a specific event and was transmitted down the line to Constantinople.[60][59]Hand trebuchet965 ADThe hand-trebuchet(cheiromangana) was a staff sling mounted on a pole using a lever mechanism to propel projectiles. Basically a portable trebuchet which could be operated by a single man, it was advocated by emperor Nikephoros II Phokas around 965 to disrupt enemy formations in the open field. It was also mentioned in the Taktika of general Nikephoros Ouranos (ca. 1000), and listed in the Anonymus De obsidione tolerandaas a form of artillery.[61]Fetac. 10th centuryFeta cheese, specifically, is first recorded in the Byzantine Empire in Avicenna's Poem on Medicine under the name prósphatos(Greek: πρόσφατος, "recent" or "fresh"), and was produced by the Cretans and the Vlachs of Thessaly.[62]Counterweight Trebuchet12th century ADThe earliest written record of the counterweight trebuchet, a vastly more powerful design than the simple traction trebuchet,[63]appears in the work of the 12th-century historian Niketas Choniates. Niketas describes a stone projector used by future emperor Andronikos I Komnenos at the siege of Zevgminon in 1165. This was equipped with a windlass, an apparatus required neither for the traction nor hybrid trebuchet to launch missiles.Tsipouroc. 14th centuryThe first production of tsipouro was the work of Greek Orthodox monks in the 14th century on Mount Athos in Macedonia, Greece.[64]Metaxa1888Metaxa is a Greekspirit invented by Spyros Metaxas in 1888. It is exported to over 65 countries and it is among the 100 strongest spirit brands worldwide.[65]Pap smear1923A test for cervical cancer developed by the Greek physician George Papanikolaou in 1923.[66]Frappe Coffee1957The Greek version of café frappé, using instant coffee, was invented in 1957 at the Thessaloniki International Fair.[67]Mini1959This distinctive two-door car was designed for the British Motor Corporation by Greek engineer Sir Alec Issigonis.[68]His grandfather Demosthenis migrated to Smyrna from Paros in Greece in the 1830s and through the work he did for the British-built Smyrna-Aydın Railway.Libor1969The London Inter-bank Offered Rateinterest ratebenchmark was devised by Greek banker Minos Zombanakis.[69][70]BlackBerry1996Greek-Canadianbusinessman Mike Lazaridis founded BlackBerry, which created and manufactures the BlackBerry wireless handheld device. Lazaridis served in various positions including Co-Chairman and Co-CEO of BlackBerry from 1984 to 2012 and Board Vice Chair and Chair of the Innovation Committee from 2012 to 2013.[71]Epi-LASIK eye surgery2000Greek ophthalmologist Ioannis Pallikaris, who was the first person to perform LASIK eye surgery in 1989,[72]developed the improved epi-LASIK technique at the University of Crete.[73]Haldon, John F. (1990). Constantine Porphyrogenitus: Three treatises on imperial military expeditions. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 3700117787.Foss, Clive (1991). "Beacon". In Kazhdan, Alexander. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. London and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.Toynbee, Arnold (1973). Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World. London and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-215253-X.DiscoveriesSee alsoReferencesBibliographyExternal linksLast edited 8 days ago by HerakleitoszefesuRELATED ARTICLESGreek mathematicsAncient Greek technologyList of Roman canalsWikimedia list articleContent is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted.Terms of UsePrivacyDesktop

ANCIENT TEXTSIn the year 3102 B.C.[1] an eighteen days long historical war known as MahaIndia was fought on fertile lands of northern India. Kurukshetra, a modern day district of Haryana is known as location of the war. Two families of Kuru[2] clan – Pandav and Kaurav with their allies were facing each other. All were ready with an impression of thousands casualties and losses.This war has extreme significance on India since ancient time. As it draws close, Arjun, third of five Pandav brothers, realised that he would have to kill his family members, teachers and dearest. He looked at Lord Krishn, who became his charioteer at that time, for his exhortation. C. Rajagopalachari[3] noted this account in his book.Krishna's exhortation to Arjun at this juncture is the Bhagavad Gita, which is enshrined in millions of hearts as the Word of God. The Bhagavad Gita is acknowledged by all as one of the supreme treasures of human literature. Its gospel of devotion to duty, without attachment or desire of reward, has shown the way of life for all men, rich or poor, learned or ignorant, who have sought for light in the dark problems of life.[4]Srimadbhagavadgita is a philosophical divine dialogue between Lord Krishn and Arjun. Infinite knowledge, truth and moral teachings in it have power to raise human life from lowest depth of ignorance and suffer to highest glories of divine being. There is no book in whole range of the world’s literatures so high above all as the Srimadbhagavadgita, a treasure-house of dharm, which is not only for Hindus but for mankind.[5] In early moments of first day of the war, Lord Krishn was dispensing holy preaches on questions raised by Arjun. On this occasion, Lord himself proclaimed a shlok who defines Indian sense of secular or secularism.In whatever form and whatever way a devotee chooses to worship me, in that very form do I stabilise that devotee’s faith.[6]This is how secularism in India was instituted in noble war. India - land of search, knowledge, wisdom and enlightenment had declared centuries ago ‘it is One Existence that the wise speak in diverse’. Complete shlok read as ‘they hail Him as Indr, as Mitr, as Varun, as Agni, also as that divine and noble winged Garutman, it is One Existence that the wise speak in diverse, whether as Agni or as Yam or as Matarisvan’.[7]There are four Ved known to be earliest manuscripts of the mankind. The oldest Ved is Rigved points to a settled people, an organised society and a full grown civilisation. The Rigved is root of entire tree of Indian thoughts with its ramifications into many sects, schools of philosophy and systems of worship.[8] It says let noble thoughts come to us from every side.[9] History stands witness that Indian society has never refused to listen to those have had welfare of this society by heart.The tradition of this glorious saga has been derived by a heritage known as shastrarth - an old method which always results advanced thoughts. A regular organisation of conference was patronised by Kings of that time. Besides residential schools, academics for advanced study and circles of philosophical disputants, a great imputes to learning come from the assemblies of learned men gathered together by Kings. These conferences are narrated in Shatapath Brahman.Shastrarth aimed at highest knowledge of the soul and absolute self-realisation. A typical example of it was organised by King Janak of Videh[10]. To which he invited all learned scholars of Kuru and Panchal[11]. The leading figure was Yajnavalkya to whom difficult metaphysical problems were put by eight leading philosophers. Satisfactory solutions presented by Yajnavalkya sworn him palm of supremacy among the philosophers.[12]In the subsequent ages, India came across lively shastrarth among key schools of Sanatan Dharm – systems of philosophy of which Shaiv, Vaishnav, Vedant, and Shakti are based. Each of these schools has bequeathed to posterity a vast literature defending its own position. There were many conferences held among the sects within each school following the same pattern.[13] Language was not always refined, quite often it was harsh and occasionally downright derisive. In the long history of shastrarth we do not come across single instance of any school calling for suppression of any other school and mobilising its adherents to stage street riots in its support and against other.AGES OF TIRTHANKAR MAHAVIR TO GUPTA EMPIREThe sixth century B.C. was a period of two great remarkable events – first is the birth of Tirthankar Mahavir in 599 B.C. and Gautam Buddh in 563 B.C.; second is both achieved omniscience of infinite knowledge respectively in 556 B.C. and 528 B.C. They both have number of similarities: they were born in the royal comforts; they abandoned their families to live an ascetic life; they travelled across the country for seeking true path of human life; and finally they discovered the enlightenment.This era has one more importance because contemporary Greek Kings of the Tirthankar and Gautam used the word ‘Hindu’ with geographical sense that anyone from inside or beyond the river Indus. From the centuries, this Hindu country was flourishing with the greatest ideas of mankind. Now with the ancillary knowledge and teaching of Tirthankar and Gautam, this country has become more alive and prosperous. This is also a fact that different philosophies or faiths of Hindu people got the patronage from the Kings of different time. But the Kings did not choose to impose their personal faith on their people. King’s only care was that there should be growth in the essence of the matter in, and respect for, all people living in the Indian country.Alexander, King of Macedonia invaded the Indian territories in between 327 to 326 B.C. In this period, he fought many battles with small Kingdoms situated on the northern hilly border of India. During the campaign, he had come to the banks of river Beas; next to invade plain lands of the country, but his army revolted here and denied to move further. So he decided to leave India in 325 B.C. Thus, the invasion had opened the door to the western Empires or Kingdoms for the first time fairly accurate accounts of the Indian and its inhabitants.These invasions mark the beginning of a new epoch of India’s history with the establishment of spacious Maury Empire of Magadh[14]. In 324 B.C. Chandragupt Maury established the Maury Empire[15] under guidance of Kauṭily, a teacher, a political and economic strategist of Taxila[16]. He is known as the first Emperor in Indian history to have achieved real unification of India as one State. During his reign, a Greek representative, Megasthenes visited royal Court. He had some frequent interviews with Emperor Chandragupt. Megasthenes has written an account of India and also that of Chandragupt’s reign in his book entitled ‘Indika’ including Santan Dharm and its philosophies.God is with them the word – by which them they do not mean articulate speech, but the discourse of reason, whereby the hidden mysteries of knowledge are discerned.[17]Since, ancient India to the Megasthenes, through this eternal way we had secured many achievements in evolution of human. There was only one consideration for all philosophies and sects - progress of world. One after the other rishi – philosopher or teacher, King and even the God’s Incarnation made considerable additions in the stock of knowledge custom of India.The grandson of Emperor Chandragupt, Ashok succeeded to Throne of Maury Empire in 273 B.C. He was the first Emperor who ruled almost the entire country. A third Emperor of Maury Empire, Ashok became follower of the philosophy of Gautam Buddh in 265 B.C. The Emperor’s faith change made it amply felt in the domain of his personal life and habits. Most of the time honoured customs and institutions of the royal households were abolished as being contradictory to the spirit of his new faith and others more in consonance therewith were substituted in their place.[18] Indeed, one of Ashok’s edicts frankly expects that ‘men should give up their old way’[19].Indian society has always accepted every well intentioned advice and tried its best to reform and renew itself. Emperor Ashok started tours for public awareness by visiting people of the Magad with instruction in dharm and discussion of that dharm. This journey was aimed to change only mal-habits of its people. For example, he ordered that in the capital Patliputra that ‘no animal should be slaughtered for sacrifice’. All works in his Empire, he extended the principle of non-violence from the world of men to that the lower dumb animals and birds. The full extension of the principle took place later in his reign in about 242 B.C. when an ordinance of decree was issued, prohibiting the slaughter of numerous birds and beasts specified, besides ‘all four footed animals which are neither utilised nor eaten’[20].Ashok’s personal philosophy was in Buddhism, but he never disallowed liberality to Brahmans which he always emphasised as a public duty[21] and unseemly behaviour to them equally condemned.[22] A Ceylon (Sri Lanka) tradition represents Asoka as daily feeding 60,000 Brahmans for three years.[23] He stated in his Edicts that the King does reverence to men of all sects.I devote my attention to all communities, for the followers of all denomination are honoured by me and the honour is paid in various forms. Nevertheless, showing personal regard for them is the chief thing in my opinion.[24]Some historians believed that Emperor Ashok tried to spread the noblest ideas of humanism which are the essence of all philosophies of Hindus including teachings of Gautam Buddh. He described code of duties of Santan Dharm in his various Edicts. Dharm of the Edicts was not merely practical; it was distinguished by several characteristic doctrines and philosophical positions, bringing out the originality of Asoka’s idea of moral and social reforms.[25]“Kindness[26], Liberality[27], Truthfulness[28], Gentleness[29], Saintliness[30], Moderation in spending and saving[31], Self-Control[32], Purity of heart[33], Gratitude[34], Inner and outer purity[35], Firm devotion[36], and Attachment to morality.”[37]People at large, he regarded and declared as his own children for whose welfare he was constantly working. He insisted tolerance as an absolute duty in a land of many philosophies. His Edicts breathe consistently a very high spirit of toleration among the different sects which were all but offshoots of the same central faith.The root of toleration is restraint of speech, refraining from speaking well of one’s own faith and ill of others. On the basis toleration among the followers of different faiths will grow and it should be further promoted by making them know of one other’s doctrines, so that the follower of one sect may be able to appreciate the other sects and will be a bahusruta. Out of this width of knowledge will spring the width of outlook, charity and toleration and purity of doctrines, the essence of sar of all religions.[38]Ashok’s moral ideas were simple and practical. Toleration and respect is often recorded in the Edicts and he was not the champion of any particular creed but of a way of life. He is often thought of as a Buddhist Emperor, as if he was thus no longer a Hindu. Emperor Asoka was merely a Hindu belonging to a particular sect, for the separateness of Buddhism from the mainstream of Hindu thought was, in the eyes of its contemporaries, only as sectarian as the various faces of Christianity today.[39]After the Maury Empire, the next largest Empire who ruled India was the Gupt[40]. Chandragupt I established the Gupt Empire in 320 A.D. The Gupt Emperors themselves were orthodox follower of Vaishnavism but treated all philosophies equally. The principle philosophies of the time were Vaishnavism, Saivism and Buddhism. Gupt Emperors were catholic enough not to have enforced their personal philosophy as the official philosophy of the Empire. They encouraged equally the promotion of all philosophies. Therefore, in the Gupta Empire, people were enjoying a golden age in engineering, infrastructure, art, science, medical, mathematic and etc.In the beginning of the fourth century A.D. rise of this Empire started a new era in the history of India. One of most celebrated Emperor of Gupt was Chandragupta II – Vikramaditya. He succeeded to the Throne in 375 A.D. and takes the title of Paramabhagavata which is a Vaishnavism title. Vikramaditya was religiously a very tolerant monarch. He never persecuted the Buddhists, Jains or followers of any other philosophies.Vikramaditya’s inscription refers to a grant, in form of a village or an allotment of land and a sum of money, by his prominent Buddhist Minister to Buddhist monks belonging from Sanchi. One of Udayagiri Caves bears an inscription of another Minister of Emperor who was a devotee of Lord Shiv. It recorded that the caves were excavated as a Temple of Lord Shiv.[41] It articulates that everyone in his Court was free to encourage their own philosophy without sloping others. Such prosperity and peace-loving in Gupta Empire initiated a Golden Age of India.Masterpieces of sculpted panels - Udayagiri Caves and Ajanta Caves were architected in Gupta Empire. Notable mathematician and astronomer, Aryabhata[42] discovered the number Zero and value of Pi during this age. The man of letters, Kalidasa credited with having written the best kavyas such as Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava; dramas such as Sakuntala and Vikramorvasi; and lyrics poem like Meghaduta is belonged to this period.Gupta Emperors ruled over an Empire which executed from the peninsula of Kathiawad in the west to eastern Bengal, from the Himalayas to river Narmada. The efficiency of Gupta administrative was demonstrated by the material and moral progress of the people of which glimpse are given in the record of travel undertaken in country by Chinese Buddhist monk, Fa-Hien between the years 399-414 A.D. He took 15 years in the whole of his journey and reached China in 414 A.D. Out of these 15 years, he spent 7 years in India alone. For three years, he was in Patliputra, learning Sanskrit and writing his memoirs of the journey.Fa-Hien very keenly felt that the Buddhist disciplines were very imperfectly known in China. He organised a joint mission with several Chinese scholars. Across difficult rivers and mountains, the party came at Khotan[43] where the monks were mostly attached with Mahayana sect of Buddhism. They were accommodated in a monastery known as Hindu name of Gomti, where at the sound of gong, 3,000 monks assembled to eat. There were fourteen such large monasteries on Khotan.[44]Covering all the way through the deserts came up to Peshawar and after crossing the river Ganga he came to Patliputra (Patna). He everywhere witnessed the wealth and luxury of the people, and economic condition was very satisfactory. The trade and commerce flourished and the people followed various arts and crafts. The period also ushered in a tremendous intellectual and religious revival, accompanied by wonderful achievements in art and architecture.[45] The chief credit for all this undoubtedly belongs to Gupta Emperors. Fa-Hien has some interesting observations on the Magadha and its civilisation.Of all the countries in central India, this has the largest cities and towns. Its people are rich and thriving and emulate one other in practising charity of heart and duty to one’s neighbour. As their festivals such as procession of images of four wheeled cars in five storeys, the Brahmans come to invite Buddhists and were thus quite catholic in their religious outlook.[46]Nalanda University centre of learning was built by Kumara Gupta[47]. The Nalanda, the renowned University of the time were confined to all philosophies and sects of Hinduism. Subjects as the Vedas, Hetuvidya (logic), Sabdvidya (grammar and philology), Chikitsavidya (medicine), Sankhyanyaya and Yogsastra were learned there. Nalanda had the true character of a University for it stood for freedom of knowledge and welcomed knowledge from all quarters. It was a genuine University in the universal range of its studies not a mere sectarian and denomination school[48].Another Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang travelled India between the years 630 to 644 A.D. Tsang himself studied at Nalanda for several years, during which he completed a study of all collection of Buddhist books as well as the sacred books of Brahmans. Inspired by atmosphere of learning, he left a short but impressive account of its magnificence.There were thousands of similar institutions in India but none comparable to Nalanda grandeur. There were 10,000 students who studied not only Buddhist literature in all its branches but even other works such as Vedas, logic, grammar, medicine, sankhya philosophy etc. The day is not sufficient for asking and answering profound questions. Form morning till night they engage in discussion; the old and the young mutually help one other.[49]In Nalanda, student differing widely and radically in doctrines and practices, followers of all possible sects and school of thoughts gathered together in a common fellowship in the quest of truth, the supreme object of a University. They were all busy pondering, urging, objections, raising doubts, resolving them, giving etymologies, disputing, studying and explaining. Truth was indeed sought to be seen here from every conceivable viewpoint.[50]The religion which included worship of God as embodied in respect of everyone, harmony in society and unity of country. Consistency in all section of society resulted advanced thoughts and extensive literature which is visible product of rational education system of Gupta Empire. The importance of education was realising in India from very early times and utmost emphasis was laid upon the acquisition of knowledge.[51] The other objects of education were inculcation of social duties and religious rites and above all, formation of character. The subjects of instruction, were fairly comprehensives and included not only literature, both sacred and secular, with its accessories, grammar, matrices, poetics, logic and philosophy, but also technical and scientific literature such as medicine, military science, astronomy, astrology mathematics, politics, economics as well as divination, magic and mechanical arts for all descriptions.[52]The glorious age of Adi ShankaracharyIndia, since the beginning of her history, it has been steadily maintained. Never averse to a new idea, no matter what its origin, India has never failed to put each on trial.[53] In a country where Brahmanism had been for more than thousands centuries prevalent philosophy of search, knowledge and truth, Buddhist philosophy was also became successful in about two hundred years since its birth.According to general acceptance of historians and scholars, Shankar was born in 788 A.D. When he took birth, India was wallowing in the dark pit of decadence Buddhism had lost their pristine glory. Corrupt practices had crept into the Buddhist fold; and Viharas tended to be no spiritual retreats at all.[54] Buddhism had developed elaborate superstitions which dissatisfied the people at large. Throughout its campaign it did not aim at suppression of other philosophy, but tried to suppress them. Surrounding and hospitality to imaginary stories of magic, clairvoyance, cheap marvels and ghost-seeing weakened it.[55]Shankar was a Brahmin, native of town on the coast of Malabar. He is reported to be an incarnation of Lord Shiv. He found the light while eight year of age and with the permission of his fond mother, he renounced the world and became a Sanyasi. Through renunciation he transferred the sphere of his activity from the narrow limits of his simple homestead to the wide expanse of interesting humanity and the world. He solved the national problem of the day through his philosophy which exercised a powerful, potent charm over the mind of India.[56]In a short life, Shankar travelled all over India propagating his philosophy of a rigorously consistent monism and triumphing against all rivals who met him in the Shastrarth. Challenges to public Shastrarth and test of truth of doctrines by means of ordeal, became the order of the day. Sankara was traditionalist who laboured in the cause not of any one sect in particular but of the ancient Santana Dharma as it had been developed through the centuries. The victorious termination of his universal philosophic war made him the one Acharya the one master philosopher of the land. He founded four mighty seats of learning – Matha in four corners of India[57].Empires/Kingdoms in South – six century A.D. afterwardsAs generally in all matters of spiritual culture, south India began by being heavily indebted to north; but in course of centuries it more than amply repaid the debt and made signal contributions to the theory and practice of religion and to philosophic thought in its various aspects. The founders of the three main system of Vedanta – Adi Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya[58] and Madhvacharya[59] hailed from south India.[60] The work of poets and saints of the Pallava period was continued in the age of Cholas by the succession of poet and teachers. In the Deccan under the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta both Shaivism and Vaishnavism flourished.[61]Till the about sixth century A.D. harmony and tolerance characterised the strong relation between the different philosophies or sects. Form the north to the south everyone was following their practice without any hindrance. In the period of 606 to 647 A.D Harshvardhan[62] was the most powerful King of north India. He himself studied at Nalanda University and believed in supporting art and literature. He wrote several Sanskrit plays. In the beginning he was the worshiper of Lord Shiv but sometime later in his life, he accepted Buddhist philosophy. A true estimate of Harsh’s character must not regard him only a Buddhist. He served other communities or general public equally well. He regularly held Quinquennial convocation where he gave away in religious alms everything except the material war to about half a million of people, all classes and creeds. This is record charity and liberality which is hardly beaten in history. His daily charity amounted to feeding of 1,000 Buddhist monks and 500 Brahmans.[63] Harsha’s capital was Kannauj on the river Ganga, a cosmopolitan city where Brahmans and Buddhist were flourishing with 200 Temples and 100 monasteries.[64]In 630 A.D. Harsh faced defeat on the bank of river Narmada by Chalukya[65] King, Pulakeshin II. Pulakeshin II had established himself a paramount of south. He began his rule in the year 620. From the view point of military successes he was not only a powerful King but also regarded as one of the most benevolent administrator of India in south. Hein-Tsang also visited the Chalukya territories when Pulakesin II ruled. The foreign observer was full of praise for Pulakesin II both for his power and for his benevolence.In Karnataka and Tamil regions, Jain philosophy had more influence than Buddhist philosophy on the life of the people. The literatures of Kannada and Tamil owe the striking contributions made by Jain authors. The Jain Temples built at Aihole by Ravikirti in the reign of Pulakesin II is said to have been the abode of all excellences.[66] Pulakesin II reign began with Wars so also it concluded with Wars. He attacked Pallava, however, Mahendravarman, second King of Pallava defeated him.The Pallava were the first well known Empire in the history of south India. They should be specially remembered for their contribution to the cultural, literal, art and archaeology of India. There was an all pervasive development during this period in literature, music, paintings, religion every walk of life. The Pallava Kings warmly patronised the Sanskrit language. Kanchi became the famous seat of Sanskrit learning in the South. The Tamil literature also received patronage from the Pallava Kings. The Mattavilas Prahasana was composed in this age. The Pallava Kings were the worshippers of Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiv and they showed tolerance to other creeds as well. Many great Shaivism and Vaishnavism saints and their literatures had flourished in this age. Though Buddhism could not dominate the Pallava, Hiuen-Tsang found many Buddhist monasteries in the Pallava Empire.Another distinct feature of the Pallava was a perennial battle with the Chalukyas in the earlier part and with the Rashtrakutas in the later part of their rule. It was after the decline of the Pallava that the Chola came again to prominence. The founder of the later Chola Empire was Vijayalaya (850-875 A.D.). He defeated the Pallava and established Tanjore as his Capital. His son Aditya defeated the last Pallava King Aparajita and annexed Pallava Empire.The ancient Velgam Vehera[67] on the banks of Periyakulam tank near Trincomalee in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) was remodelled and considerably extended and renamed Rajaraja Perumballi[68] early in eleventh century; a large size limestone image of Buddha and an inscribed bronze lampstand are among the vihara area – a clear proof of the active interest of great Chola King in the spiritual well-being of his subjects in Ceylon.[69]An important work of Tamil grammar, the Vlrasoliyam composed in Vira Rajendra’s time (1063-1070), had a Buddhist scholar for its author.[70]Hinduism has always been a house of many mansions, and the following description of the Arab geographer al-Idirlsi, who wrote at the beginning of the twelfth century, may well be taken to apply to the whole of the Deccan from the tenth to the twelfth centuries. ‘Among the principal nations of India there are forty-two sects. Some recognise the existence of a Creator, but not of Prophets; while others deny the existence of both; some acknowledge the intercessory powers of graves and stones and others worship holy stones on which butter and oil is poured. Some pay adoration to fire and cast themselves into the flames. Others adore the sun and consider it the Creator and Director of the world. Some worship trees, others pay adoration to serpents which they keep in stables and feed as well as they can, believing this to be a meritorious work. Lastly there are some who give themselves no trouble about any kind of devotion, and deny everything’.[71]In the beginning of eleventh century, the Islamic authors and travellers started to visit India in order of succession to the Greek, Roman, Chinese and Tibetan. The celebrated Muslim scholar, Alberuni left an account on India in his memoire. His most important literary work being Tarikh-ul-Hind written in Arabic gives us an account of the literature, science and religion of the Hindus of that time.The society chooses himself what will be the true path. The Hindus cultivate numerous other branches of on science and literature and have a nearly boundless literature. I, however, could not comprehend it with my knowledge.[72] Secondly, they totally differ from us in religion, as we believe in nothing in which they believe, and vice versa. On the whole, there is very little disputing about theological topics among themselves; at the utmost, they fight with words, but they will never stake their soul or body or their property on religious controversy.[73]Since the ancient time to the arrival of Islam in India ‘secularism’ word or term was never practised by any Empire. Equal respect for all philosophies and sects has been in tradition in India. That time State had its faith but was tolerant to other and never discriminated any faith. The citizens were free to follow their own faith.[1] Many modern day historians have calculated the scientific date of the Mahabharat War with their methods. Some says it was fought in 5561 B.C. and some reckoned it to be 3139 B.C. The fifth century great Indian mathematician, Aryabhatt (476-550 A.D.) calculated date of the Mahabharat War to be approximately 3102 B.C.[2] Kuru Empire encompassing modern day States of Delhi, Haryana, Uttarakhand and western Uttar Pradesh.[3] C. Rajagopalachari (1878-1972) was the last Governor General of India (1948-1950).[4] C. Rajagopalachari, Mahabharata, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan: Bombay, 1958, p. 127[5] Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Sri Bhagavadgita Rahasya or Karma-Yogasastra (English translation), volume I, Tilak Bros: Poona., 1915, p. xiii (Quoted by Madan Mohan Malaviya)[6] Srimadbhagvadgita, chapter 7, shlok 21[7] Rigved, I. 164. 46[8] Radha Kumud Mookerji, Hindu Civilization, part i, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan: Bombay, 1957, p. 84[9] Rigved, I. 89. 1[10] The Videh (Mithila) Empire was located between east of river Gandaki, west of river Koshi, north of river Ganga and south of Himalaya. In present, ancient Videh, is divided between the present day Indiaiya State of Bihar and a small part of Nepal.[11] The Panchal Kings ruled the territories to the east of the Kuru (see, f.n. 2), between the upper Himalayas and the river Ganga. It roughly corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh.[12] Radha Kumud Mookerji, Hindu Civilization, part i, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan: Bombay, 1957, p. 131[13] Sita Ram Goel (ed.), Freedom of Expression, Voice of India: New Delhi, 1998, p. xvi[14] It is certainly not known when Magadh was established. But the description of Magadh is found in the Ramayan and the Mahabharat. In these Holy Scriptures, Rajagrah (Rajgir, Bihar) has been described as its Capital. It was one of the great sixteen Mahajanapad of the nineteen century B.C. In that era, the first influential King of Magadha was the Bimbasar and he founded the Haryank dynasty. His son Ajatashatru also ruled this glorious Mahajanapad. According to the Puran, the successor of Haryank was Shishunag dynasty and the last Ruler of this lineage was Kalashok. He was killed by Mahapadam/Mahapadapati Nand who established Nand dynasty of Magadh.[15] The Kings of Maury Empire ruled India from 322 to 185 B.C.[16] Taxila is situated in the Rawalpindi district of Pakistan. History of the city goes back to 1000 B.C. when it became a noted learning center of Ved, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Medicine and other subjects.[17] J.W. McCrindle, Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian, Trubner: London, 1877, p. 121[18] Radha Kumud Mookerji, Asoka, Motilal Banarsidas: New Delhi, 1962, pp. 19-20[19] Pillar Edicts of Asoka, vi[20] Radha Kumud Mookerji, Asoka, Motilal Banarsidas: New Delhi, 1962, p. 21[21] Rock Edicts of Asoka, iii & ix[22] Rock Edicts of Asoka, iv and Pillar Edicts of Asoka, viii[23] Mahavamsa, volume 32[24] Radha Kumud Mookerji, Asoka, Motilal Banarsidas: New Delhi, 1962, p. 65[25] Radha Kumud Mookerji, Asoka, Motilal Banarsidas: New Delhi, 1962, p. 72[26] Pillar Edicts of Asoka, ii & vii[27] Pillar Edicts and Rock Edicts of Asoka, vii[28] Major Rock Edicts of Asoka, ii and Pillar Edicts of Asoka, ii & vii[29] Rock Edicts of Asoka, xiii, G&K and Pillar Edicts of Asoka, vii[30] Pillar Edicts of Asoka, vii[31] Rock Edicts of Asoka, iii[32] Rock Edicts of Asoka, vii[33] Rock Edicts of Asoka, vii[34] Rock Edicts of Asoka, vii[35] Pillar Edicts of Asoka, ii & iv[36] Rock Edicts of Asoka, vii & xiii, 1.5[37] Rock Edicts of Asoka, xiii[38] Rock Edicts of Asoka, xiii[39] Michael Edwardes, A History of India From the Earliest Times to the Present Day, Asia Publishing: Bombay, 1961, p. 47[40] The Emperors of Gupta Empire ruled India from 320 to 544 A.D.[41] Radha Kumud Mookerji, The Gupta Empire, Hind Kitabs: Bombay, 1948, pp. 51-52[42] See, f.n. 1[43] Khotan is located southern edge of Taklamakan desert and Xinjiang, China.[44] Radha Kumud Mookerji, The Gupta Empire, Hind Kitabs: Bombay, 1948, pp. 58-59[45] R.C. Majumdar, Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidas: New Delhi, 1952, p. 236[46] Radha Kumud Mookerji, The Gupta Empire, Hind Kitabs: Bombay, 1948, p. 63[47] Kumargupta (r.415-455 A.D.) was the son and successor of Chandragupta II. He maintained the integrity of the vast Empire which he inherited form his father.[48] Radha Kumud Mookerji, The Gupta Empire, Hind Kitabs: Bombay, 1948, p. 132[49] R.C. Majumdar, Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidas: New Delhi, 1952, p. 453[50] Radha Kumud Mookerji, The Gupta Empire, Hind Kitabs: Bombay, 1948, p. 133[51] R.C. Majumdar, Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidas: New Delhi, 1952, p. 451[52] R.C. Majumdar, Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidas: New Delhi, 1952, p. 452[53] Sister Nivedita & A.K. Koomaraswamy, Myths of Hindus & Buddhist, George G. Harrap: London, 1913, p. 2[54] Sankara the Missionary, Central Chinmaya Trust Mission: Mumbai, 1978, p. 6[55] S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol. I, George Allen & Unwin: London, 1923, pp. 605-606[56] Manilal N. Dvivedi, The Imitation of Sankara, George Redway: London, 1895, p. ix[57] For the propagation of Hinduism he established four Mathas in the four directions: Jagannath Puri (east), Dwarka Puri (west), Badrinath (north) and Sringeri (south). Adi Sankaracharya at last at the young age of 32, died at Kedarnath (820 A.D.).[58] Ramanujachary was the pioneer of Bhakti Movement in India. He lived in the twelfth century A.D. He preached the essence of Vaishnavism - modesty, love and devotion, as pre-conditions for having the grace of God.[59] Madhvachary was a philosopher and the chief proponent of the Dvaita (dualism) school of Vedanta of thirteen century.[60] K.A. Nilakanta Shastri, A History of South India, Oxford University: London, 1958, p. 411[61] K.A. Nilakanta Shastri, A History of South India, Oxford University: London, 1958, pp. 425-426[62] The Pushyabhuti dynasty also known as the Vardhan dynasty, ruled parts of India in north during sixth to seventh centuries. The dynasty reached its zenith under its last ruler Harshvardhan. At the height of Harsh’s power, his Empire covered much of north and north-west India, extended east till Kamarup, and south until river Narmada.[63] Radha Kumud Mookerji, Harsha, Motilal Banarsidas: New Delhi, 1959, p. 147[64] Radha Kumud Mookerji, Harsha, Motilal Banarsidas: New Delhi, 1959, p. 165[65] The Chalukya dynasty was ruled large parts of south and central India between the Sixth to twelfth centuries. Pulakesin I was the founder of the Chalukya Empire. The Chalukyas lost their power in the eighth century when they were defeated by the Rashtrakutas. However, after the fall of the Rashtrakutas a second Chalukya Empire was set up by Tailapa at Kalyan.[66] K.A. Nilakanta Shastri, A History of South India, Oxford University: London, 1958, p. 426[67] This Temple is believed to be built during the reign of King Devanampiyathissa (307–267 B.C.), one of the earliest kings of Sri Lanka[68] Rajendra Chol I, also known as Rajendra Chol the Great, like his father Rajaraja was equally important powerful Emperor of Chol Empire. He ruled from 1012 to 1044 A.D.[69] K.A. Nilakanta Shastri, A History of South India, Oxford University: London, 1958, p. 426[70] K.A. Nilakanta Shastri, A History of South India, Oxford University: London, 1958, p. 427[71] K.A. Nilakanta Shastri, A History of South India, Oxford University: London, 1958, p. 423[72] Edward C. Sachau, Alberuni’s India, volume 1, Kegan Paul: London, 1910, p. 158[73] Edward C. Sachau, Alberuni’s India, volume 1, Kegan Paul: London, 1910, p. 19