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American colonials burned wood, and one of the advantages that they had over their European brethren was that firewood in North America was plentiful and inexpensive. Nonetheless, it is doubtful that the word “warm” was part of the winter lexicon before the invention of the cast iron stove. Despite the availability of many kinds of iron wood stoves, most Americans experienced cold mornings and chilly nights from November to April.Plimoth Plantation (early 17th century) — heating in America was not unlike that elsewhere, but American colonials had almost unending sources of wood. Europeans used more charcoal, coal, and peat for fuel.Farmers and frontiersmen commonly took their fuel for heating and cooking from their own woodlots, from mesquite bushes, corncobs, or dried manure (buffalo chips). These were provided by the application of one’s own time, labor, and sweat rather than by the expenditure of cash. Teachers, ministers, and public officials often were provided with a number of cords of firewood in lieu of cash payment. This could be a considerable quantity. The energy content of a cord of wood depends on the tree species. For example, it can range from 15.5 to 32 million British thermal units per cord. The actual wood volume of a cord may be in the range of 80 to 100 cubic feet as stacked and split wood takes up more space than a solid piece.You may have heard the phrase “If you can’t stand the heat, get out of the kitchen.” The main fireplace in most frontier homes was the kitchen hearth, which was rarely allowed to go cold. Such a situation could provide substantial heating in a moderate structure such as a cabin or farmhouse. Largely because they were the only source of heat, fires were often kept lighted somewhere in the house at all times. Banking at night will protect the live coals from a fire well enough that usually there will be enough heat in them to restart a fresh fire in the morning.In numerous colonial documents the phrase “50 cords of firewood” appears as payment for a year of service. This immense volume (6400 cu.ft.) is estimated to be worth about 25 Spanish dollars (₤10 sterling) in 18th century terms, and in one document it was exchanged for a milk cow, an ox, and two young steers (1668, French Canada).[i]A single cord of stacked firewood was the size of a Fiat or VW Bug.Although firewood seems an odd form of payment for a parson or a teacher, Mercy Otis Warren, America’s first female historian, noted that this quantity was thought to be needed to heat a home for a year. “In winter,” she wrote of her home in Barnstable, Massachusetts, “large fireplaces, burning more than 50 cords of wood, provided warmth against the frigid air.” This quantity should probably be taken as a average amount of firewood needed each year. Payments in firewood, therefore, made sense especially for communities funding municipal workers like teachers and parsons because American towns and villages had wood, but very little cash.[ii]Cast iron “firebacks” were used to radiate heat into the room and to help preserve the back wall of the fireplace. Some of these were quite ornate.As stoves replaced open fires and braziers as a source of heating, models were developed that could also be used for cooking. An early improvement was the fire chamber: the fire was enclosed on three sides by masonry walls and covered by an iron plate. The Castrol stove of French architect François de Cuvilliés was a masonry construction with several fire holes covered by perforated iron plates. This was first design (1735) that completely enclosed the fire. A masonry construction with several fireholes covered by perforated iron plates, it was also known as a stew stove. Near the end of the 18th century, the design was refined by hanging the pots in holes through the top iron plate, thus improving heat efficiency.Thomas Jefferson sketched a plan for his kitchen in 1796 with a long range of 8 stew-holes.Compared to simple open fires, enclosed stoves can offer greater efficiency and control. By enclosing the fire in a chamber and connecting it to a chimney, a draft (draught) is generated pulling fresh air through the burning fuel. This causes the temperature of combustion to rise to a point where more efficient combustion is achieved. Enclosing a fire also prevents air from being sucked from the room into the chimney.A Pennsylvania Dutch six plate stove clearly marked 1766 that moved the fire out into the room.Stone or masonry fireplaces were chronically inefficient. Benjamin Franklin is well-know for “inventing” (actually popularizing) an iron baffle stove in order to provide better heating. It was intended to produce more heat and less smoke than an ordinary open fireplace. It is also known as a "circulating stove" or the "Pennsylvania fireplace".In 1742, Franklin finalized his first design which implemented new scientific concepts about heat which had been developed by the Dutch physician. In Franklin's stove, a hollow baffle was positioned inside and near the rear of the stove. The baffle was a wide but thin cast-iron box, which was open to the room's air at its bottom and at two holes on its sides, near its top. Air entered the bottom of the box and was heated both by the fire and by the fumes flowing over the front and back of the box. The longer the path through which the air flowed, the more heat would be transferred from the fire to the air.In more substantial homes, each bedchamber might have its own hearth.Benjamin Thompson, (Count Rumford) developed a shallow, angle sided masonry design to reflect heat into the room, with a streamlined throat that minimized turbulence thereby carrying away smoke with little loss of heated room air. He wrote a paper in 1798 that revolutionized thermodynamic theory thereafter. But these advancements were clearly outside the colonial period in America.A man wielding an ax on the frontier could turn trees into lumber or firewood, and a single well-aimed musketball could bring down a month’s meat in the forest. In this way a man could provide a subsistence living for himself and a small family. Yet a more enterprising farmer might make a few pounds each winter season by selling deerskins and furs at the trading post or by splitting out roofing shingles and cutting firewood for sale in the towns.[i] Charles A. Sampson, “The Sampson Family.” Settlement in the New World. Accessed July 2011. URL: Pointe de Levis, Quebec[ii] Nancy Rubin Stuart, “Mercy Otis Warren, Cape Cod’s Most famous Woman,” The Barnstable Patriot. Accessed July 2011. URL: Mercy Otis Warren: Cape Cod's Most Famous WomanSee:From Whence the Silver, The Role of Money in Colonial America (Traditional American History) (Volume 3): Volo, James M.: 9781495967368: Amazon.com: Books

You’re really asking about ink-dye permanence.And the science behind it is complicated and I don’t know enough chemistry to explain it in detail.A WORKMANLIKE ANSWERPrinting inks and dyes fade because of their inherent chemical performance limitations.The chemical performance of each type of ink used deteriorates at various increased rates when exposed to light, chemicals, heat and humidity.Since inks are chemical dyes, their fadeability also results from chemical reactions to chemicals typically found in the printing process — acids, alkalis, sulphides, alchols, glycerins and surfactants.THE CULPRIT IS UVThe main cause of fading is exposure to ultraviolet radiation in the visible light. UV increases the oxidation rate of both the ink and the paper as a unit system. The result is discoloration of the ink, which then quickly leads on to fading because the molecular structure of the ink no longer is stable.OWN FADING RATEEach type and colour of ink or dye fades at is own rate and own characteristics.That means the actual fading sequence isn’t necessarily in the magenta-yellow-cyan-black order. Use a different type of ink and the sequence becomes altered. Other effects (mentioned in the other sections) cause the sequence to alter too.Yellows and reds by inherent molecular structure break down more readily under UV attack than anything else — as is any pale colour anyway.Ink manufacturers use fadeometers to test fade resistance, using the criteria of known ink pigment characteristics.The fadeometer exposes the presswork to light radiation produced from a carbon arc or xenon tube. The arc emits an intense actinic light for several hours. The result approximates the destructive effect of a prolonged exposure to ordinary sunlight.It’s not an exact duplication of the effect but still an effective indicator. The results are compared and interpreted against a chart giving the equivalent UV exposure of different latitudes or regions.PROGRESSIVE COLOUR ALTERATIONSPrinters often have to bear in mind that inks will display their unique progressive colour changes during the natural fading process:—Blues and blacksPhthalocyanine blue (a pale blue), phthalo blue-red (peacock blue) and blacks are colour-stable — which is why practically all printworks eventually “fades to black” (i.e. leaving only the ‘darks’ visible) due to their UV survivability and other effects.Most blues turn green under acidic exposure (pH 4.5–6.0), so sometimes a dampening solution (pH 6.0?) and/or a wetting fluid (pH 7.0) is used to retard that colour change.Most blues fade to nothing under alkaline exposure, except peacock blue (which survives somewhat better).Greys become reduced to blotchy patches of blackish ink spots.GreensMost greens eventually all become reduced to a dirty monochromatic green.Yellows and redsMost yellows don’t survive UV or any other effect.Chrome yellow just turn red in alkaline conditions — which may be exploited in packaging printing for enclosing alkaline products.OthersFake gold printing, hot stamping and electrochemical aluminium foil pretty much all turn to “ancient yellow” and dull gloss over time.Pinks, greens, violets and methylene blue (shooting light blue) are not alkali-resistant at all.The majority of papers are weakly alkaline, by the way.If the printing is for packaging alkaline products, consider using alkali-resistant inks to slow down the saponification process.EFFECT OF INK PENETRATIONIn physical structural terms, ink penetration into the paper substrate determines the overall fadeability.When a printwork dries properly (i.e. a proper drying process), the ink dyes should be incorporated into the fibres of the paper subtrate. This then slows down the fading rate and avoids premature fading.USING LIGHTFAST INK FOR LIGHT-INTENSIVE APPLICATIONSOne way to reduce UV fadeability of inks is to do the four-colour printing in “colour-fastness sequence.” This is the simplest one I know personally:—first print run with the yellows and magentasthen cyanthen cyan and black two-colour printing on the backthen overprint the final cyan and black with heat- and light-resistant inksThere are many other ways of doing it — the above is just one example. But that one still requires rather careful planning than your standard colour offset printing handiwork.That then leads to the idea of using lightfast inks for the right job.The biggest challenge for ink manufacturers is the outdoors — outdoor advertising posters or printworks that necessarily receive low maintenance in use. Most inks just don’t survive the combination of direct sunlight, wind, rain, time, you name it.NATURE OF THE PAPER SUBSTRATEIf the surface properties of the printing paper or substrate is smooth vs. rough, loose, poor, etc — such as newsprint, kraft paper or absorbent paper — that slows down the drying process and therefore the ink permeation (i.e. ink absorption into the substrate). That already causes inks to turn pale even when freshly printed. The ink dyes incorporate into the fibres quickly yet dissociates just as quickly.To retard this process, sometimes a “white dry oil” or similar is used to improve the drying rate and ink permeation as well as to slow down ink thinning. This white dry oil is toxic — which is why it’s not a good idea to lick clothing tags or use newspaper to wrap food like fish and chips.EFFECT OF PRINTING ADHESIVES AND BINDERSIn prepress processing, alkaline adhesives and binders are avoided as these tend to discolour inks and the final presswork. So the sodium silicate binder (alkaline) cannot be used for archive-quality printworks. Instead we choose a pure, natural, pollution-free, pH 7.4 neutral adhesive or binder.EFFECT OF ALCOHOLSAlcohols (methanol, ethanol) are both a plus and a minus in the printing process and their effects on inks and colour.Ink is inherently non-resistant to alcohol. This fact can be exploited so an iso-ethanol type of offset wetting fluid can be used as a dampener to provide good wetting properties and ink spreadability on the printing surface.Similarly, many dampening fluids and offset wetting fluids also use glycerol and polyethylene glycol in addition or in lieu of alcohols.Since alcohols and water have their own unique volatility coefficients, this could also be exploited — such as to reduce the paper’s water-absorbing capacity when water is transferred to the printing blanket.Alcohol volatility is often used to decrease the temperature of the printing plate and to ensure ink flow.EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITYTemperature and relative humidity of the usage situation are big factors in ink fadeability.Temperature often makes the first impact — during the printing itself.Under normal conditions, ink heat resistance is ca. 120°C (248°F). Some red inks can be as low as 70°C (158°F). Those kinds of temperatures are easily reached in the ink rollers and printing plates when printing 5,000 pieces per hour. The high-speed friction of the paper rollers generates heat at 40–50°C (104–122°F). That heat contributes to the drying process, so prints shouldn’t be stacked too thickly but ventilated to prevent heat discoloration of inks.Final wordIf fade-resistance is important to the print project, the best source of information is the ink manufacturer or vendor. They will have the technical data of the various pigments used in the ink formulations. Bear in mind that increase fade resistance often comes at the price of some other attribute, such as colour vibrancy, rub resistance, or cost.Thanks for the A2A.

In lieu of many seemingly unrelated INFJ questions such as the following, I am going to connect all the dots with one analogyAre INFJ narcissistic people?Why does the INFJ personality type seem to have low energy levels?Can you as an INFJ distinguish between true INFJs and those who think they are, but aren't?What is the most INFJish thing a person does? How do you guess if someone has an INFJ personality type?What is one thing that an INFJ will doorslam you quickly for?It occured to me to answer this because to my mind when I think about how I am like, I immediately see a periodic table in my mind’s eye and I am so very like the element LITHIUM.Despite fragile appearances I am highly conductive, highly reactive, highly applicable in lots of situations—even in nuclear weapons—but I need to be discovered as lithium in its elemental form. Lithium doesn't occur free in nature. I won’t be just sitting around wearing INFJ-pride.With electrons I do have to give, I give up readily (shirt off my back tendency) but the tricky thing is, lithium doesn’t have that many orbitals to fill. To be in my inner circle, one has to coincide with an unspoken vacancy. Otherwise I will be content and stabilized with my existing covalent bond and remain loyal and invested in sharing myself on deeper and deeper levels.The problem is, it often isn’t the right person filling our one open spot. For reasons inexplicable to me, a non-trivial number of strangers describe my intersection with their lives in exalted otherworldly salvation terms, as if their lives have been graced by divine intervention or that an angel in human form miraculously appeared. On my end, I just follow through some hunches and ordinary inner guidance “bring x, and take the other route” but to others, the specific item I bring, or my crossing their paths at that exact moment, or saying the words that come to me… tends to reveal much greater meaning and result in an audible gasp of recognition. Maybe it looks a lot like the “love-bombing,” “mirroring” and “grooming” of Narcissistic Personality Disorder, so one might be confused by concepts, but I find that more often than not, the “discard” will get to keep our precious electron that we gave.Lithium also has one of the lowest melting point (180º C) for a metal and highest boiling points (1330º C) for a metal, even though it remains highly reactive. To me, it parallels how the INFJ heart is easily touched and softened by the most mundane of things, but to get us to truly go ballistic takes a lot of heat and a lot of pressure, but contrast this with NPD, which is characterized by gross lack of empathy and does not need much friction to perceive things as a “narcissistic injury” to justify inflicting mass damage to their surrounding relationships.I further distinguish the high reactivity from the high boiling point as this: like NPDs, INFJs may be prone to neurosis, low self-valuation and self-hatred borne out of perfectionism and friction with outer stimuli. But I have never regulated my own esteem nor felt empowered by the tearing down of others, and thus it would only be through oppressing me to my high boiling point do I flip a switch and systematically eviscerate others to render them no longer a threat. At that point, I am emphatically not a good person and can be downright diabolical in my goal to annihilate and purge. I do not easily humiliate or put anyone in a compromising situation, not for petty reasons, not for zero-sum power games, and least of all to inflate my own sense of worth. On the contrary, I’d experience guilt for a very long time afterwards and I tend to want to make it up to the person I wronged. I strongly believe that nobody gets away with anything, so it is up to myself to make things right.Moreover, lithium has unusual retrograde reactivity: it is more soluble in cold temperatures than hot ones, and where Sodium has a violent reaction; lithium reacts more slowly. I find that to be hilarious as a paradox, because when the stakes are really high involving other lives (such as when under gunfire with a live shooter) I get really calm and steady, able to defuse the situation, self-sacrificially if need be. I’m really good at leading people through extremely tense situations such as suicides or hostile unsafe circumstances in disputed territories. My Ni will kick in and I’ll know exit strategies that nobody knows how I knew. But watch me have a meltdown over the most minor thoughtless interactions such as XNTXs throwing out my old bananas without asking me.As a child before the age of 12, I was about the skinniest, shy-est, perfectionistic loner girl on the playground making sand shapes with my plastic spoon... but a number of incidents stand out in my mind when I threw rocks at heads, piercingly screamed into ear drums and kicked the blood out of larger, older boys who were bullying someone else… not only to the point of publicly embarrassing them, but also their parents were extremely upset with the long term bruising and physiological damages I had inflicted with my “rages.” Looking back, I scarcely can even recognize my kind and soft-spoken self when the assassin-mode rears its viciousness in attack mode; all I know is that after a certain line is crossed I feel zero fear, zero pain, and this cold calculated wrath. By then there is no holds barred, hyper-focused “I will destroy you” Joan of Arc sort of insanity unleashed, and somebody’s gonna get hurt real bad.We’re simultaneously harder than other metals but also softer than other metals. So you’ve gotta ask yourself one question—do you feel lucky, punk?While other personality elements obey the octet rule filling up s- and p- orbitals, Lithium goes by the duet rule. What apparently looks like me being sociable with hundreds of people almost always involves being adopted on the outer edges by an extravert cluster who has many transactional electrons for ionic bonds. I really don’t prefer that, as, such “friends” of electrostatic attraction will liberally loan out my electron services and it totally changes my original character until I am almost lost and fundamentally unrecognizable to myself (chameleon tendency) but it happens a lot because I will unconsciously adapt my role to be what people most need me to be.(I really do facilitate the betterment of their lives both emotionally and materially, and people notice the attentiveness to personal detail. As such, from a cursory glance it always surprises people that I can have deep relating and be on good terms with warring folks who just can’t get along with each other, have polarizing values of my own and yet the way I present my values seem to resonate with everyone. It is no problem to disagree with my most Trump-commited gun-rights-loving veterans, and also be in touch with those who have been in prison or homeless, and have them help out refugee families I’ve chosen when I consistently do things for their welfare and support them privately through their most difficult times.)Case in point, I don’t align with climate change and abortion, but most along the political left will find my perceptions to not stem from willful ignorance or oppression, but rather being able to attune into factors that they cannot, and mostly respect my independently founded conclusions.I may seem like a vulnerable loner, preferring to hike by myself for hours every day and sensitive to the poetry of nature….but when I actually got robbed, I immediately spoke to the city mayor and sheriff face-to-face about an action plan, got their private contact numbers so I can text them, we set up surveillance and a community server along with the law enforcement and military presence in my vicinity. A lot of people who see me journaling, painting, gardening or dressing feminine seem to underestimate this paradoxical masculine aspect of me.Just like when they see my lithe ectomorph body, their eyes really pop out when we do food distribution, I powerlift hundreds of really heavy of crates. I appear vulnerable and delicate… until something needs to be done for others or the community can benefit from my involvement.Of course, INFJs not irrevocably fixing problems for “the collective well-being” because if others are going to deliberately lose their way, I’m not above letting people reap what they sow. People enjoying the INFJ loyalty may forfeit the allegiance once they cross a certain line. At the point of no return, we give up that single electron altogether and surprise, bi*ch: look up our chemistry, we’re even more happy and stable without it. *doorslam*… Ain’t that the truth … (Source: Google)Lithium is found in igneous rock and borne out of the Big Bang or exploding stars. We are still unable to explain how it’s made, but the enormous flashpoint required reminds me of the crucible in which INFJs remember their formative years. There is some elegant poetry in knowing that lithium isotopes were simultaneously synthesized and destroyed in the reactions to their environment and thus made rare.Why does it seem like most INFJs have dark pasts?As Lithium ion is used in rechargeable batteries, I would heartily agree that when INFJs have energy we are little powerhouses… just not the bombastic extraverted way.At my best, I am practical, efficient, and intensely focused on getting from Point A to Point B. I work by myself, often doing the group project by myself, and won’t stop until I deliver the final product to completion, though I will allow others to take full credit. Once INFJs see the higher purpose for our involvement, we will dedicate an extraordinary amount of effort to see it come to fruition.What are INFJs really good at?The other interesting thing about exertion of energy is that INFJs have busy minds. I am always trying to find the exact balance to reconcile opposites, finding ultimate truths and and extracting meaning in abstract concepts. I am not a knowledge specialist, instead, finding patterns in a great many disparate subjects which took time and effort to master with some degree of competency. A good portion of my diary pages, for instance, are thoughts and feelings of other people that have percolated my awareness, and my perceptions of them; a double-entry journal of sorts. Topics about nature, space, time, consciousness, future technology and music greatly occupy my attention because they tend to have universal appeal.Also, less so than other types, I take do not take constructs of modern reality for granted, and have quite detailed visions of my own self in incarnations as a savage and also as an android, as well as future potentials of material science that will enable different building constructions. What others seem resigned to seeing constraints as “the way things are” tends to be only a temporary variable for me. I seldom worry about the rapid dying of species on Earth now, because I have seen new possibilities of animal-, and plant-life after the destructiveness of humans takes its cycle and life rebalances.At times with all the visions, the knowings, the theorizing and the sudden aha-insights, I find it fitting that the application of the lithium-ion battery is mostly in portable technologies that facilitate communications and moving around.The last thing I will relate with lithium is that, because it is extraordinarily small, it is used in medicines since it can cross both the blood brain barrier and the placenta to affect an unborn fetus. Metaphorically speaking, for purposes of healing an INFJ has a way to get inside your mind, and tap into your inner child.As far as defense mechanisms, most people’s armor around their most most vulnerable assets are developed to keep foreign elements out, but for all intents and purposes, to the INFJs’ perception, it is as if the barriers aren’t even there!I have blurted statements aloud that, to my mind were observable truths, but rendered others naked, exposed and shut down. It is in fact a learning process of politeness for INFJs to recognize to what extent stating the obvious (to us) is actually piercing, invasive, and scary for others to find out, and to keep most of our “insights” to ourselves.During my undergraduate years I worked in a blood-brain barrier lab, which underscored how masterfully the membrane kept pathogens (and antibodies) out of brain sac. Presently when I think about lithium in relation to INFJs, it strikes me with great clarity that…of course… if the soft organs were suddenly aware that something foreign somehow got inside, for sure it would be first and foremost frightened and alarmed before it has a chance to ascertain whether it was benign or harmful, which explains people’s reactions to my prescient announcements of their inner world. It’s like abruptly finding a stranger inside the sanctum of your closed mind.But if you have always walked around barefaced without cosmetics, the fact that most adult women can no longer leave the house without makeup, takes some radical getting used to!