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Trivia time!!Let’s start off with a prelude.Why am I showing the map of Japan? - To highlight the one salient fact about Japan: It is an island nation.In the context of WW2, what does that imply?..............That Japan was less vulnerable to a maritime attack by a foreign power.Indeed, unlike continental countries like China, Germany, Russia, etc… the island nation of Japan is bestowed upon an enormous geographical advantage - the surrounding sea that has served since antiquity as a buffer against maritime incursion by hostile powers. The sea makes it extraordinarily difficult for foreign powers to attack it by the sea because the one prerequisite for such an enterprise would be a powerful navy possessing both tremendous firepower and sea-lifting and logistical capacity to support maritime attacks.One assumption that follows from this fact is that no Allied troops had ever mounted a ground attack on one of the four main islands of Japan (because they did not land there)Seemingly plausible assumption.BUT, WAIT A MINUTE!!!!What if I tell you that one of sacred soil of the Empire of the Rising Sun had been attacked by Allied soldiers during the war?That’s right!!!!! American servicemen actually landed and carried out an audacious attack on one of the four main islands of Japan in WW2. It is in one of the most obscure but intriguing and extraordinary sagas of WW2 - one that I am certain not many people are aware of.Hence, this post is dedicated to doing justice to that extraordinary story: the story of USS Barb (SS-220) and the men who carried out a daring attack on the Japanese island of Hokkaido in the last day of the Pacific War, thereby achieving the distinction of being the only Allied servicemen to have conducted ground combat operation on the land of the Rising Sun.Let the exciting story begin!!!ContextOne day in July 1945, in his HQ based on Guam, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz was being besieged with questions from curious war reporters keen to obtain as much information for their forthcoming newspaper.One question stood out. It concerned a widely circulated rumor that an invasion was about to be launched in the northern coast of Hokkaido and Karafuto. The rumor stemmed from the claims made by Tokyo Rose, Japanese Army News and Radio Tokyo that the northern area of Hokkaido was being geared for an American invasion targeted at the area. Those claims were based on reports of continuing attacks by American naval vessels operating in the lower region of the Sea of Okhotsk.Admiral Nimitz dismissed the rumor as Japanese attempt to mislead the enemy. Indeed, the American plan for the invasion of Japan - Operation Downfall - did not include Hokkaido in the list of targets.Shortly after the meeting with the reporters, Admiral Nimitz conferred in private with Admiral Charles A. Lockwood - C-in-C of the Submarine force of the Pacific Fleet - about naval operations in the sea around Hokkaido. Lockwood told Nimitz that the only American warship operating in that area was the USS Barb - commanded by the able skipper Eugene B. Fluckey. Commander Fluckey had completed 11 patrols. In July 1945, his boat was on the 12th patrol. It would be the submarine’s final patrol - one that would win enduring fame for the men crewing the Barb.On 18th July 1945, the Barb was patrolling the sea off the coast of Hokkaido. Using periscope and sonar, the submariners monitored traffic on the surface, keenly seeking opportunities to do any kind of damage to the Japanese.Through previous reconnaissance, the submariners discovered train tracks across which supply-carrying trains passed daily. In the wardroom, the captain kept looking at those train tracks on the map. In particular, his eyes fixed on a juncture at which a single train track forked out into 3 separate tracks going to 3 areas. There had been lingering in his mind a question:How could we harass the enemy at that juncture?Thus was the seed for an audacious attack planted. Captain Fluckey asked his men how to attack the train track juncture. They got their thinking hats on, straining their mind for a solution. After a while, no solution was found. Worried, captain Fluckey thought:With no solution, this disturbed my eternal philosophy: we don’t have problems, only solutions. I called for Swish to start some fresh blood circulating.Swish - the gunnery officer - was famous for his capacity to come up with innovative solution. He sat down with captain Fluckey to devise a way to attack the train tracks. A fruitful discussion produced a clearly defined objective:Our objective was neither to blow up the track nor to blow up the train. Both must be accomplished simultaneously to handicap Japan’s war effort and transport for severe days or a week or more.The solution to this problem was obvious in principle but difficult in practice: planting a demolition charge under the track.However, there was a catch. Previous observation indicated that the train crossed the tracks according to no well-defined schedule. Hence, it was impossible to know exactly when the trains would arrive at the juncture.This was a problem because the two conventional detonating-mechanisms of the demolition charge were not well-suited to task.Timer-triggered mechanism: the impossibility of knowing exactly when the trains would arrive ruled out this method.Remote-switch-triggered mechanism: this required a human operator to be physically present near the tracks to activate the switch. While this would accomplish the objective, it would imperil the human operator because after the destruction, there was the real danger that the Japanese would vigorously search the areas surrounding the tracks for sabotage. If the operator was captured, it would be a fate worse than death. The Japanese were known for their barbarism toward American POWs. The submariners - bound by a strong bond forged through enduring danger and hardship together - were not willing to see their comrade suffer at the hand of the Japanese.So the submariners had to come up with an innovative solution.At 1807 18th July 1945, Swish invited Max, Dave, Willy and Hatfield to join the problem-solving endeavor. Having worked for a railroad station before volunteering for submarine service, Hatfield’s vast experience would prove useful in devising a solution to the problem. He said to the captain:Captain, Swish here has told me about your problem of blowing up the track and the train at the same spot. I can tell you what I think you need to substitute for that timer to accomplish this feat. Mind you, I have never done this myself, but it’s one idea.Let’s have it! - Captain FluckeyHatfield described his idea:Well I would remove that timer switch. We all know that 55-pound super-torpex high explosive charge has to be buried under the track to catch both track and train. It measures in inches about 14 by 14 by 16, so we dig a hole and put that between two ties. Then we dig a hole between the next two ties and bury the batteries that are wired to and actuate the charge. Now, to complete the circuit we hook in a microswitch. We place it on the surface between the next two ties. That’s all there is to it.(To those of you who don’t know what a railroad tie looks like, refer to: Railroad tie)The discussion continues:Someone: “Sounds simple enough, but please explain to us simpletons just how do we set off the microswitch?”Hatfield: “You don’t sir. The train does.”Someone: “Ok. How?”Hatfield: “The rail sags underneath the weight of the engine. So we mount the switch on two wedges, slip it under the rail, the engine comes alone, the rail sags, closing the switch, and she blows!”Astonished by Hatfield’s ingenuity, Captain Fluckey patted Hatfield on the back so hard that he nearly fell off the chair. Max then asked:“Fine do you have a microswitch?”Hatfield: “No but Teeters must have one with his radars.”But, as everyone knows, an idea can be simple in theory but difficult to execute. A solution to technical problems is invariably accompanied by potential problems.Someone: “Tell us, exactly how much does the rail sag?”Hatfield: “Depends on the size of the engine.”Someone: “On average?”Hatfield: “Let me think. When I was a kid we used to crack nuts that way. Oh, I’d say the rail sags enough to crack a good-sized black walnut laid on a hunk of wood.”Someone: “How much is that?”Hatfield held up his thumb and forefinger: “About this big”. (about an inch)(note rail sag = the amount of vertical length the track protruded downward under the weight of the train)“About this big” was too vague and unsatisfactory to captain Fluckey who had studied design engineering before the war. So he took out his engineering book to determine as accurately as possible the rail sag to guarantee the activation of the sensitive microswitch. This was vital because overestimating the sag would place the switch too low to be triggered, whereas underestimating it would cause the switch to be placed too high that a smaller rail sag would detonate the charge before the engine was in the blast area.All the men involved in the discussion were delighted to find a feasible method to accomplish the objective. With the biggest technical problem solved, the commanders had to form a team of commandos and formulated a plan of attack for them.Now that Hatfield has shown us a way, I want everyone to think the while saboteur attack over from start to finish. We’ll use both rubber boats, and I will name the other members of the squad tomorrow.Captain Fluckey isolated himself in his cabin and began checking the service records of his men. He only wanted volunteers for this hazardous mission. The good thing was nearly everyone was ready to volunteer. The hard part was to select a few from the many men for the mission.Captain Fluckey knew an audacious mission like this wasn’t just for anyone. The caliber of the participants had to be high: strong, smart, dependable and highly technically competent. In addition, he had the following criteria:Unmarried men save Hatfield. Having come up with the idea to accomplish the mission, Hatfield was needed to supervise the implementation of the trick.At least one member of each of the departments on the submarine.50% regular + 50% reservesAt least half had been in the Boy Scout. The experience thereof, esp in navigating through the wilderness, first aid, evading danger would come to the men’s aid in the unlikely scenario that the men had to escape through the forests + mountains of Karafuto.The skipper carefully wrote down the name of the chosen men and their respective qualities:Lieutenant Bill Walker: a strong and well-built officer would be the leader.Chief of the Boat Saunders would be the deputy leader.Auxiliary man John Markuson was strong and able to fix anything.Newland: chief cook who was smart and could use his culinary skill to feed the men if they were stranded.Jim Richard: a crack motor machinist represented the engine room.Signalman Sever would handle navigation and communication.Torpedoman Klinglesmith was strong, well-built and mentally agile.Hatfield: the electrician who devised the ingenious solution would supervise the execution of the idea.Captain Fluckey actually would personally led the mission.I will lead the saboteurs. This isn’t a combat situation, yet it’s too risky to turn over to someone else. I am sure I could pull it off.One officer Jim protested:Sir, I swear I will send a message to ComSubPac (Commander Submarine Pacific Fleet) if you attempt this. It’s not in the best interests of the men.Fluckey reassured Jim:I suppose you are right. But I hate to miss this once in a lifetime opportunity. Take a look at the list.The list of chosen men was announced. The selected men were excited.Next came the preparation for the mission. Equipment: rubber boats, life jackets, weapons, explosive charges and trigger mechanism were examined. Tools required but unavailable were improvised. For example,a shovel and pick needed to dig a hole under the train track were made by using a blow torch to shape steel plates ripped from the engine room.A waterproof firing mechanism was improvised from number-10 can to shield the battery from potential rain.Perhaps the most interesting aspect of the entire saga was the interrogation of a Japanese POW held onboard the submarine. He was nicknamed “Kamikaze” (hilarious huh!!). This fellow was described as:smart, had a high school education, and was picking up English fast enough through working with the torpedomen. He was smart enough to claim he was Korean, knowing full well none of us could tell the difference - and he knew that I knew his gamble. I briefed him on our overall plan. He was enthusiastic.Captain Fluckey consulted his English-Japanese dictionary while talking to Kamikaze:“Kamikaze, Japanese patrol coast men on foot, men in automobiles?”“No, big part.”“What big part?”“Cliffs, rocks.”“Patrol beaches, sand?”“Hai. Yes. Beaches, sand, towns.”“Use automobile?”“No, walk.”“Regular patrol?”“Yes.”“When?”“Every day.”“Night?” He nodded his head. “How often pass same point?”“Two hours,” fluttering his hand—more or less.“How many men same patrol?”“Sometime two, most one.”“Armed?”“Rifle, pistol.”“Dog?”“Always take dog.”“Why patrol?”“Soviet spies.”“Arrigato, Kamikaze. Thank you information.”Kamikaze even volunteered for the mission:Me, Kamikaze want go party, Master, explode train. Can help dogs, patrol. Meet, stop other Japanese.Of course, Captain Fluckey knew full well the danger of letting that fellow join the raiding party. He would betray them at the earliest opportunity to the nearest Japanese patrol. (Seems like Kamikaze wasn’t too smart huh? :)) )Arrigato. Better Kamikaze stay with me.Jim, spread the word about the anticipated armed patrol with dogs passing every 2 hours. They must be ready for every eventuality, including dogs from neighboring houses. Perhaps tossing any dogs a few steaks would be better than fighting them. I must get back to work on that track sag.Captain Fluckey was still trying to determine the amount of sag required to detonate the charge. After a few hours of intense focus, he determined that the rail sag was 0.7 in, assuming that a typical Japanese locomotive engine weighed about 1/3 of American engine. But Bill, Swish, Hatfield and Markuson proposed:We don't need that much clearance. It is important that there is enough to ensure that the hair-trigger microswitch does not set the charge off when Hatfield makes the final hookup. So, we will halve that—roughly. Markuson, I want you to manufacture a metal feeler gauge 3/8 in thick. Hatfield will use it to adjust the wedges holding the microswitch. Once he has set that clearance accurately, he and he alone makes the final live connection. Bill, when he does that, all others must be at least 20 yards away, flat on the ground, with exposed body parts turned away and eyes closed. If Hatfield makes a mistake, I don't want any other person killed or blinded by the flash.All essential preparations had been made. The men were ready to embark on the exciting but dangerous mission. Until the mission was initiated, they had nothing to do except rest, and wait.Meanwhile, the captain order the submarine to reconnoiter the area to find a good landing location.At noon 20th July 1945, the men found an excellent landing spot: a sandy beach just 1 mile away from where the sub was. There were no houses within 640.08 meters from the beach. Two distant mountain peaks would aid navigation as the raiding party paddling toward the beach at night. The beach was nicknamed Patience Bay.21st July 1945Before darkness descended, the captain briefed the raiding partyBarb will approach the beach flooded down, ready to launch the rubber boats. She will come in on the batteries as silently as possible. The approach will be at slack water—timed to arrive at the debarkation point by radar at 2310. The whole coast observes blackout afloat and ashore. By that hour the inhabitants should be asleep. We'll be less than 1000 yards offshore, so speak in whispers. That includes Tague heaving the lead for soundings.Upon beaching, Sever and Newland will guard the boats. The other six proceed up the meadow and cross the highway to the track. At a suitable position for planting the charge, the party will divide. Markuson will go 50 yards south on the track near the road as a guard. Klinglesmith goes 50 yards north near the road, and Richard 20 yards inland if he's not needed to dig. Walker, Swish, and Hatfield dig under the tracks and plant the battery can and charge. Then adjust the microswitch clearance and recall the guards. All get well clear, flat on the ground, head turned away with eyes closed while Hatfield makes the final hookup of the firing circuit to the charge.Communications are simple. Those of you who have been Boy Scouts will remember the two bird calls to be used. First, when you approach a group always whistle, ‘bob WHITE!’ This is the alert signal and will save you from being strangled by your shipmates.The crew practiced more signals until they were able to do make those signals automatically without thinking.23rd July 1945, the mission was initiatedThe anxious period of waiting for action ended at 00:00 23rd July 1945. Barb surfaced. The rubber boats were launched.At 00:25, the boats reached the shore. Difficulties appeared shortly after they landed.At 00:47, the men were taken by surprise by a train passing by. It was a surprise for them because previous reconnaissance gave them the impression that the trains only operated during daytime. It turned out that the Japanese blacked out their trains. Except for a small glimmer emanating from the fire engine, the trailing white smoke and the sound of an incoming train, there was zero visual cue that signified an approaching train. This heightened the danger for the mission because the men would have to operate in near darkness. If a train happened to be approaching fast while the men were setting up demolition charges, the whole enterprise would fail. The men admitted that:Not having noticed any trains at night, it had not occurred to us that they could be so perfectly blacked out. Compared to us, the Japanese were past masters at blackout.Another trouble was that the twin mountain peaks chosen to aid navigation were shrouded in clouds. Another trouble was the erratic behavior of the compasses caused by metal objects lying around the beach.Consequently, the men had difficulty finding their way to the target. They first arrived at a meadow spotted during previous reconnaissance. Then they reached the high way. They ran across the highway, along which they fell into some ditches. Finally, they reached the train track. The men observed carefully to select the best place to plant the demolition charge.The men began digging holes under the track. At about 01:07, the holes were completed. The demolition charge and battery were placed therein. Now came the most crucial step: completing the circuit. That task fell on the shoulder of Hatfield. A mixture of emotion fell upon all the men who wanted to ensure the mechanism would work as expected. They watched Hatfield performing the task expertly. The circuit was complete. Then a discussion started:Let’s see that distance gauge with which you set the microswitch under the rail.After measuring the sag, Hatfield said:It sure looks like an awful lot for a rail to sag. Suppose the Old Man’s (Fluckey) calculation was wrong, and trains go over it and it doesn’t explode? He’ll never let us come ashore again to move it closer.Everyone nodded in agreement.Klingesmith adjusted the switch closer to the rail. It was then 0.25 inch from underneath the rail, 0.1 in shorter than the calculated sag.At this point, everyone decided that they had done everything they could. It was time to return to the submarine. They could only hope that their adjustment would cause the charge to explode when the engine train car was directly over the track.At 01:32, lookouts on the Barb spotted a blinking light signifying that the boats were coming back.At 01:45, Epps who was manning the 0.5-in MG shouted:CAPTAIN! ANOTHER TRAIN COMING UP THE TRACKS!At that point, the boats were still on their way back to the sub. Hearing the distinctive sound of approaching train, the men on the boats paddled vigorously. But then, they suddenly stopped. Their eyes and ears directed toward the approaching train.Two minutes later at 01:47, everyone heard the sound they had been anxiously waiting for:BOOM! WHAM! The flash of the charge exploding changed into a spreading ball of sparkling flame. The boilers of the engine blew. Engine wreckage flying, flying, flying up to some 200 ft, racing ahead of a mushroom of smoke, now white, now black. Cars piling up, into and over the wall of wreckage in front, rolling off the track in a writhing, twisting maelstrom of Gordian knots. Fires sprinkled among them.Then a gap of seconds before the sounds of the explosions were hurled across the water, sounds of the grinding, snapping, crushing, tortured steel and wood. Stunned speechless, I began to breathe. Then I grabbed the megaphone and hollered, “Paddle! Paddle! We're leaving! Starboard ahead one-third, port back one-third, left full rudder.”As soon as the raiders were recovered, the Barb turned around and sailed away.And that, ladies and gentlemen, was the end of one of the most audacious raids in WW2.CommemorationThe raiders proudly displaying the submarine’s battle flag. They were the only Allied (and American) servicemen to have ever landed on Japanese soil in WW2 to conduct ground combat operation. From left to right: Paul Saunders, William Hatfield, Francis Sever, Lawrence Newland, Edward Klinglesmith, James Richard, John Markuson, and William Walker.USS Barb’s crew posed for picture. The final battle flag of the submarine was proudly displayed. Picture taken during the return voyage from the Sea of Okhotsk to Midway Islands.Sideview of USS Barb. The final battle flag after her 12th (final) patrol was displayed showing all the vessels sunk by the submarine.The final battle flag. The train symbol in the center of the bottom line represented the Japanese train destroyed in the raid in July 1945.Congressional medal of honor placard awarded to all the crewmen of BarbReference(s)Thunder Here!: The USS *Barb* Revolutionizes Submarine Warfare in World War II Paperback - Eugene B. Fluckey

There have been many Black astronauts or cosmonauts, but not one of them was African. The only African was Mark Shuttleworth and he was a White cosmonaut. South Africa did in fact have an extensive space program and owns several satellites. South Africa's ground stations are also important for communication with American manned space missions. South Africa also did build a rocket suitable for launching LEO satellites. In fact South Africa has achieved more in their space program than most European countries.South Africa is also a member of BRICS. This gives South Africa access to Russian resources. For example, South Africa is about to build 8 nuclear power stations, making it the largest constructor of nuclear power stations after China, but South Africa still has no Black Cosmonaut. Regarding the point of having a manned space program, only the Russians can transport people into space with Soyuz since the demise of the Space Shuttle in 2011 . We can expect that sometime soon SpaceX Dragon will put astronauts in space, and of course Elon Musk is from South Africa. There has not been any interest from the South African government in his initiative, to the extent that it was necessary for Elon Musk to leave South Africa in order to achieve these goals.SA to return to space: PandorHere are some photos of the South African space program:Here is a photo of the Vladimir Putin in South Africa with president Jacob ZumaEncyclopedia AstronauticaRSA-4RSA-4RSA-4 South African space launcherTitle PageIntroduction to the RSA-4 Launch VehicleCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 2.1RSA-4 Launch VehicleCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 2.2Stage 1Credit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 2.3Stage 2Credit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 2.4Stages 3, 4 and PayloadCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 2.5Stage 4 with Third Stage MotorCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 3.1RSA 4 Satellite Mass in Circular OrbitCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 3.2RSA 4 Acceleration During LaunchCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 3.3RSA 4 Velocity During LaunchCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 3.4RSA 4 Ground Range During LaunchCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 3.5RSA 4 Launch TrajectoryCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 3.6Dynamic Pressure During LaunchCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 3.7Launch SequenceCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 3.8Stage 4 / Satellite Separation in 1400 km OrbitCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 3.9Satellite Ground Track for 65 deg InclinationCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 3.10Satellite Ground Track from Polar Perspective for 55 deg InclinationCredit: Denel / HouwteqFigure 3.11Ground Station Coverage for Delta-V Burn to Circularise Orbit at 1400 kmCredit: Denel / HouwteqRSA-1 , -2, -3, -4Model of RSA-4Model of RSA-4 space launcher, the planned follow-on to the RSA-3. The RSA-4 would have been 23.5 m long and could lift 550 kg into a 1,400-km orbit. This model differs in some details from drawings in the RSA-4 sales brochure.South African all-solid orbital launch vehicle. The RSA-4 ICBM / satellite launcher was a planned follow-on to the RSA-3. A large new first stage optimised the vehicle and more than doubled the payload in comparison to the RSA-3. It is not known if the project reached the point of testing of the large motor, which was equivalent to the US Peacekeeper first stage.The second and third stages were essentially those of the RSA-3. The fourth stage was clearly adapted from an ICBM MIRV post-boost bus platform. As an ICBM or orbital nuclear system the RSA-4 would have been capable of delivering a single 700 kg warhead anywhere on earth.Work on the RSA-4 was cancelled in 1994. An attempt was made by Houwteq to market the RSA-4 as a launcher for MEO earth satellite constellations. It was not to be...but the sales brochure from that effort survives and is reproduced below.Introduction to RSA-4 Launch VehicleHouwteqFOREWARDThe South African Space Industry is spearheaded by Houwteq. Houwteq is the prime contractor in the space industry for space systems and services and is supported by twenty local subcontractors. Most of the subcontractors had established proven capabilities in the high technology field before joining the space industry. Houwteq is the systems house responsible for the space system design, assembly, integration, launch preparation and execution and project management of space activities. The company is located near Grabouw in the Cape Province. Houwteq's subcontractors are responsible for the design, development,, qualification, production, as well as technical and logistic support, at configuration item level.Houwteq is offering a comprehensive launch service with its RSA-4 Launch Vehicle from the Overberg Test Range situated in South Africa.INTRODUCTIONChapter 11.1 Purpose of DocumentThis document is intended as an introduction to the RSA-4 launch vehicle and the launch service offered to prospective clients for placing small to medium sized payloads into low earth orbit (LEO).The document covers the following aspects;the geometry and performance of the RSA-4 launch vehicle1.2 The RSA-4 Launch VehicleHouwteq offers a comprehensive service for LEO launches including the launch vehicle, the launch facility and associated services.The RSA-4 launch vehicle comprises three solid propellant boost stages and a hydrazine powered fourth stage for accurate orbit injection and positioning, It can lift a satellite with a mass of 550 kg into a circular orbit at a height of 1400 km and a inclination of 55 degrees.Provision is made for a payload volume of 10.4 m3 with a maximum diameter of 2.2 m.II is possible to launch two satellites into different orbits which are in the same orbital plane. The launch vehicle is described in more detail in Chapter 2.Launches are conducted from the newly established facility at the Overberg Test Range at the southernmost tip of Africa on the south-eastern coast of the western Cape at Lat 34 deg 35 min S and Long 20 deg 19 min E. The facility (OTR), which extends over a total area of 43,000 hectares, is situated close to the villages of Waenhuiskrans and Bredasdorp. Cape Town, one of the major cities in South Africa, is located approximately 200 km from OTR and has a commercial airport capable of handling large airliners. A good quality highway exists between Cape Town and OTR.A modern air base adjacent to OTR can accommodate all types of aircraft, The use of this facility could be negotiated for specific transport arrangement if required.DESCRIPTION OF LAUNCH VEHICLEChapter 22.1 System DescriptionFigure 2.1 shows the overall dimensions and layout of the RSA-4 launch vehicle. It comprises four stages. The first three have solid propellant motors to lift the satellite into orbit. Orbit raising is then performed by means of the fourth hydrazine-propelled stage, which is also used to make fine orbital adjustments to place the satellite accurately into the required orbit. The masses for the stages are respectively 66 tonne for the first stage, 10 tonne for the second, 3 tonne for the third, and approximately 300 kg for the final stage, which gives an all-up mass of 80 tonne for the complete system. The overall length is 23.5 m with a diameter of 2.4 m.Provision is made for a payload with a maximum diameter of 2.2 m and a maximum height of 3.74 m. The length of the payload volume at maximum diameter is 1.5 m (Figure 5.4). Two satellites, which fit into the available volume, can be placed into the same orbital plane.2.2 First StageThe first stage (Figure 2.2) is propelled by means of a solid propellant motor weighing 62.6 tonne, of which 58 tonne is propellant. It delivers an impulse of 139,000 kNs at sea level and burns for 73 s with an average thrust of just under 200 tonne. The expansion ratio of the carbon-phenolic expansion cone is 14. A graphite throat insert is used. The composite casing is made of Kevlar and covered with cork for thermal insulation. The base and the interstage structures are made of aluminium 2219. Control is done by means of LITVC, as well as air vanes manufactured from honeycomb material. Also situated at the base is a PCM unit for telemetry acquisition and an S-band telemetry transmitter. Power is supplied by 28 volt silver-zinc triggered batteries. In the interstage section on top of the motor is the pyrotechnic activation unit for motor ignition, separation from the launch platform, and detonation of the cutting cords for motor destruction.2.3 Second StageStage 2 (Figure 2.3) is very similar to stage 1 with following differences:The motor with 9 tonne solid propellant burns for 52 s and delivers an impulse of 24,500 kNs with an average thrust of 40 tonne. Control is done by injecting strontium perchlorate into the motor flame. It is stored in a torus around the nozzle throat and pressurized by means of helium.The second stage also houses the receivers for destruct in case of malfunction. The destruct channels are redundant and destruct is initiated on receipt of a destruct signal or in case of loss of the carrier wave.An aluminium aerodynamic sleeve is utilized to provide a constant external diameter between the lower interstage of stage 1 and the avionic section of stage 3. The sleeve is jettisoned after burn-out of stage 1.2.4 Third StageStage 3 (Figure 2.4) houses the autopilot for digital implementation of the guidance and control algorithms, onboard safety implementation, initiation of discrete events like stage separation, and power switching. Communication is via a 1553 bus. Navigation is performed by a strapdown platform and GPS.Power is supplied from 28V triggered batteries. Also housed in the third stage is the equipment for tracking and monitoring the launch vehicle, i.e. telemetry, television for monitoring stage separation, a Doppler beacon for measuring velocity and a radar transponder for measuring velocity and range. The structure is made of aluminium. The third stage motor weighs 2 tonne, with 1,9 tonne solid propellant in a titanium casing and a nozzle with an expansion ratio of 60. It burns for 92s and delivers a specific impulse of 292 s.2.5 Fourth StageThe purpose of the fourth stage (Figure 2.5) is to raise the orbit and to make small orbital adjustments. For this purpose it is equipped with a reactive control system comprising four 50 liter hydrazine tanks, filled to the right level for the particular mission and pressurized by helium, and ten thrusters. Four 200 N thrusters are used for roll control, four 25 N thrusters for pitch and yaw control and two 200 N thrusters for orbit raising. Figure 2.5 shows the layout of the reactive control system.Navigation is done by means of GPS with a CA code receiver. Rate gyros and accelerometers measure the orientation and velocity increments needed by the control computer for control loop implementation.The fourth stage provides status information to the satellite during launch on the progression of events, and relays satellite telemetry during launch preparation and launch in the S-band via a stripline antenna to the ground. Power is supplied by 28 V lithium batteries. The structure is made of carbon composite and honeycomb material. The front adapter to the satellite makes provision for cryogenic cooling supply, two electrical connectors for telemetry relay and power supply, as well as for mechanical attachment and pyrotechnic separation of the satellite.The fairing which protects the satellite is made of a honeycomb composite material and is jettisoned sideways in two halves after stage 2 burn-out.PERFORMANCE CAPABILITYChapter 33.1 IntroductionThe RSA-4 launch vehicle is used to lift small to medium sized satellites into elliptical or circular low earth orbits at inclinations between 37 deg and 90 deg and in sun synchronous. Two satellites can be launched simultaneously, if necessary into different orbits, which must however be in the same orbital plane. Since many different missions are possible, the performance figures and flight profiles are presented for selected cases.3.2 Lifting CapabilityThe payload mass which can be placed into a circular orbit for different orbital orbits is given in Figure 3.1 for 55 deg and 90 deg inclinations.Typical values are550 kg into 1400 km orbit at 55 deg inclination570 kg into 800 km polar orbit.The above values include the mass of the dual launch system (if used) and any special adapters needed for interfacing with the launch vehicle. Though dependent on the specific application, typical masses for the dual launch system and adapter would be around 12 kg each.3.3 Injection AccuracyThe 2-sigma values for the accuracy of injection into a circular orbit are as follows:Altitude at injection point : 1 kmEccentricity : 0.002Inclination : 0.5 degAscending node : 0.5 deg3.4 Launch Vehicle TrajectoryAs an example of typical values for the main trajectory parameters, their time variation is presented in Figures 3.2 to 3.6 for a 550 kg spacecraft launched at a 55 deg inclination.3.5 Spacecraft DeploymentIn the standard mode the spacecraft will be spun up to >1 rev/s and will be separated with a relative velocity > 0.5 m/s with an angle between the spacecraft longitudinal axis and the velocity vector <5 deg. Requests for other deployment conditions will be handled on an individual basis.3.6 Launch SequenceThe launch sequence is schematically illustrated in Figure 3.7. The trajectory depends on the particular mission.As an example the flight parameters and sequence of events are presented for the injection of two satellites into a 1400 km circular orbit.During the first few seconds after ignition the launcher is rotated from the vertical and flies a gravity turn during the first powered stage. At a height of 40 km, 55 km downrange, the first stage separates, the sleeve is jettisoned, and the second stage motor is ignited. It burns out at a height of 97 km, 230 km downrange, and is jettisoned 25 s later.Several events are scheduled during the following cruise phase before the third stage motor is ignited. The stage is despun, the satellite protective fairing is jettisoned and then the stage is aligned in the correct orientation for motor firing. Now the stage is spun up and the avionic section separated. At a height of 240 km, 1050 km downrange, the motor is ignited and burns for 92 s. Nutation control is performed during the propelled phase by firing the fourth stage 25 N thrusters intermittently to limit the amplitude of any coning motion which may develop due to thrust or mass asymmetries. The third stage injects the satellite into an elliptical LEO with a perigee of 250 km and burns out 1600 km downrange from the launch site. A period of three minutes is allowed to ensure that the residual thrust drops off to zero before the motor is separated. The satellite plus third stage is now in an elliptical transition orbit with the nominal apogee at the circular orbit height.Immediately after separation a velocity correction is done if the state vector at burnout deviates from the nominal. The velocity increment required at apogee to circularize the orbit and the time at which it needs to be given is calculated and after half a revolution the thrusters are fired to make the orbit circular. After one revelation the fourth stage, still carrying the two satellites, passes within view of the Overberg ground station. The fourth stage is despun, if required, the two satellites separated pyrotechnically and deployed by means of springs. Half a revolution later when the separation between the fourth stage and the satellites is large enough, the thrusters are fired for the last time to deorbit the stage. If the satellites are given a velocity increment of 0.5 m/s relative to one another and relative to the fourth stage, the two satellites are separated from one another by 5 km along the trajectory and just over 2 km in height after half a revolution and the fourth stage is separated from the satellite nearest to it by the same margin (Figure 3.8). The fourth stage starts off in front of the satellites at separation, but goes into a slightly higher orbit and is in fact overtaken by the satellites.The remaining problem is to synchronize the phase angle of the satellite in its orbital plane with that of its allocated slot in the constellation. In the launch sequence outlined here, it is assumed that this will he done by the satellite. If the maneuver is done over a few days, it requires little hydrazine. Should it be a requirement, this function could be performed using the fourth stage. In this case the feasibility will be investigated with the client, the limiting factor being the power required by the spacecraft up to deployment.It will be possible to inject the two spacecraft into different elliptical or circular orbits provided that they are in the same orbital plane and that the energy requirements are within bounds. Provision is made to give a payload of 550 kg a velocity increment of 300 m/s with the fourth stage.3.7 Launch ExecutionIf the spacecraft is to be launched into an orbit with a specified nodal angle and if the direction of motion in the orbit is prescribed, then energy considerations and the range safety volume restrict the opportunity for launching to a window of fifteen minutes around a particular time once a day.It will be possible to monitor the launch from the Overberg ground station up to burnout of the third stage motor. This is the most intensive part of the launch. Separation of the third stage motor and the velocity correction directly afterwards take place after it has disappeared over the horizon During development flight test these events will be monitored from a downrange telemetry station onboard a ship.Orbit determination necessary for the calculation of the velocity increments needed for orbit raising will be done by the fourth stage using GPS, with the ground station only used for verification. Circularization of the orbit will be performed after half a revolution. It will preferable to involve a ground station in the Northern Hemisphere to monitor this event. The ground stations at Hawaii, Fairbanks and Guam have line-of-sight communication at this point (Figure 3.11).Figures 3.9 and 3.10 show the ground track of the satellite for a 55 deg inclination. At an orbital height of 1400 km it will pass within view of the Overberg ground station for the first six revolution.LEO Payload: 770 kg (1,690 lb) to a 400 km orbit at 55.00 degrees. Payload: 550 kg (1,210 lb) to a 1400 km 55 deg orbit.Stage Data - RSA-4Stage 1. 1 x RSA-4-1. Gross Mass: 66,000 kg (145,000 lb). Empty Mass: 8,000 kg (17,600 lb). Thrust (vac): 1,520.000 kN (341,700 lbf). Isp: 270 sec.Burn time: 73 sec. Isp(sl): 244 sec.Diameter: 2.40 m (7.80 ft). Span: 5.90 m (19.30 ft). Length: 10.30 m (33.70 ft).Propellants: Solid. No Engines: 1.Engine: RSA-4-1. Status: Development 1988. Comments: Vacuum specific impulse / thrust estimated. Sea leval 139,000 kNs delivered over 73 seconds. Includes 3400 kg mass of fins, interstage and upper-stage constant-diameter fairing ('sleeve') which is jettisoned after first stage burnout.Stage 2. 1 x RSA-4-2. Gross Mass: 11,000 kg (24,000 lb). Empty Mass: 2,000 kg (4,400 lb). Thrust (vac): 470.000 kN (105,660 lbf). Isp: 277 sec.Burn time: 52 sec. Diameter: 1.30 m (4.20 ft). Span: 1.30 m (4.20 ft). Length: 6.40 m (20.90 ft). Propellants: Solid. No Engines: 1. Engine: RSA-4-2. Status: Development 1988. Comments: Essentially identical to RSA-3 second stage. Includes 1000 kg upper stage avionic section / spin table, which is jettisoned prior to stage three ignition.Stage 3. 1 x RSA-3-3. Gross Mass: 2,048 kg (4,515 lb). Empty Mass: 170 kg (370 lb). Thrust (vac): 58.800 kN (13,219 lbf).Isp: 298 sec. Burn time: 94 sec.Diameter: 1.30 m (4.20 ft). Span: 1.30 m (4.20 ft). Length: 2.60 m (8.50 ft). Propellants: Solid. No Engines: 1. Engine: RSA-3-3. Status: Out of Production. Comments: Data accurate. Source: Missile exhibit and placards, AF Museum, South Africa. ARC/Rafael AUS 51 is identical.Status: Development ended 1994.Gross mass: 80,000 kg (176,000 lb).Payload: 770 kg (1,690 lb).Height: 23.50 m (77.00 ft).Diameter: 2.40 m (7.80 ft).Thrust: 2,000.00 kN (449,600 lbf).Apogee: 400 km (240 mi).