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[The following answer is mostly relevant to becoming a professor in literature, though some of the information is also applicable to the sciences. You can read the comments at the end for differing opinions.]Be warned: this is a long, detailed answer. Take a stiff drink before reading….Step #1 High School Degree: You get good grades in high school.You apply to a good school for the BA program.Step #2 Bachelor’s Degree: You get good grades in the BA program during those four years and start networking to find a mentor, and try to learn all you can. If you are in the humanities, you will also probably have to demonstrate proficiency in at least one foreign language—though that might not be the case in other fields. You do that by successfully passing the equivalent of 12 credit-hours of coursework, at least 6 of which must be sophomore-level, but you can also gain equivalency by taking tests to demonstrate to your knowledge.Step #3 Admittance into Graduate School: During the senior year of the BA, you start looking for a two-year master’s program at another (preferably slightly more prestigious) school, and you apply to several with letters of recommendation from your teachers.If you don’t get it, you either give up and take a new profession, or you sit out for a year and try again.If you do get in, you only pursue it if the school offers you financial support in the form of a graduate teaching fellowship (GTF), teaching assistantship (TA), or otherwise pays for your tuition with waivers. This means, you will not pay tuition, and in exchange you will work helping established professors teach large lecture classes, assist them in research projects, or else teach low-level courses for Gen Ed students—sometimes after some very brief pedagogical training, but often with little to no preparation at all.If the school lets you into a master’s program, but doesn’t provide any financial support except student loans, you politely decline. It’s way, way too risky to accumulate college debt when academic jobs are so rare and competitive. You either wait a year and start the process over, or you pick another job.Step #4 Finish Your Master’s: In the master’s program, you will take two years of more advanced graduate classes. In the humanities, if you are at one of the better schools, you will probably have to demonstrate proficiency in a second foreign language—not the same one you used for the bachelor’s degree. Traditionally, if you used a Romance language for your bachelor’s, you will need a Germanic language at the master’s level, and vice-versa, though that is becoming more flexible. You show proficiency the same way as mentioned in the bachelor’s section—by passing four classes in that language or taking a proficiency test.Step #5-A: Thesis Research: The last year of the master’s program, you will typically write a master’s thesis. In the humanities, that might be a long study on a topic, perhaps 80–100 pages long, in which you provide some original insight or new information on the field that has never been argued before. The sciences, it will be some sort of lab research project with a shorter write-up afterward. You will have at least one advisor to guide your research, and usually two faculty readers, and you will sit with them at the end of the project for a thesis defense, in which there will be an oral examination and you will argue for the plausibility of your project’s results.Step #5-B: Ph.D. programsSome schools will combine the master’s program with the Ph.D. (doctoral program), and during the second year of graduate studies, you will undergo a qualifying examination. Students who score the highest may move on to the Ph.D., while the others take the master’s degree and then must apply to separate Ph.D. programs. In the sciences, some rare students go directly from the bachelor’s degree to the Ph.D., with no master’s degree in the middle. However, in the humanities, it is more common to earn a master’s at one school, then apply to a Ph.D. program separately.It’s considered bad form to gain all three degrees at the same institution. Normally, you seek to move up to more prestigious schools with each degree, if you can. That may involve moving across the country at least once, and possibly twice.Most master’s degrees are 30–36 credit-hour programs, and they typically take two years because you are enrolled in fewer hours and teaching at the same time, compared to the bachelor’s degree. Most Ph.D. programs take 3–6 years to complete, part of that variation depending on how much teaching or lab work you are doing while you are working on the degree.Note that in the humanities, if you are at one of the better schools, or if you are in a field like medieval studies, classical studies, or history, you will again need to show proficiency in a third foreign language as part of your coursework. Typically, they want you to choose a language relevant to your research in some way or a language in which significant scholarship is done in your field. (If you don’t like foreign languages, becoming a professor may be a very bad idea—however, the sciences usually don’t require so much background in other languages.)Step #6 Dissertation Research: The last year or two of the Ph.D. is spent doing your doctoral dissertation, a long, book-length study of a subject you will write in a process similar to the master’s thesis. Then you get the title of doctor—but you are still not a professor! The title doctor refers to the degree of Ph.D., while the title professor refers to an academic rank in the hierarchy of a university. People can be a doctor without being a professor or — more rarely — they can be a professor without being a doctor.At this point, you usually try to get the doctoral dissertation published through some scholarly publisher, and you go on the job market. To become a professor in the USA, you need to get a “tenure-track” job, as opposed to a lower-ranking, less-well paying job like a “lecturer” or “instructor,” or part-time work as “adjunct.”The job market is terrible and competitive. The majority of Ph.D. graduates will not get tenure jobs their first year. Many, many of them may not even get lecturer or instructor jobs, and some must settle for doing a “post doc” (a one-year post-doctorate appointment during laboratory scutwork). Some may wind up doing 3–6 years of such post-docs, and then either drift out of academia or get stuck doing adjunct work. (Edit: in this thread, some commentators in the sciences suggest post-docs have more prestige in their field than they do in the humanities, so this may vary.)Adjuncts are the worst position in terms of pay, recognition, and benefits. These are part-time teaching positions given as scraps or leftovers to non-tenured, non-full-time faculty. They pay so poorly, adjuncts may work at 2 (or 3, or 4!) different schools doing one class there, then commuting somewhere else to a different job there, all for terrible pay. They can try to compete for full-time jobs by publishing research, but that very rarely works. My advice is, if you try to be a professor, and you find yourself doing adjunct work, you might want to set aside an academic career and do something else with your talents and skills. The knowledge you gain in a Ph.D. will make you enticing to a variety of occupations, not just academia, which at least in the humanities suffers from a glut of labor right now.Step #7: Seeking TenureIf you’ve made it this far, a small percentage (less than a third in my field of literature) of those Ph.D. doctors will be hired on tenure-track jobs, which is the first step to becoming a full professor. Typically, when you are hired on tenure track, it is a 5–7 year contract. Once you are hired, you gain the rank of “Assistant Professor.”During that time, you will teach classes at the hiring university, and you’ll have a 3-year or 5-year review when you sit down with your department head or the provost and discuss your progress and how you are doing. At a research institute, their main concerns will be how your research is going. During that 5–7 year period, they’d like to see you publish 3–5 scholarly articles or publish a book-length monograph, be active in national scholarly organizations, and present 3–5 papers at academic conferences.In the sciences, where there is a lot of group collaboration, the administrators de-emphasize book-length monographs, but want to see you as “P.I.” or “Primary Investigator” on 3–5 experiments that get published as papers in scholarly journals and maybe as a secondary investigator on another 7–12. They’ll also want to see you apply for and land some large financial grants to run and operate laboratories (which are spendy!).At smaller teaching schools rather than R1 research universities, what will get you tenure is more your teaching, your classroom performance, and doing committee work for the university. They will tend to de-emphasize research and want to see good teaching evaluations and a list of successful students you mentored who went on to successful careers with your guidance.Your sixth or seventh year of the position, you apply for promotion and tenure. Sometimes, that is bundled into one application, but other schools treat them as two separate applications. If you get tenure/promotion, you gain the rank of “associate professor” and a pay-raise. (Typically, academics only get promotion and accompanying pay-raises maybe three-times over the course of their career, which is a contrast with most other professions.)If you are tenured, this means you and the school have a commitment to each other. People mistakenly think this means you cannot be fired any more, but that’s not quite the case. Tenure typically means you cannot be fired for researching or teaching academically controversial material unless a vote from the faculty senate agrees to terminate you, which means it is a lot of hassle and trouble to get rid of you in that regard if you have the full support of your research colleagues or teaching colleagues.However, just like any worker outside academia, you can still be fired or disciplined by your Department Chair or higher-ups for (a) unprofessional conduct, (b) illegal activity, (c) financial distress for the college, or (d) neglecting your duties of teaching and research. Tenure is not a job for life!Step #8: Working up to Associate ProfessorAfter becoming an associate professor, you are now eligible to apply for a sabbatical once every seven years. A sabbatical means that, for either one full year or one full semester, you are freed from teaching duties and can instead focus full time on your research. Typically, at the end of the sabbatical, you are expected to reveal a new book you have written or some other substantive academic project. (If you don’t produce that, you might never have another sabbatical approved again!)Step #9: Becoming a Full ProfessorAs an associate professor, you will not be eligible for status as a “full professor” for another 7–10 years, depending on school policies. You continue teaching, publishing, and doing committee work, and after that you can apply to become a full professor, so it takes maybe 14 -17 years to earn that rank. To be granted it, you often have to demonstrate some sort of leadership in the college—such as serving as a Department Chair, heading a difficult committee, or participating in the Faculty Senate.The only rank higher than “Full professor” is “Professor Emeritus.” This honor is typically only given to professors the year before they retire. It comes with no additional duties or responsibilities because it is primarily honorific. Achieving that rank may be accompanied by a festschrift, i.e., a collection of research essays written by your former graduate students who publish it with a dedication to you and a letter of thanks for all you have contributed to the field.Conclusion:I love being a professor, but I encourage interested students to think long and hard about how much time, work, and money is involved. The odds are stacked against you, especially in my field of literature. In the late 1980s, for a single job opening as a literature professor, there might be 200–400 applicants apply for it. Even at small liberal arts colleges like the one where I teach, we might get 40–60 applicants for a single job. There’s no guarantee after doing all the work that you’ll ever be hired.So, if you love learning and love your topic, keep this challenge in mind. Graduate school isn’t for people who just love a topic. It’s for people who are obsessed with a topic and willing to work for years to achieve their goals. If that’s not you, don’t wander into it by default. Keep your eyes open about the odds, or at least keep in mind that you can do a lot of things with a Ph.D. besides becoming a professor.

A friend of mine put together an awesome handwritten sign outlining why she's voting for President Obama this year, I think it says almost everything you need to know:Many Americans take it for granted that President Obama has been one of the most effective Presidents since FDR. It's important to remember just how bad things were when he took office and how much he's accomplished since he's been in office.We were hemorrhaging jobs when this President took office and now we've gone from 10% unemployment down to around 8.5%. If the recovery continues on this path, we'll be back to around 5% unemployment by 2016.It's not just about jobs though, President Obama has also worked to restore America's image around the world. When President Bush was in office we were invading countries for no reason, now we've left Iraq and are in the process of leaving Afghanistan.In case you needed a few other examples of what President Obama has accomplished I put together a list below:Extended child tax credits and marriage-penalty fixesCreated an Advanced Manufacturing Fund to invest in peer-reviewed manufacturing processesRequired economic justification for tax changesImplemented "Women Owned Business" contracting programChanged standards for determining broadband accessEstablished a credit card bill of rightsExpanded loan programs for small businessesExtended the Bush tax cuts for lower incomesExtended the 2007 Alternative MinimumTax patchClosed the "doughnut hole" in Medicare prescription drug planExpanded the Senior Corps volunteer programRequired insurance companies to cover pre-existing conditionsGave tax credits to those who need help to pay health premiumsRequired large employers to contribute to a national health planRequired children to have health insurance coverageExpanded eligibility for MedicaidExpanded eligibility for State Children's Health Insurance Fund (SCHIP)Required health plans to disclose how much of the premium goes to patient careEstablished an independent health institute to provide accurate and objective informationIn non-competitive markets, forced insurers to pay out a reasonable share of their premiums for patient careEliminated the higher subsidies to Medicare Advantage plansExpanded funding to train primary care providers and public health practitionersIncreased funding to expand community based prevention programsReinstated executive order to hire an additional 100,000 federal employees with disabilities within five years.Increased the Veterans Administration budget to recruit and retain more mental health professionalsExpanded the Veterans Administration's number of "centers of excellence" in specialty careAppointed a special adviser to the president on violence against womenFully funded the Violence Against Women ActDirected military leaders to end war in IraqBegan removing combat brigades from IraqCreated a military families advisory boardEnded the abuse of supplemental budgets for warMade U.S. military aid to Pakistan conditional on anti-terror effortsOpened "America Houses" in Islamic cities around the globeAllocated Homeland Security funding according to riskCreated a real National Infrastructure Protection PlanIncreased funding for local emergency planningExtended monitoring and verification provisions of the START I TreatyAppointed a White House Coordinator for Nuclear SecurityInitiated a grant and training program for law enforcement to deter cyber crimeImproved relations with Turkey, and its relations with Iraqi KurdsLaunched an international Add Value to Agriculture Initiative (AVTA)Created a rapid response fund for emerging democraciesGranted Americans unrestricted rights to visit family and send money to CubaRestored funding for the Byrne Justice Assistance Grant (Byrne/JAG) programEstablished an Energy Partnership for the AmericasExpanded the Nurse-Family Partnership to all low-income, first-time mothersRequired new hires to sign a form affirming their hiring was not due to political affiliation or contributions.Provided affordable, high-quality child careRecruited math and science degree graduates to the teaching professionReduced subsidies to private student lenders and protect student borrowersEncouraged water-conservation efforts in the WestIncreased funding for national parks and forestsIncreased funding for the Land and Water Conservation FundEncouraged farmers to use more renewable energy and be more energy efficientExpanded Pell grants for low-income studentsPursued a wildfire management planRemoved more brush, small trees and vegetation that fuel wildfiresExpanded access to places to hunt and fishPushed for enactment of Matthew Shepard Act, which expands hate crime law to include sexual orientation and other factorsRepealed "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" policyRestored funding to the EEOC and the U.S. Department of Labor's Office of Federal Contract Compliance ProgramsReformed mandatory minimum sentencesCreated a White House Office on Urban PolicyFully funded the Community Development Block Grant (CDBG)Established program to convert manufacturing centers into clean technology leadersEstablished 'Promise Neighborhoods' for areas of concentrated povertyWorked toward deploying a global climate change research and monitoring systemFunded a major expansion of AmeriCorpsCreated a Social Investment Fund NetworkBolstered the military's ability to speak differentlanguagesAppointed the nation's first Chief Technology OfficerProvided grants to early-career researchersWorked to overturn Ledbetter vs. GoodyearCreated a national declassification centerAppointed an American Indian policy adviserCreated new financial regulationsIncreased funding for land-grant collegesBanned lobbyist gifts to executive employeesSigned a "universal" health care billCreated new criminal penalties for mortgage fraudRequired 10 percent renewable energy by 2012Released oil from Strategic Petroleum ReserveRaised fuel economy standardsInvested in all types of alternative energyEnacted tax credit for consumers for plug-in hybrid carsAsked people and businesses to conserve electricityRequired more energy-efficient appliancesCreated a 'Green Vet Initiative' to promote environmental jobs for veteransCreated job training programs for clean technologiesRequired states to provide incentives for utilities to reduce energy consumptionSupported high-speed railSupported airline service in small townsInvested in public transportationEqualized tax breaks for driving and public transitConsidered "smart growth" in transportation fundingShared environmental technology with other countriesDoubled federal spending for research on clean fuelsProvided grants to encourage energy-efficient building codesIncreased funding for the Environmental Protection AgencyRaised the small business investment expensing limit to $250,000 through the end of 2009Extended unemployment insurance benefits andtemporarily suspend taxes on these benefitsSupported network neutrality on the InternetReversed restrictions on stem cell researchKilled Osama bin LadenDoubled funding for the Manufacturing Extension Partnership, a program that encourages manufacturing efficiencyIncluded environmental and labor standards in trade agreementsCreated an international tax haven watch listMade permanent the Research & Development tax creditRequired automatic enrollment in 401(k) plansRequired automatic enrollment in IRA plansCreated a consumer-friendly credit card rating systemCreated a $60 billion bank to fund roads and bridgesRequired full disclosure of company pension investments to employeesProvided easy-to-understand comparisons of the Medicare prescription drug plansInvested in electronic health information systemsPhased in requirements for health information technologyRequired that health plans utilize disease management programsRequired providers to report measures of health care costs and qualityHeld hospitals and health plans accountable for disparities in careImplemented and funded proven health intervention programsPrevented drug companies from blocking generic drugsAllowed Medicare to negotiate for cheaper drug pricesWorked with schools to create more healthful environments for childrenImproved recruitment of public health workersMandated insurance coverage of autism treatmentFully funded the Combating Autism Act and Federal Autism Research InitiativesDoubled federal funding for cancer researchIncreased participation in cancer-related clinical trialsFully funded the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)Set a national goal to provide re-screening for all 2-year-olds for developmental disordersCommissioned a study on students with disabilities and their transition to jobs or higher educationSet goals and timetables for implementing Section 503 of the Rehabilitation ActCreated a best practices list for private businesses in accommodating workers with disabilitiesLaunched educational initiative for employers on tax benefits of hiring employees with disabilitiesReduced the threshhold for the Family and Medical Leave Act from companies with 50 employees to companies with 25 employeesProvided a $1.5 billion fund to help states launch programs for paid family and medical leaveRequired employers to provide seven paid sick days per yearStreamlined the Social Security disability approval processExpanded Veterans Centers in rural areasEstablished standards of care for traumatic brain injury treatmentMade the Veterans Administration a national leader in health reformReduced the Veterans Benefits Administration claims backlogInstituted electronic record-keeping for the Veterans Benefits AdministrationExpanded housing vouchers program for homeless veteransLaunched a supportive services-housing program for veterans to prevent homelessnessExpanded the Family Medical Leave Act to include leave for domestic violence or sexual assaultFully funded debt cancellation for heavily indebted poor countriesCreated a fund for international small and medium enterprises (SME)Launched robust diplomatic effort with Iraq and its neighborsProvided $30 billion over 10 years to IsraelLimited Guard and Reserve deployments to one year for every six yearsEnded the "Stop-Loss" program of forcing troops to stay in service beyond their expected commitmentsFully and properly equipped troopsCreated a Civilian Assistance Corps that would organize private sector professionals to help in times of needIncluded humanitarian international missions in long-term budgetingReviewed weapons programsModernized ships and invested more in small vesselsSet standards for when the government should hire defense contractorsRestored the government's ability to manage contracts by rebuilding our contract officer corpsCreated a system of incentives and penalties for defense contractsEstablish a Global Education FundStrengthened the Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) aimed at stopping spread of weapons of mass destructionOrganized successful Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) Review Conference in 2010Expanded federal bioforensics program for tracking biological weaponsDeveloped a comprehensive cyber security and response strategyMandated standards for securing personal dataRequired companies to disclose personal information data breachesWorked to persuade the European Union to end credit guarantees to IranSeek to negotiate a political agreement on CyprusRestructured and streamlined USAIDIncreased the size of the foreign serviceUrged China to stop manipulation of its currency valuePressed China to end its support for regimes in Sudan, Burma, Iran and ZimbabweCreated a public "Contracts and Influence" databaseRequired Cabinet officials to host Internet town hall meetingsConducted regulatory agency business in publicPromoted more pre-school educationExpanded Early Head Start and Head StartReformed No Child Left BehindDoubled funding for Federal Charter School Program and require more accountabilityAddressed the dropout crisis by giving schools incentives for more dropout preventionCreated Teacher Residency Programs that will send teachers to high-need schoolsExpanded teacher mentoring programs and provide incentives for more planning timePromoted innovative ways to reward good teachersSimplified the application process for financial aidIncreased the number of high school students taking college-level coursesCreated incentives for tree planting and promote carbon sequestrationImproved water qualityRegulated pollution from major livestock operationsStrengthened federal environmental justice programsIncreased funding for organic and sustainable agriculturePartnered with landowners to conserve private landsCreated a community college partnership programIncreased funding for progams that conserve lands and habitat for select species such as the Osceola turkeySupported wetlands protectionPromoted economic development in MexicoSupported repeal of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)Vigorously pursued hate crimes and civil rights abusesSigned the Deceptive Practices and Voter Intimidation Prevention Act into lawSupported regional innovation clustersHelped low-income areas get phone and Internet serviceCreated a Homeowner Obligation Made Explicit (HOME) score for mortgage comparisonsIncreased the supply of affordable housing throughout metropolitan regionsInvested in transitional jobs and career pathway programsFully funded the COPS programImproved emergency response plansCapped interest rates on payday loans and improve disclosureExpanded public/private partnerships between schools and arts organizationsImproved climate change data recordsSupported improved weather prediction programOffered prizes for advances in consumer technologyEncouraged contests and programs to interest students in scienceIncreased research opportunities for college studentsStrengthened the levees in New OrleansDirected revenues from offshore oil and gas drilling to increased coastal hurricane protectionShook loose federal money for rebuilding the Gulf Coast

One of the most prolific critics of Christianity during the second century was Celsus whose writings we know from Origin’s Contra Celsus. In her book “Early Christian Women and Pagan Opinion: The Power of the Hysterical Woman” Margaret Y. MacDonald uses “the findings of cultural anthropology, and models of analysis taken from modern sociology, to study extant texts of pagan, and Christian, public opinion in an attempt to provide insight into the hidden lives of women."[1][2]MacDonald concludes early Christian women must have been acting as "proselytizers in their roles as wife, mother and household slaves" or they would not have produced the kinds of responses they got from their opponents.She also says the church’s use of marriage as a metaphor is symbolic language that is far more “affirmative of women than modern theories of patriarchy would allow.”This is a great book and her evidence is excellent.Catherine Kroger writes, “One of the best-kept secrets in Christianity is the enormous role that women played in the early church.”She discusses Celsus and his contemporary the Bishop Cyprian of Carthage, who “acknowledged in his Testimonia that ‘Christian maidens were very numerous’ and that it was difficult to find Christian husbands for all of them! :-) These comments give us a picture of a church disproportionately populated by women... “Callistus, bishop of Rome c. 220, attempted to resolve the marriage problem by giving women of the senatorial class an ecclesiastical sanction to marry slaves or freedmen—even though Roman law prohibited this.”[3]Another intriguing study is “Women Officeholders in Early Christianity: Epigraphical and Literary Studies” by Dr. Ute E. Eisen. It couples new evidence from every corner of Christianity, east and west, using what she describes as an “archaeological method,” with existing narrative texts both biblical and hagiographical, to conclude women were leaders who organized and guided early Christian communities as apostles, prophets, teachers, presbyters, widows, deacons, stewards and even bishops.She says, “Women erected gravestones for themselves and others, and on them they recorded themselves as officeholders. Stones were dedicated in turn to the memory of other women, and there, they too speak to us as officeholders. It is clear that women were active in the expansion and shaping of the church in the first centuries.”For example, there is a dedication on the tomb of Theodora the teacher describing her as “divine gift, teacher of chastity, possessing the blessing of the Lord, mother of the pious virgins.” And one on the tomb of Maria the Deacon placed by a grateful congregation saying, “she raised children, sheltered guests, washed the feet of the saints, and shared her bread with the needy.”Some will find the book too assertively feminist to wade through, and her evidence is good, but it is subject to some interpretation.However, there were, without doubt, consecrated women in specialized orders in the early days of Christianity. These orders included ecclesial widows, virgins, presbyteresses and deaconesses. Sometimes such women were formally ordained and sat with the rest of the clergy in front of the congregation.Ecclesial widowsThe church supported widows, as everyone knows, but many don’t know the church required them to work thereafter and not sit around idly doing nothing. These widows assumed pastoral responsibilities such as instructing female catechumens and the ignorant, gathering those who desired to live a pure life for prayer and encouragement, rebuking the wayward, and counseling them.In the Testament of Our Lord Jesus Christ, a 5th century reworking of earlier material from Hippolytus’s Apostolic Tradition, the selection process and ordination service of widows parallels those of deacons, bishops and presbyters. The document applies the title “presbyteresses” to these women, and six times refers to them as “the widows who sit in front.” During communion, they stood by the altar, close to the bishops, presbyters and deacons, and within the veil that screened off the laity.PresbytersThe feminine form of “presbyter” or elder occurs frequently in scripture, though it is often translated simply as “old woman.” At times the term must certainly refer to women who were part of the clergy. The Cappadocian father, Basil, uses presbytera in the sense of a woman who is head of a religious community. Also applied to women is the term presbutis, “older woman” or “eldress.” (The old woman who instructed Hermas is called presbytis).It occurs in Titus 2:3, (Older women likewise are to be reverent in behavior, not slanderers or slaves to much wine. They are to teach what is good) —directly after giving the requirements for a male elder and not “old man.” (It also appears in Canon 11 of Laodicea, which forbade the appointment of presbytides (eldresses) or of female presidents (prokathemenai).)DeaconessesThe order of deaconesses appears clearly delineated in the first half of the 3rd century in the Didascalia, which declared that “the deaconesses should be honored as figures of the Holy Spirit.” Ancient documents show that deaconesses were ordained. The Council of Chalcedon set down requirements for the ordination of deaconesses, and the Apostolic Constitutions includes their ordination prayer—up until the 1200s when ordination for deaconesses is removed as though it were never there. In our modern day, deacon is generally translated ‘servant’ in the English when describing women, which is after all what the term means, but for some inexplainable reason it is not generally translated in the same manner when referring to men.Origen commented on Romans 16:1-2:"This text teaches with the authority of the Apostle that even women are instituted deacons in the Church. This is the function which was exercised in the church of Cenchreae by Phoebe, who was the object of high praise and recommendation by Paul . . .And thus this text teaches at the same time two things: that there are, as we have already said, women deacons in the Church, and that women, who by their good works deserve to be praised by the Apostle, ought to be accepted in the diaconate."Additional external evidence can be found in the writings of Pliny the Younger. Pliny was a civil servant who served as governor of Bithynia, in the north of Asia Minor (modern Turkey), from 111-113 AD. Here he met Christians for the first time and was not sure how they should be dealt with. So he wrote to Emperor Trajan reporting what he had done so far and asking for guidance.“I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deaconesses…For the matter seemed to me to warrant consulting you, especially because of the number involved. For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be endangered. For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms.” [4]House Church LeadersCatherine Kroger lists a number of women from scripture who served as leaders of the house churches that sprang up in the cities of the Roman Empire—the list includes Priscilla, Chloe, Lydia, Apphia, Nympha, the mother of John Mark, and possibly the “elect lady” of John’s second epistle.[5]ApostlesBernadette Brooten has written one of the best discussions of “Junia” the outstanding Apostle that I have ever read, and her conclusions seem irrefutable. Until the Middle Ages, the identity of Junia as a female apostle was unquestioned. John Chrysostom wrote of Junia that: “Indeed, to be an apostle at all is a great thing; but to be even amongst those of note; just consider what a great encomium that is...Oh, how great is the devotion of this woman, that she should even be counted worthy of the appellation of apostle." Later translators attempted to change the gender by changing the name to the masculine Junias. But such a name is unknown in antiquity. There is absolutely no literary, epigraphical or papyrological evidence for it. Junia is found hundreds of times in ancient literature—always in the feminine form.[6]In the 2nd century, Clement of Alexandria wrote that the apostles were accompanied on their missionary journeys by women who were not marriage partners, but colleagues, “that they might be their fellow ministers in dealing with housewives. It was through them that the Lord’s teaching penetrated also the women’s quarters without any scandal being aroused. We also know the directions about women deacons which are given by the noble Paul in his letter to Timothy."Paul also mentions Phoebe in Romans 16, “a deacon of the church at Cenchreae.” He calls her a ‘prostatis’ or overseer. This term in its masculine form, prostates, was used later by the Apostolic Fathers to designate the one presiding over the Eucharist.And Paul uses the same verb, the passive of ginomai (to be or become), as he uses in Colossians 1:23: “I was made a minister.” In the passive, the verb sometimes indicated ordination or appointment to an office. Thus one might legitimately translate Paul’s statement about Phoebe: “For she has been appointed, actually by my own action, an officer presiding over many.” The church in Rome is asked to welcome her and assist her in the church’s business.ProphetessesThe four daughters of Philip appear in Acts 21:9 as prophetesses. Eusebius viewed these daughters as “belonging to the first stage of apostolic succession.” Another prophetess attested to by extra-biblical tradition is Ammia, who prophesied in Philadelphia during New Testament times, and was received with reverence throughout Asia Minor. The first preserved mention of her dates to about 160 A.D.Karen L. King is Professor of New Testament Studies and the History of Ancient Christianity at Harvard University in the Divinity School. She’s written a new book discussed here in this article: [7] She asserts that “After the death of Jesus, women continued to play prominent roles in the early movement. Some scholars have even suggested that the majority of Christians in the first century may have been women.” She uses pseudepigraphal and hagiographic [8]literature without discrimination or discussion of dependability, which I find troubling and undependable in itself, however, but her exegesis of scripture is good.Extra-biblical works, even if their authorship is in doubt, can still have value in demonstrating attitudes and practices common to a time or place. Some of the women in some of the extra-biblical ‘Christian’ writings are described as historic but are most likely at least partially legend.Catherine of Alexandria, for instance, reportedly lived in the 2nd century, though the earliest reference to her is in an 8th-century work. The patron saint of scholars and philosophers, she allegedly debated 50 philosophers and won them all to Christ. As a result, she was condemned to death and ultimately perished on the wheel (hence the name of the “Catherine wheel,” a rotating firework). It may be legend but it demonstrates a willingness in the church to project a woman as both a spiritual and an intellectual leader.Two epistles erroneously attributed to Ignatius preserve an appeal from Mary of Cassobelae, a woman of outstanding spiritual gifts who gives direction in the appointment of clergy. She is applauded by Ignatius.The legend of Saint Thecla in the apocryphal Acts of Paul along with these other women may be fictitious, but, as Kroger says, “the appreciation of feminine spirituality is real.”[9]There are even a few scattered references connecting women to the priesthood. Pseudo-Ignatius’s Letter to the Tarsians commands that those who ‘continue in virginity be honored as priestesses of Christ.’ The eldresses of Titus 2:3 must be “hieroprepeis,” a term that inscriptional evidence suggests should be translated “like a priestess,” or “like those employed in sacred service.”The Cappadocian Gregory of Nazianzus wrote to Gregory of Nyssa about Theosebia, “the pride of the church, the ornament of Christ, the finest of our generation, the free speech of women, Theosebia, the most illustrious among the brethren, outstanding in beauty of soul. Theosebia, truly a priestly personage, the colleague of a priest, equally honored and worthy of the great sacraments."The Ecclesiastical Canons of the Apostles specifically forbade women to stand in prayer (24:1-8). But the walls of the Roman catacombs bear pictures showing women in authoritative stances, with their hands raised. We see them standing in prayer, exercising a ministry of intercession and benediction, and dominating the scene.[10]Margaret Y. MacDonald is a recognized Pauline scholar, and in the second section of her book, she turns her analysis to the Pauline literature since the New Testament texts which most limit female activity are there. It always strikes me how odd it is that the many references to women leaders in the New Testament are mostly overlooked while our entire theology toward women seems to hang solely on three verses contained in 1 Corinthians 14:34–35; 1 Timothy 2:11–15; and 1 Corinthians 11:2–16.While a full exegesis is not called for here, some comment seems required.MacDonald observes that, the Pauline counsel provided to women married to non-believers in I Cor. 7:12–16 and 1 Pet. 3:1–6, and the advice to the unmarried in 1 Corinthians 7:8, are only two examples of Christianity’s radical departure from the Roman ideal where women were concerned.Responses such as Celsus’ were not simply theoretical. Accusations concerning women were among those used to influence public opinion that Christianity was a threat to the pagan social order."The [pagan critic's] focus on women draws attention to the essence of a group where power is exercised in dangerous, illegitimate ways, where the norms of the [Roman] household order are subverted, where traditional male control of house and school is compromised, where the public practices of religion are ignored in favor of a god who is worshiped in private, and where the only wisdom comes from magic lore (Jesus’ miracles)."[11]MacDonald, along with classics scholar Constance McLeese, conclude the controversial texts to Corinth and Timothy were likely prompted by a "concern for the Church’s public image" that resulted from negative public opinion.MacDonald emphasizes “negative public opinion” in the Roman empire produced violence and impacted the church's ability to evangelize.[12] This would have necessitated some response.1 Corinthians 14:34–35;Silence is called for three times (in 1 Corinthians 14: in verses 28, 30 and 34) to address specific situations and it is very likely that the silence called for in verse 34 is also addressing a specific situation—one the Corinthians would have recognized.Paul’s intention could not have been to silence all women at all the times since in 1 Corinthians 11:5 Paul acknowledges that women do prophesy and pray aloud in church. Reading 1 Corinthians 11:10 with the literal, active voice (“has authority”) instead of the presumed, passive voice (“sign of authority”), would mean that Paul is stating a woman has authority (has the right) to pray and prophesy . . . (Hicks 1990)If Paul condones verbal ministry from women in chapter 11, it is very unlikely that he censures it in chapter 14.[13]Edit from Ann Benzow:Dr. Stephen E. Jones treats this passage as a direct quotation from Chloe’s letter (Chapter 6: Women’s Role in the Church). In other words, these verses are not to be taken as Paul’s instruction to the church, but as a teaching that someone else was setting forth. Punctuation had not yet been invented when Paul wrote his letters. If this letter were written today, this section would be in quotes.Paul’s comment (objection and correction) then comes forth in verses 36-38.Paul was quoting the people who were insisting that women keep quiet in the church according to Jewish law—a law that was not present in the law God gave Moses, but was added later by men, just as the dividing wall in the temple was added later by men to keep women away from the highest courts. This dividing wall was not present in either Moses’ tabernacle or David’s plans for Solomon’s temple.In the KJV verse 36 begins with the exclamation, “What?” (1 Corinthians 14:36). Dr. Jones explains, “But Paul uses the Greek disjunctive, formed by the Greek letter eta. It can be translated as ‘or,’ which indicates an alternative view, for the purpose of comparison or distinction. Paul uses the eta twice in the above verse, each time to begin a sentence where he was expressing strong opposition!” The modern English translations such as the NASB leave out the “What?”Paul was asking, “What? Did the word of God first come forth from you [men] only, or did it come to you [men] only?”The answer is NO. The word of God has come to both men and women, and it has come forth from both men and women.[14]1 Timothy 2:11–15“A woman must learn in quietness and full submissiveness.”Women were not typically educated in Rome, and these women in Timothy were certainly unlearned in the faith according to Paul. Apparently, they did not know how to behave in a learning situation. It seems likely that (in verses 11-12) Paul is referring to the way in which everyone must learn: by listening quietly and submitting to a teacher. This is not a special rule exclusively for women, it’s the way everyone must be in a learning situation, but his comments were aimed at these specific women because they were creating tension and/or conflict during worship (1 Tim 2:8,12). Sit down, be quiet, and listen, is an entirely reasonable response in that circumstance.In 1 Timothy false teaching was clearly Paul’s primary concern throughout the entire book. It is in this overall context, that the strange verse that women will be saved through childbirth can best be interpreted. It really only makes sense in light of Artemis worship which was popular in Ephesus at the time (see Acts 19:28-37). Artemis was a fertility goddess and protector of women. Paul is claiming that women do not need to look to Artemis to protect them through childbirth, but to Christ. Being ‘unlearned in the faith’ these women, as new converts, may have expected something like Artemis worship when becoming Christian and this is most likely the false teaching they brought with them.[15]When Paul writes that the “woman was deceived and became a transgressor,” he is not claiming that the fall resulted because a woman assumed authority over a man, but that the fall resulted because of the deception of false teaching: false teaching always leads to transgression.The Greek word used in verse 12, which has frequently been translated “to have authority,” is authentēs. This word is found only this one time in the New Testament and its meaning is unclear. Other Greek words were more typically used to indicate ‘having authority over,’ (such as exousia), so it is likely that authentēs has a different connotation than merely “having authority.”[16](Chapter 12).In other early Greek sources, this word is often associated with violence. According to lexicographers, authentēs is synonymous with “to dominate someone." Paul is most likely prohibiting women from abusing men—(it’s not as though that never happens)—just as he has previously commanded men with regard to their wives to love them as themselves.[17]1 Corinthians 11:2–16“…the head of every man is Christ, and the head of the woman is man, and the head of Christ is God.”As he did in his letter to the church at Ephesus, Paul utilizes the metaphor “headship” in a creative way. In Ephesians 5, he started with the common cultural assumption of “male headship” including “male authority,” then dramatically turned the idea upside down emphasizing in its place mutual submission in terms of a radical and sacrificial love—yes, specifically from husbands. Paul makes a similar play on words here.Perhaps it seems surprising that Paul’s order was not “woman-man, man-Christ, Christ-God” (thus, implying a hierarchy with God the Father at the top). But, the apostle is not making that point here—in fact, nowhere does he make that point. Instead, his order is, “man-Christ, woman-man, Christ-God.” This follows solid New Testament Christology by associating Jesus with the creation of man and woman “in the beginning” (John 1:1-3) and declaring without contradiction that Jesus “came from God” in the incarnation (John 13:3).Taken together, the three comparisons in 1 Corinthians 11:3 are representative of Paul’s recurring theme of mutuality. In other words, both women and men come from God (Gen. 1:26–27) even though the man was created first and the woman was taken from him (Gen. 2).[18]Having laid the theological foundation of gender interdependency, Paul turns to a more pragmatic concern: head coverings. It was customary in Paul’s day for women (1 Cor. 11:2, 16) to cover their heads, and for men to keep their heads uncovered.Perhaps verse 16 is evidence MacDonald and McLeese were correct about pagan animosity and church accommodation: If anyone is inclined to dispute this, we have no other practice, nor do the churches of God. Who else was there at that early time that would have disputed Christian practices? ‘We may break Roman requirements in every other way, but here is one easy thing that can be given to the pagans to accommodate them: cover your head.”Whatever was behind these verses, there can be no argument they all refer to specific problems. It doesn’t seem likely they were ever intended to establish ‘universal law’ concerning women. Indeed, that would create all kinds of other problems and put Paul in the position of violating his own rules: he worked with Priscilla and Aquila and never seems to have told either of them Priscilla wasn’t allowed to correct or instruct Apollos because she was a woman. He admired Junia, complimented and trusted other women leaders to carry his messages and do the work of the Lord, and all around him women were doing that work without complaint from him. I don’t believe Paul was the misogynist some claim. I think he liked and admired women and was happy to work with them—but some of them needed correcting—so he corrected them. He was, after all, an Apostle. It was his job.One scripture that does seem intended as a universal principle is Galatians 3:28: "In Jesus Christ, there's no slave or free, no Jew or Greek, no male" - here, one has put in a correction: it's "no male and female." That is, instead of saying, either /or, as he does in the case of Jews and Greeks, slave and free, with male and female, it's "and." The construction used by Paul in Galatians here is nearly unique not only in the New Testament, but in the whole Bible as well. Scholars have been asking what does it mean, and why is that one different, for decades now. F. F. Bruce supposes it is not the distinctiveness of male and female that is abolished, but rather their unequal religious roles: all differences of gender are integrated in Christ. [19]I’m willing to go with that one.Footnotes[1] Early Christian Women and Pagan Opinion: The Power of the Hysterical Woman - Wikipedia[2] http://McLeese, Constance E. (1998). "Early Christian Women and Pagan Opinion: The Power of the Hysterical Woman (review)". Journal of Early Christian Studies. 6: 150–151. doi:10.1353/earl.1998.0008.[3] The Neglected History of Women in the Early Church | Christian History Magazine [4] Primary Sources - Letters Of Pliny The Younger And The Emperor Trajan[5] The Neglected History of Women in the Early Church | Christian History Magazine [6] http://people.brandeis.edu/~brooten/Articles/Junia_Outstanding_among_Apostles.pdf[7] Women In Ancient Christianity[8] Hagiography - Wikipedia[9] The Roles For Women[10] The Neglected History of Women in the Early Church | Christian History Magazine [11] Early Christian Women and Pagan Opinion: The Power of the Hysterical Woman - Wikipedia[12] The Role of Martyrdom and Persecution in Developing the Priestly Authority of Women in Early Christianity: A Case Study of Montanism | Church History | Cambridge Core[13] Interpretations and Applications of 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 | Marg Mowczko[14] Chapter 6: Women’s Role in the Church[15] Short Answers to Challenging Texts: 1 Timothy 2:11-15[16] Discovering Biblical Equality: Complementarity Without Hierarchy: Ronald W. Pierce, Rebecca Merrill Groothuis, Gordon D. Fee: 9780830827299: Amazon.com: Books[17] Short Answers to Challenging Texts: 1 Timothy 2:11-15[18] How Should We Interpret 1 Corinthians 11: 2–16? [19] Some Remarks on Translation of Galatians 3,28