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Importance of the Suleymaniye mosque and Kulliye is unparalleled to ottomans and Istanbul self. The golden age of the Ottoman architecture . also Enes Kaya explained very well in short “Because it was built by The most powerful Sultan of Ottomans and the ruler of that time the Magnificent Süleyman and the builder is the most famous Mimar Sinan which was a Leanordo da Vinci of Turks..”i am not gonna document whole section but give glimpse of suleymaniye mosque and complex importance. and some technological side.Also many architectural innovations of ottoman empire. we are talking about the monument an advanced and newer way to show the “Hagia sofia” yet very different. also a mosque that is engineering : anti earthquake architecture , self sustained ink production, schools, hospitals, academics, charitable services including the public kitchen and many more. and main goal he sought to achieve is improving the interior space of Suleymaniye mosque. Sinan put the bulk of his knowledge in order to provide all the amenities in the prayer hall, it is pretty spacious and well-lit day and night, cooled in summer and winter, well ventilated and perfumed, decorated with the latest styles of glazed ceramics and calligraphy place[1]so imagine the 60,000 sq/m complex build in 9 years.Built on a 60.000 sq/m, the buildings within the complex were arranged in a U shape, with the mosque in the middle. The complex is a collection of buildings containing a mosque, four madrasahs, a medical school, darülhadis ,a hospital, darülkurra, a primary school, mülazım , rooms, a hospice kitchen, a restaurant, an inn, a bathhouse, rooms, shrines and numerous bazaars with lots of stores.Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi wrote that the whole complex had 1,000 domes and hosted 3,000 people who served there.[2]1- Mausoleum of Suleiman the Magnificent2- Mausoleum of Hurrem sultanred square building area and couple of other graveyards.3- Dârülkurrâ : Quran reading training, and hazier place also tomb-keeper's room.4-DÂRÜLHADİS : school of traditions of the prophet5- Hamam : Suleymaniye bathhouse6- Rabi (4th) Madrassa(school)7- Salis (3rd) Madrassa(school)behind that 4th and 3rd school not on photo is a mulazim Madrassa(newly initiated scholar-bureaucrat)8- Tabhane refers to an institution in Ottoman times, which functioned as a house of rest. Poor, sick, tired, unemployed, hungry. kervansaray.9- imarethane:soup-kitchen place were students and poor gets food.10- Darüşşifa : hospital11- Medical school12- Sani 2nd Madrassa(school)13- Evvel 1st Madrassa (School)14-Sıbyan mektebi elementery school15- çeşme : fontain[10]as red dot Tomb of Sinan: his own design, just to the north of the Süleymaniye Mosque, across a street named Mimar Sinan Caddesi in his honour. He was buried near the tombs of his Sultan Süleyman I and Sultana Haseki Hürrem, Suleiman's wife. He, who could build a magnificent structure. and choose to have a small and almost invisible location means : “Allah , oh mighty , for his Greatness, we are only a size of grain. and a humble servant”factConstruction of the Süleymaniye complex was completed in nine years, other important buildings across Europe were constructed over much longer periods due to lack of funds, epidemics, revolts and wars.- It took 182 years to build Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris,- 220 years to build the New Cathedral in Spain's Salamanca- 52 years to build the Segovia Cathedral in Spain.- likewise Jeronimos Monastery in Portugal was built in 106 years,- Batalha Monastery in Portugal in 134 years,- Cologne Cathedral in Germany in 632 years,- Florence Cathedral in 120 years,- the St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican in 120 years- St. Mary's Basilica in Poland in 27 years.how important ? Crafting a silhouette in istanbul , needs a grandiose architect .. which this poems says exactlyCome, let's destroy the Suleymaniye,All you only need two shovels , pickaxe and two worker.Come on, let's build it back suleymaniye mosque againyou need a great Sinan and Magnificent Süleyman again.Mehmed akif ersoyBy June 1550, the construction of Süleymaniye complex, including the mosque, began. Mosque completed in 7 yearsfact:The mosque also stands out in terms of the golden ratio. When the width is divided by the height, the golden ratio yields the value of 1.618. The same ratio you get with the Süleymaniye Mosque.The mosque, belongs to the largest complex of the Ottoman era, Main in the north and south direction half domes articulated to the dome in the east and west direction. Small domes arranged as a-b-a-b-a form the plan. It has a transversely developed space setting that is not dividing and making small for pray area. The square arbor in the middle actually forms the core of the structure. Other elements surrounding the structure surround this core. However, it is virtually integrated into the structure, not articulated. Thus, the burden of the dome does not get on the walls. It descends to the arches and from there to the ground with struts. Since the walls are not carriers, both a wide and spacious space is obtained inside and a bright environment is created by placing windows on the walls as much as desired. We see this solution in all works of Mimar Sinan.1- from left hagia sofia 2- beyazid mosque 3-suleymaniye mosque.[3]Careful study of the size and design of Suleymaniye mosque stating that there is a set of prime goals determined in the architectural program.The most important of these goals is to create an expressive dome of high-quality design,very high and very spacious,and providing a much extended prayer hall to accommodate large numbers of worshipers.But with one condition,maintaining the unity and the openness horizontal extension of the interior space with as little as possible number of structural barriers on the ground level. [4]The four minarets(Minare) of the Süleymaniye Mosque represent the 4th sultans who took the throne after the conquest of Constantinople 1453 AD. While the Ten balconies (ŞEREFE) on the minarets(2 for 2 = 3 for 2) refer to Suleiman’s being the 10th Ottoman sultan.main dome does have 200+ specially embedded clay jugs hidden to make Acoustic with pickle jarsFor Mimar Sinan, the acoustic of the mosque was of great importance and proved this claim in the Süleymaniye Mosque. The building is a true acoustic masterpiece. He came up with a genius idea to have the sermon given at a point to reach and spread to the most extreme points of the mosque very easily. He used the earthenware jars that are used to make pickles in Anatolia. In the large dome in the middle placed 64 cubes of 5 meters wide and 50 meters deep, with their mouths facing the interior of the mosque and sealed egg-whites between the jars. He also made all the domes in the shape of a double dome to facilitate the propagation of the sound, leaving space in the floor bricks.image shown positions of the clay jugs gives a very unique sound system at the time.[5]Figure 16. Above: partial plans of Süleymaniye Mosque (above) and Hagia Sophia (below); below: conceptual section view of sound energy flows of Süleymaniye Mosque (on the left) and Hagia Sophia (on the right). [11]main dome inscription on green color from Quran[6]Indeed, Allah holds the heavens and the earth, lest they cease. And if they should cease, no one could hold them [in place] after Him. Indeed, He is Forbearing and Forgiving.Surah Fatir [35:41]this is called Turkish triangle : new pendentive known as Turkish triangle (a transformation of the curved space of the traditional pendentive into a fang like set of long and narrow triangles built at an angle from each other) [7]Daylight has other benefits as well;the sunrays warm up the interior space, especially in the cold winter of Istanbul, but in the warm summer solar heat may be redundant for the interiorplace,so it was necessary to control the amount of solar heating.Sinan invented a solar screen system that covers all the upper windows of Sulymaniye mosque except Qibla wall, which marked by stained glass windows.The solar screens are cut of a stone or marble,perforated with geometric pattern of regular size circles.Solar screens are controlling the amount of light that penetrate the windows during the movement of the sun, either over a day or over the annual four seasons.When the sunlight slanting morning or evening, or in the winter[8]one of the channel entrance. inside of the mosqueVahit Okumuş researcher of suleymaniye mosque.. one of the channelSinan adopted innovative technique to heat the prayer hall, he used the under floor heating system by digging water channels under the mosque to allow the flowing of the warm water coming from the public bath (Hammam) annexed to the complex, the warm water works on heating the air stream running through the water channels. Then the warm air stream comes out through specific outlets in the floor of the mosque providing the prayer hall with required warmth , its also possible for these ground channels to drag the cold water during the hot summer days, cooling the air stream running with the water for cooling and refreshing the interior space [9]Vahit Okumuş researcher of suleymaniye mosque.. inside of the heating cooling channels.[1,]International Journal of Education and ResearchVol. 3 No. 6 June2015345SULEYMANIYE MOSQUE:SPACE CONSTRUCTIONAND TECHNICALCHALLENGES p12[2]- Evliya Çelebi, Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi, vol. 1, (ed. Robert Dankoff, Yücel Daglı, Seyit Ali Kahraman), p.95.-Ömer Lutfi Barkan, Süleymaniye Camii ve İmareti İnşaatı (1550-1557), Ankara 1972-79, I-II.-İhsan Bingüler, Mimar Sinan ve Süleymaniye, İstanbul 1975.[3]STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF ISTANBUL BEYAZIT II MOSQUERETROFITTED BY MIMAR SINAN - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Layout-plans-and-arch-positions-of-a-Hagia-Sophia-b-Beyazit-Mosque-and-c-Suleymaniye_fig4_233961328 (https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Layout-plans-and-arch-positions-of-a-Hagia-Sophia-b-Beyazit-Mosque-and-c-Suleymaniye_fig4_233961328) (https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Layout-plans-and-arch-positions-of-a-Hagia-Sophia-b-Beyazit-Mosque-and-c-Suleymaniye_fig4_233961328 (https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Layout-plans-and-arch-positions-of-a-Hagia-Sophia-b-Beyazit-Mosque-and-c-Suleymaniye_fig4_233961328)) [accessed 5 Jun, 2020][4]neşet Akmandor, “Koca Sinan’ın Plancılığı, Eserleri ve Mühendisliği”, Koca Sinan (der. Cengiz Bektaş), İstanbul 1968, s. 49-62.Ömer Lutfi Barkan, Süleymaniye Camii ve İmareti İnşaatı (1550-1557), Ankara 1972-79, I-II.[5]Kayili, Mutbul (2005). Acoustic Solutions In Classic Ottoman Architecture. FSTC Limited , United Kingdom (UK).[6]Cevdet Çulpan, “İstanbul Süleymaniye Camii Kitabesi”, Kanunî Armağanı, Ankara 1970, s. 291-299.[7] islamic arts - Architecture in Iraq, Syria, and Anatolia[8,9]Suntur, Ahmet Rasim (2005). Muhteşem Süleymaniye (Camii Şerifi ve Külliyesi) İstanbul[10]Tanju Cantay, XVI.-XVII. Yüzyıllarda Süleymaniye Camii ve Bağlı Yapılar, İstanbul 1989.-Süleyman Mollaibrahimoğlu, Muhteşem Süleymaniye, İstanbul 1991.[11]Acoustical Impact of Architectonics and Material Features in the Lifespan of Two Monumental Sacred Structures

(This answer is relevant specifically to usage and legal definitions within the United States)There’s only one reason this question is being asked, and that is because of it’s use in gun control debate. Unfortunately, this is a topic which is almost guaranteed to inspire angry rhetoric, insults, and accusations of foolishness and perfidy. You could say that it is a “triggering” subject. Persons who tend towards the side of near absolute freedom to personal weapons of all kinds, often focus on the technical definitions when discussing weapon regulations, and belittle those who may not be as personally familiar with firearm use and terminology as fearful idiots who hate freedom and eat babies (I might have made that last one up), while some of those who would prefer more limited public access to firearms, accuse their opponents of callous indifference to the victims of crime.However, there is an actual definition of “assault rifle”, from Army intelligence document FSTC-CW-07-03-70[1] , published in November 1970:"Assault rifles are short, compact, selective-fire weapons that fire a cartridge intermediate in power between submachinegun and rifle cartridges. Assault rifles have mild recoil characteristics and, because of this, are capable of delivering effective full-automatic fire at ranges up to 300 meters."[2]Although any weapon that does not meet the requirements stated above technically is not an “assault rifle”, a purely semantic argument ignores (and thus refuses to address) the valid concerns of those who see problems with complete freedom of individuals to possess any kind of personal firearm.It is technically correct that no commercially-produced “assault rifles” are available for purchase by the general public, however, the characteristics of popular “assault-style” firearms pose serious questions for policy debate:Short and compact: Ordinary rifles typically used for hunting tend to be longer, to provide more power and stability to the shell, increasing the range and lethality of the weapon, but making them awkward to use in combat. Assault rifles are designed so that a soldier can easily carry one without knocking into things or tripping over it, quickly aim it in any direction, and move effectively wield it within confined or crowded spaces, such as inside a building.Selective-fire: Much is made of this critical difference between true “assault rifles,” and commercially available “assault-style” rifles. A fully automatic weapon fires as long as the operator holds the trigger; a semi-automatic weapon fires one shell for each pull of the trigger. Of course, a fully automatic weapon would be more deadly, but with a little practice, a semi-automatic rifle can be fired very quickly - I personally have fired a semi-automatic SKS rifle (a Soviet precursor to the famous AK-47 assault rifle), emptying 10 rounds in under 8 seconds, and a practiced operator could probably fire even faster. There are also aftermarket adaptations, even sold in kit form, that can allow conversion to full automatic operation, or increase the speed with which the operator can pull the trigger. Potentially, this could make legally purchased semi-automatic weapons just as dangerous as fully, automatic ones.Intermediate in power and mild recoil characteristics: Full-size rifles and shotguns can be difficult to use for individuals with limited training or physical strength. The characteristics of “assault-style” rifles makes them easier to handle, making them popular choices for women, and children training for shooting sports. Presumably, this also can make them easier for a more impulsive youth to utilize deadly firepower, and may be the impetus by some to restricting these weapons.The reality is that, although the use of an assault-style rifle in a shooting is somewhat more likely to leave a greater number of casualties, the vast majority of mass shootings are committed with handguns, along with shotguns and hunting rifles[3], while nearly all guns used in everyday crime are handguns[4], particularly cheap pistols manufactured in the Asia-Pacific region[5].It’s not clear from these facts that banning or restricting “assault-style” rifles would appreciably affect gun crime rates, but there is another, and perhaps more important, factor that gets lost in arguments over firing characteristics, design aesthetics, and waiting periods - and that is, the character of our public spaces. Openly carrying weapons in public, and at that, weapons intentionally designed to resemble, and, to the casual observer, be indistinguishable from, military assault weapons, is a form of psychological intimidation.The classical democracies of Greece and Rome, from which the authors of the United States Constitution drew their inspiration, banned the carrying of weapons within their cities. Those violating this proscription were assumed to be in rebellion against the authority of the state. Their lawmakers and philosophers understood that fair commerce and discourse between equal citizens was only possible in the absence of intimidation[6].Others seeing non-uniformed individuals carrying weapons that appear to be military assault weapons cannot be sure if they are criminals, insurgents, foreign invaders, or just on their way to the shooting range. The only legal “militia” in the United States is the National Guard - the “unorganized” militia may be called up only by order of a state’s Governor, or the President[7], so any person claiming to need such a weapon for service in the militia, has no reason to carry it in public, unless called up to do so by the governor[8].For legal uses of these types of weapons in hunting and shooting sports, there is absolutely no rational reason to carry these weapons in public spaces and commercial establishments. For personal defense, a reliable semi-automatic handgun in trained hands, is a much more useful tool, concealed so as to not alarm the public, nor alert potential assailants; even more effective, is a society that fosters an culture that discourages criminal violence by promoting opportunities for achievement and developing shared civic values of cooperation and peaceable competition[9].Outright banning the purchase and use of these weapons may violate the rights of individuals to engage in commerce, and to prepare for service in the militia, but individuals also have a right to participate in public life without evident threat of arms. Maybe if people could just be a little more considerate of each other, instead of rushing to invalidate their opponents, the definition of “assault rifle” could be left for the lexicographers and military technologists to quibble over.Footnotes[1] http://www.virginia1774.org/DIA-ST-HB-07-03-74.pdf[2] the unofficial Calico fan site and Rockin' Rimfires[3] WEAPONS USED IN MASS SHOOTINGS[4] Graphic: The Most Popular Crime Guns in Chicago, Ranked[5] frontline: hot guns: GUN FAQs[6] How the Greeks Viewed Weapons - The New Yorker[7] 10 U.S. Code § 311 - Militia: composition and classes[8] United States of America v. Raymond Rybar, Jr., Appellant, 103 F.3d 273 (3d Cir. 1996)[9] Priorities for Research to Reduce the Threat of Firearm-Related Violence

Ottoman rule was over 630 years and it is inevitable that the world faced major changes and developments within this time. Of course, Ottoman time had many many significant developments and most were related to humanity in general.In all fields such as Science and Technology, Arts and Sports many areas saw the changes and advancement during this era.I will try to illustrate the picture related to science and technology here in detail with the words of Mr. Salim Ayduz, a scholar of Ottoman era….“The Ottoman contribution to science and technology during their over six-hundred-year rule is beyond measure. This article is a brief outline of just some of the Ottoman scientific activities and related institutions that brought about the revival of culture, science, and learning in civilization throughout the Islamic world and beyond. To instantiate the Ottoman scientific contributions, the author focuses on two significant examples from astronomy and geography in the 16th century: the foundation of Istanbul Observatory and Taqi Al-Din's achievements therein, map making and mapmakers such as the famous sailors Piri Reis, Saydi Ali Reis and Macar Ali Reis.In its history and development, the innovative features of Ottoman science are obvious and various. Whilst the older Islamic centres of science and culture influenced initially Ottoman scientific tradition, it quickly reached a point where it could itself influence these old centres and serve as an example to them.The great changes in the scientific and educational life of the Ottomans were achieved over an extensive period of time. Consequently, it is difficult to connect the radical changes in Ottoman history to specific events or to start from a certain date. In general, "old and new" existed side by side. To substantiate such a claim, the focus will be laid in this section on the formation and development of the classical Ottoman scientific tradition that was based on the Islamic classical scientific tradition, including the heritage of the Seljuks and other Muslim and Turkish states.The Ottoman Empire was established as a small principality at the turn of the 14th century and gradually expanded into the Byzantine Empire and other Muslim and non-Muslim states. Its authority reached its highest point in the 16th century, and it became the most powerful state of the world. The Empire extended from Central Europe to the Indian Ocean and lasted for many centuries by keeping the balance of power with modern EuropeScientific activities in the Ottoman state emerged and developed in Anatolian cities from the scientific legacy and institutions of the pre-Ottoman Seljuk period and benefited from the activities of scholars who came from Egypt, Syria, Iran, and Turkestan—that is, from the substantial scientific and cultural centres of the time. Alongside the old centres of Islamic civilization, new centres, such as Bursa, Edirne, Istanbul, Amasya, Skopje, and Sarajevo flourished during to Ottoman period. The developments of this period form the heritage that constitutes the cultural identity and scientific legacy of present-day Turkey, as well as an important part of the intellectual history of several Middle Eastern, North African, and Balkan countries. The Ottomans also benefited greatly from their non-Muslim subjects and European neighbours, and provided very favourable working conditions for scientists from many different fields, including medicine, astronomy, and mathematics, by inviting them to conduct their studies at the important centres of science and culture in the Islamic world. Engaging the services of scientists and artists from either the west or the east as needed, without regard to religion or nationality, was an established and advantageous practice in the Ottoman EmpireDuring the classical period, Ottoman scientists and scholars showed remarkable success in developing science and were able to produce many works in various branches. This paper provides an overview, with examples, of the formation and development of Ottoman science and scientific activities in the fields of geography and astronomy.From as far back as the time of the Prophet, we know that Muslims had needed astronomy for the determination of times, an important factor in religious duties, and geography to find the direction of the Ka'ba. The precise calculation of the prayer times, as well as of the beginning and the end of the daily fast in the month of Ramadan, fell naturally within the domain of the astronomer. It is true that for the times of regular prayers, for example, Muslims were given approximate directions and were allowed some latitude; simple rules concerning these matters could be found in the Traditions. From the very beginning of Islam, Muslim scholars had to work on these two subjects under very strict rules. Due to the closeness of the fields, most of the Muslim scholars had a deep knowledge of both sciences and they produced a considerable number of books.2. AstronomyAstronomical studies in the Islamic civilization started in the very early days. Observations of the sun and the moon and the calculation of the prayer times required precision. The observatory was one of the most highly developed institutions of science and learning in Islam and one of the high-water marks of the Muslim civilization. There is no doubt that the observatory, as a specialized scientific institution, owes a great deal to Islam. It may very reasonably be claimed that it was in Islam that the observatory, as a specialized institution with an official and legal status and with a fixed location where observation and other work on stellar bodies were systematically carried out through the cooperation of several scientists, first came into existence.Already early in the 9th century, the Caliph Al-Ma'mun initiated the tradition of founding observatories in Islam, by founding two majors but very short-lived observatories, the Shammasiya in Baghdad and Qasiyun in Damascus. There are eight other examples of the building of full-fledged and elaborate official state observatories in the Islamic realm up to the 17th century.The Maragha Observatory, founded in 1259 under the patronage of Hulagu, was one of the most elaborate institutions of its kind and the scene of important work. Prince Ulugh Bey built another gigantic observatory in Samarqand in 1420, and finally, the Tophane Observatory in Istanbul was founded by Murad III in 1577.2.1. Istanbul ObservatoryIn the Ottoman civilization, scientific institutions, in the field of astronomy, included the chief astronomer's office (munajjimbashi), the muvaqqithānes and the Istanbul Observatory. Though one can find original and translated works in the fields of astronomy and astrology from the early period, the first calendrical works only began during the time of Sultan Murad II (1421-1451). These calendars were prepared as palace almanacs and we have no idea about the authors. They continued the classical Islamic astronomical tradition in this field and combined the traditions of both the Samarkand and Maragha astronomy schools of astronomy in their works. Ulug Bey's Zīj, which was prepared in the Samarkand observatory, became a very significant manual for Ottoman astronomers and astrologersThe Ottomans had well organized astronomical institutions such as the post of Chief-astronomer (munajjimbashilik) and timekeeping houses (muwaqqithānas). In the Ottoman palace administration, the person in charge of directing the astronomers was called munajjimbashi, that is Chief Astronomer. The position of Chief Astronomer was established sometime between the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Chief Astronomer's most important duty was the preparation of annual calendars. They were responsible for determining the beginning of fasting times (imsāqiya) before the month of Ramadan and preparing horoscopes (zāyija) and astronomical tables (zījs) for the palace people and prominent officials.The timekeeper's offices (muvaqqithānes) were public buildings located in the courtyards of mosques or masjidsin almost every town. They were widely built by the Ottomans especially after the conquest of Istanbul. They were administered by the foundation (waqf) of the complex (külliye) and the people who worked in the muvaqqithānes were named muvaqqit, meaning the person who kept the time, especially for the times of prayer.In addition to other science-related institutions, the observatory founded in Istanbul was administered by the chief astronomer Taqī al-Dīn al-Rasid (d. 1585). The first Ottoman observatory was also the last big observatory of the Islamic Civilization. With the support of Sultan Murad III, he started the construction of the Istanbul Observatory. As well as using the existing instruments of observation, Taqī al-Dīn invented new ones in order to determine the equinoxes. He also developed and used gravity and spring driven mechanical clocks and invented a six-cylinder pump (engine) for raising water in a continuous manner. In addition, he wrote more than thirty books in mathematics, astronomy, mechanics, and medicine.Taqi al-Din, who was born in Damascus in 1526, worked for a time as a qadīi and a teacher after completing his education in Damascus and Egypt. During his time in Egypt and Damascus, he produced some important works in the fields of astronomy and mathematics. In 1570, he came to Istanbul from Cairo, and one year later (1571-2) was appointed Chief Astronomer (Munajjimbashi) on the death of the Chief Astronomer Mustafa b. Ali al-Muwaqqit. Taqi al-Din maintained close relationships with many important members of the ulemā (scholars) and statesmen, chief among whom was Hoca Sādeddin, and was presented to Sultan Murad by the Grand Vizier Sokullu Mehmed Pasha.Taqi al-Din informed Sultan Murad, who had an interest in astronomy and astrology, that the Ulug Beg's Astronomical Tables contained certain observational errors, resulting in errors in the calculations based on those tables. Taqi al-Din indicated that these errors could be corrected if new observations were made and proposed that an observatory be built in Istanbul for that purpose. Sultan Murad was very pleased to be the patron of the first observatory in Istanbul and asked that construction begin immediately. He also provided all the financial assistance required for the project. In the meantime, Taqi al-Din pursued his studies at the Galata Tower, and continued them in 1577, at the partially completed new observatory called Dār al-Rasad al-Jadīd(the New Observatory).The observatory, consisting of two separate buildings, one large and one small, was constructed at a location in the higher part of Tophane in Istanbul. Taqi al-Din had the instruments used in the old Islamic observatories reproduced with great care. In addition, he invented some new instruments, which were used for observational purposes for the first time. The observatory had a staff of sixteen people: eight "observers" (rāsid), four clerks, and four assistants.The observatory was designed to provide for the needs of the astronomers and included a library largely consisting of books on astronomy and mathematics. This institution was conceived as one of the largest observatories in the Islamic world and was completed in 1579. It was comparable to Tycho Brahe's (1546-1601) Uranienborg observatory built in 1576. In addition, there is a striking similarity between the instruments of Tycho Brahe and those of Taqi al-Din but those of Taqi al-Din were of superior quality. When compared with those of his contemporary Danish astronomer, Taqi al-Din's observations are more precise.In Taqi al-Din's astronomical tables, called the Sidratu Muntaha'l-Afkār fī Malakut al-Falak al-Davvār (Lotus of Culmination of Thoughts in the Kingdom of Rotating Spheres), Taqi al-Din states that he started astronomical activities in Istanbul with 15 assistants in 1573. The observatory continued to function until 22 January 1580, the date of its destruction. Religious arguments were put forth to justify this action, but it was really rooted in certain internal political struggles.2.2. New observational instruments of Taqi al-DinTaqi al-Din invented new observational instruments that were added to those already in use for observation in the Islamic world. Among the instruments invented by Taqi al-Din in the observatory were the following:· The Sextant (mushabbaha bi-'l manātiq): used to measure the distances between the stars. Taqi al-Din's mushabbaha bi'l manātiq and Tycho Brahe's sextant should be considered among the great achievements of the 16th-century astronomy. A mushabbaha bi-l manātiq is composed of three rulers. Two of them are attached as the rulers of the triquetrum. An arc is attached to the end of one of the rulers. Taqi al-Din made this instrument to observe the radius of Venus that was mentioned in the Xth book of the Almagest.· The instrument with cords (Dhāt al-awtar): designates the spring and autumn equinoxes. Some astronomers set up a ring, which was not divided, parallel to the equator to designate this. The instrument was composed of a base in the form of a rectangle and four columns. The two columns were set on this base so that a string was stretched between them. One of them was equal to the cosine of the latitude of the country and the other to the sine. A hole was made on each of these parts according to this proportion. A rope was hung from these holes with a plumb.· The astronomical clock: Taqi al-Din used a mechanical clock, which he made himself for his observations, and a wooden wall dial, which he set up in the observatory. He wrote in The Astronomical Instruments for the Emperor's Table: "The ninth instrument is an astronomical clock. The following statement is recorded from Ptolemy: ‘I would have been able to establish a great regularity in method if I was able to measure the time precisely.' Now Taqi al-Din planned, with the help of God, the astronomical clock by the command of the Sultan, God perpetuates his ruling days. Thus, he was able to do what Ptolemy had failed to do." Taqi al-Din says in Sidrat al-muntahā: "we built a mechanical clock with a dial showing the hours, minutes and seconds and we divided every minute into five seconds." This is a more precise clock than clocks used previously and is, as a result, considered to be one of the most important 16th-century developments in applied astronomy.When we compare the instruments which Taqi al-Din used in his observatory with those used by Tycho Brahe, they are mostly similar, but some of Taqi al-Din's are larger and more precise. Both, for example, used a mural quadrant (Libna) for the observations of the declinations of the sun and the stars. It is said that Taqi al-Din preferred the mural quadrant to the Fakhri sextant (Suds-i Fakhrī) and two rings used by previous astronomers. Taqi al-Din's quadrant was composed of two brass quadrants with a radius of six meters; it was placed on a wall and erected on the meridian. Tycho Brahe's similar instrument was only two meters in diameter.In his work, Taqi al-Din integrated two traditions of astronomy, those of Damascus and Samarkand. His first task at the observatory was to correct the Zīj book (Astronomical Table) of Ulugh Beg. He also undertook various observations of eclipses of the sun and the moon. The comet that was present in the skies of Istanbul for one month during September 1578 was observed day and night and the results of the observations were presented to the sultan. As a result of the new methods he developed and the equipment he invented, Taqi al-Din was able to approach his observations in an innovative way and produce novel solutions to astronomical problems. He also substituted the use of a decimally based system for a sexagesimal one and prepared trigonometric tables based on decimal fractions. He determined the ecliptic degree as 23° 28' 40", which is very close to the current value of 23° 27'. He used a new method in calculating solar parameters. He determined that the magnitude of the annual movement of the sun's apogee was 63 seconds. Considering that the value known today is 61 seconds, the method he used appears to have been more precise than that of Copernicus (24 seconds) and Tycho Brahe (45 seconds). Taqi al-Din also wrote the first Ottoman book on automatic machines, titled el-Turuq al-Saniyya fi'l-ālāt al-rūhāniyya.The observatory was witness to a great deal of activity within a short period of time. Observations undertaken there were collected in the above-mentioned treatise Sidratu Muntahā'l-Afkār fī Malakūt al-Falak al-Davvār.2.3. Mustafa bin Ali Al-MuwaqqitMustafa b. Ali al-Muwaqqit al-Salīmī was another essential Ottoman polymath scholar. He was well-known in the second half of the 16th century as an astronomer, mathematician, geographer, clock-maker (sa'atji) and muwaqqit (timekeeper). He made valuable contributions in the fields of astronomy and geography, producing many books of which those on making and using astronomical instruments are particularly important. These books were used as textbooks in madrasas, and some of them were copied until the middle of the 19th century.He was initially timekeeper at the Yavuz Selim Mosque in Istanbul and later became the Chief Astronomer (munajjimbashi) for ten years. He took astronomy courses and became muwaqqit at the Sultan Selim Mosque Muwaqqithana. He wrote most of his works while holding this post. He invented a new instrument for astronomical observation called the "rub-i āfākī" (horizontal quadrant).There are 24 works which are definitely known to have been written by him; three in Arabic, the rest is in Turkish. By writing in the Turkish language about astronomical matters, he was aiming to make astronomical works accessible in this language who was becoming the scientific language of the Ottoman Empire. He also produced new and original solutions to astronomical problems. Therefore, his ideas became widely diffused among astronomers, muwaqqits and other educated people. In particular, his book explaining astronomical instruments was very popular among those interested in astronomy. In addition to astronomy, he also wrote three treatises of geography: Hallu Dā'irati Mu'addil al-Nahār, I'lam al-‘Ibād fī A'lām al-Bilād I'lām al-‘Ibād fī A'lām al-Bilād and Kifayāt al-Wakt li Ma'rifat al-Dā'ir wa Fazlihī wa al-Samt.3. GeographyAs in the field of astronomy, the Ottomans continued the classical tradition in the field of geography. The Ottomans needed geographical knowledge in order to determine the borders of their continuously expanding territory and to establish control over military and commercial activities. They made use of both the geographical works of previous Muslim geographers and works of European origin. By adding their own observations, Ottoman geographers also produced original material. The Samarkand school of geography and astronomy provided the primary sources for the Ottoman's knowledge of geography, map-making and related fields. From the 16th century onwards, Pīrī Reis, Matrakci Nasuh, Saydī Ali Celebi and other scholars produced noteworthy geographical works.3.1. Pīrī ReīsThe most prominent Ottoman geographer is Muhiddin Pīrī Reīs (d. 962 A.H./1554 C.E.) who also produced original works in the fields of marine geography and navigation at the court of Selim I and Suleyman the Magnificent. He was interested in the science of cartography and completed a map of the world in 1513 C.E. This map is part of the large-scale world map prepared in two parts on a gazelle hide, of which only the western part is preserved. It was drawn based on both his rich and detailed drafts and European maps, including Columbus' map of America. This was the first Ottoman map which included preliminary information about the New World depicts southwestern Europe, northwestern Africa, southeastern and Central America. The map has the shape of a "portland" type of map which does not contain latitudinal and longitudinal lines but includes coastlines and islands and serves to familiarize one with the various regions of the world.Pīrī Reīs also drew a second world map in 1528 C.E. which he presented to Süleyman the Magnificent. Only the portion depicting the western hemisphere survives. It is in colour and has ornamental figures on the margins with explanatory notes. The extant portion shows the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean and the newly discovered regions of North and Central America. It shows four wind roses and the Tropic of Cancer, which was not shown in his first map of the world, appears on this map. The scales used in the second map are larger than the first. The drawing of the coastlines shows a great improvement in technique and also bears a close resemblance to the modern conception of these areas. The stony and rocky sections are given special care.Pīrī Reis also wrote a book on marine geography entitled Kitāb-i Bahriye (Book of the Sea, 1521). In this work, he presents drawings and maps of the cities on the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts and gives extensive information about navigation and nautical astronomy. The book contains 209 chapters with 215 maps, charts and pictures to give an exact account of the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, along with a description of the seas. Basically, the book is a kind of guide to navigation and is based on his personal observations. He gathered together all previous information on the subject but added to it other practical knowledge necessary for sailors on the most important coastal routes and drew large maps for every chapter. In this way, the book became not only a simple guide book but also the greatest Ottoman contemporary portolano with the most advanced cartography techniques.3.2. Seydī Ali ReisAnother outstanding personality was the Ottoman admiral, geographer, astronomer and poet Seydī ‘Ali Reis (also as known Kātibī or Kātib-i Rûmī) (d. 1562), who was an expert on marine geography. He wrote books on geography, mathematics and astronomy which show his scientific and navigational experience and knowledge. His works, written in Turkish, are chiefly translations from Persian or Arabic and deal with mathematics, astronomy and navigation in the Indian Ocean. Some of his works have been translated into many languages. In addition to geography, he also wrote books on mathematics and astronomy. He wrote a very valuable work in Turkish, entitled Kitāb al-Muhīt fī ‘ilm al-aflāk wa al-Abhur well-known as al-Muhīt (The Ocean) containing the astronomical and geographical information required for long sea voyages as well as his own observations about the Indian Ocean. After his travelogue, this is Saydī ‘Ali's most famous work and is based on Arabic works dealing with navigation in the Indian Ocean. The al-Muhīt consists of 10 sections and of Portuguese voyages of discovery, including Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe. Saydī ‘Ali's account enhances the reputation of the Ottoman sultan among his co-religionists everywhere he travelled and demonstrates the universality of the Turkish element and the effectiveness of Ottoman Turkish soldiers, who were in demand at every court.In addition to this geographical work, he also wrote treatises on astronomy. The first of which is Mir'āt-i kāināt(Mirror of the Universe), a treatise on astronomical measurements and instruments, chiefly applicable to the art of navigation by celestial observation. This has been translated into many languages. His second book on astronomy is Hulāsat al-hay'a (Essence of Astronomy), a treatise on geometry and mathematics containing a translation of ‘Ali Qushji's al-Fathiyya fī al-Hay'a, enriched with excerpts from Chaghmīnī and Kadizade-i Rumī. His other books on astronomy are: Risala-i Dhāt al-Qursī a treatise about astronomy and some astronomical instruments; Risala-i mir'at-i kā'inat min alāt-i irtifa' which is called the Mirror of the Universe according to instruments for measuring altitude. His other works are: Risala-yi hay'at (Treatise on Astronomy); Sayahat-nāma-yi asturlab rub' mujayyab ‘amal bi'l-jayb muqantarāt da'ira al-mu'addal dhāt al-kursī (Book of travel on the astrolabe, sine Quadrant, Equatorial Circle, and the Instrument with a Throne); Risala-i Da'irat al-Mu'addil ;Risala-i Asturlab and Risala-i Rub'i Mujayyab.Another significant Ottoman polymath scholar was Matrakci Nasûh b. Karagöz al-Bosnawī al-Silahī . He was renowned in the 16th century as a mathematician, historian, geographer, cartographer, topographer, musketeer, and was an outstanding soldier, calligrapher and engineer. He made contributions in the fields of geography, mathematics, history, military art and calligraphy and produced important books. He also invented a military lawn game called "Matrak". Matrakçi Nasuh was an important figure in the field of descriptive geography. His first important book Bayān-i Manāzil-i Safar Iraqayn (Explanation of encamping places of two expeditions of Iraq) was in Turkish. His miniatures showing the roads connecting Istanbul, Tabriz and Baghdad are like maps. His history of the 1534-36 campaign to Iran and Iraq includes a double folio depicting Istanbul with all the contemporary structures of the city shown in remarkable detail. The Golden Horn runs vertically in the centre, separating the Galata section with its famous tower (on the left) from the city proper (on the right), which includes such major structures as the Topkapi Palace, Hagia Sophia, At Meydani (Hippodrome), Grand Bazaar, Old Palace, and the complex (kulliya) of Mehmed II. A major document for the study of Istanbul in the 1530s, the illustration is an example of the topographic genre of painting initiated by Nasuh that continued for centuries.Matrakçi's land maps are considered equal with Pīrī Reis' portland maritime maps to be found in his Kitāb-i Bahriye . Two other works of Matrakçi containing miniatures are important from a geographical perspective. In one called Ta'rikh-i Fath-i Shiklos wa Estergon wa Istolnibelgrad, Matrakçi drew the inns between Istanbul and Budapest as well as the cities of Nice, Toulon and Marseilles during Barbaros' visits and the Ottoman fleet with which he came.As a member of the administration, Nasuh accompanied Suleyman the Magnificent on various campaigns and carefully recorded the events and illustrated the cities and ports conquered by the Ottomans. He participated in the Mohaç campaign (1526) and the two Baghdad expeditions of Suleyman. He painted the picture of every city where the army was billeted or passed by.Another work of the 16th century in the field of geography, which contains information about the geographical discoveries and the New World (America), is the book entitled Tārih-i Hind-i Garbī (History of the West Indies) (probably written by Muhammad b. Amir al-Suûdī al-Niksarī (d. 1591) in the 16th century). This work, based on Spanish and Italian geographical sources, was presented to Sultan Murād III in 1573. It is important in showing that the Ottomans knew about the geographical discoveries of the West. The work has three parts; but the real weight, consisting of two-thirds of the book, is in the third section where Columbus' discovery of America and the European conquests over the period of sixty years between 1492 and 1552 are related. Tarih-i Hind-i Garbī tells the amazing stories of the explorations and conquests of Columbus, Cortes, Pizarro, and others, and it also endeavours to incorporate the new geographic information into the body of Islamic knowledge. It presents a major effort by an Ottoman Muslim scholar, almost unique in the 16th century; firstly, to transmit through translation information from one culture (European Christendom) to another (Ottoman Islam), and secondly, to correct and expand Islamic geography and cartography.In the Topkapi Palace Museum Library (Hazine 644), Istanbul, there is an Atlas entitled "Ali Macar Reis Atlas". The atlas consists of six portolan charts and one mappamundi, all on double pages, i.e., there are fourteen pages. They are drawn on parchment leaves and bound in leather, forming an appealing small volume. As a work of art, this atlas certainly ranks among the most successful. The artist-cartographer who drew these charts must have been professionally connected to those who drew other similar maps in Christian Europe; and the artistic perfection of this atlas strongly argues against it being the isolated work of a captain who would only have been imitating such models; the author must have been a craftsman with great experience of this type of work.Cartography seems to have been organized as a profession in the Ottoman Empire; for example, in the 17th century, fifteen individuals were occupied with the art of surveying, in eight locations in Istanbul and nearby areas.Ottoman geographers were able to obtain information about both West and East at a time when there were no maps of the East available in Europe. This indicates that the Ottomans were more advanced in this area that had previously been thought.Ottoman contributions to geography including cartography are very significant, vast, in content and have a definite place in the history of geography. It is also true that while the Arabs mostly influenced the Turks, they did not follow them slavishly. Ottoman geographers especially cartographers made some very significant contributions and they may be said to have formed a bridge between medieval Islamic and modern cartography.4. ConclusionOttoman contributions to Science and Technology during a six-hundred-year rule over a huge domain are beyond measure. The above is merely a brief outline of some of the Ottoman scientific activities and related institutions that brought about the revival of culture, science, and learning in civilizations throughout the world. Many excellent works exist that can guide future researchers interested in this subject. Opportunities for further study abound, as the examples presented in this paper could certainly be extended to cover a larger percentage of the vast contributions the Ottomans made over six hundred years. The classical scientific tradition that produced its finest works in the most magnificent period of the Empire was set forth in the scientific and educational institutions that have been briefly mentioned, in the scholarly circles established, and developed around these institutions. Still, the Ottoman classical tradition was preserved during this second phase of Ottoman science, when many more translations and transfers were made from European languages and survived with some of its basic elements until the second half of the 19th century.*Salim Ayduz is a Senior Researcher at the Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilisation (FSTC) and Visiting Scholar at the University of Manchester and Associate Professor at Fatih University, Istanbul.