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The Department of Chemical Engineering across various universities globally have the following concentration/thrust areas for research which are listed below.Colloid and Interface ScienceColloid and interface science deals with multi-phase systems in which one or more phases are dispersed in a continuous phase of different composition or state. Classical colloid science deals with dispersions for which at least one dimension of a dispersed phase falls within about 1 and 1000 nm. In applied colloid science the upper size limit is commonly extended to at least 10,000 to 100,000 nm. Interface science deals with dispersions in which there is an extremely large interfacial area between two of the phases. The dispersed phases may be particles, droplets, or bubbles.This area holds a lot of importance in industrials, environmental, biomedical and biotech applications.The applications include applications include detergency, emulsification, and wetting; adhesives, coatings, and thin films; petrochemical processes; food, paint, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and photographic technologies; controlled-release of active ingredients in pharmaceuticals and consumer products; removal of trace contaminants from water sources; bioseparations; and biomedical applications including skin irritation and mitigation, and transdermal and oral drug delivery.Some of the systems that can be studied are micellar solutions (surfactant-water systems), solutions of nanoparticles and surfactants, polymer-surfactant systems,pharmaceutical drugs, aerosols etc.Catalysis and Reaction EngineeringSo we know chemical reactions occur. But how can a reaction yield maximum product? How does it occur in an industry? The answer by all means lies in studying reactor design and reaction kinetics.Chemical reactions lie in the heart of processes where molecules are transformed from raw materials to useful products. For the efficient and economic utilisation of such chemical transformations the domain where they are performed (the reactor) needs to be carefully designed accounting for kinetics, hydrodynamics, mass and heat transfer. Catalysis plays a significant role in many of these transformations, leading to more efficient, greener and more sustainable processing routes.Often this area is integrated with a Surface Chemistry group too. This helps to study how reactions occur on the surface of catalysts.Quite a lot is being studied about reactions in microreactors these days.Some of the other interest areas include photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, catalytic pyrolysis etc.Polymers and materialsPolymers are versatile because their properties are so wide-ranging. The versatility becomes more profound in the copolymers made from multiple precursors, and polymers compounded with filler materials. Research in polymers encompasses the chemical reactions of their formation, methods of processing them into products, means of modifying their physical properties, and the relationship between the properties and the underlying molecular and solid phase structure.As for Materials, either it can be studied as one of the research areas in Chemical Engineering or one could opt for the vast field of Materials Science and Engineering for the same.In any case, inorganic materials that are found in nature form the basis for new materials which are used in novel applications due to their electronic, mechanical and optical properties.Thin films are studied which find applications in fuel cells, a source of alternative energy being widely studied across the globe.Nanomaterials are a special class of materials that can be studied as the properties of such materials can be tuned as per requirement.Biomaterials are also being studied extensively as new materials for biological applications are being generated from biological molecules.Transport PhenomenaDescriptions of transport of momentum, energy, and species, often accompanied by chemical reaction – i.e. fluid mechanics, heat transfer, mass transfer, and reaction engineering – are one of the central and most successful paradigms of modern chemical engineering.Modern research in transport processes addresses problems through combinations of theory, computation, and experiment.Some of the studies in this field include Dynamics of Complex Multiphase materials such as three phase fluid systems and granular materials, Non-Newtonian flow properties of complex fluid systems, problems involving mixing and blending of multiphase polymers and polymer-inorganic nanocomposites. In some universities, emulsions in drug-delivery and food processing are also studied as a part of Transport Phenomena. Microfluidic flow systems, mass transfer and heat transfer in nanostructures are some of the other areas of concentration in Transport Phenomena.Modeling, Theory and SimulationComputational power is changing the nature of science and engineering research in today's world. Modeling and simulation can help in cutting cost by focusing experiments on critical areas and creating frameworks in which diverse experimental results can be seen in a coherent picture.This research focus, thus, deals with computational aspects of complex systems covering modelling, simulation, control and optimization.Studies can be conducted on process control and monitoring with applications in large scale chemical plants, model- based control and monitoring of hybrid process systems with applications to chemical processes and biological networks. Computer simulations can also be used to understand how microscopic properties of materials influence macroscopic behavior.Modeling and simulation can also be done at the molecular and nano scale. In this case, fundamental principles of statistical mechanics and quantum theory are coupled with modern computing tools to derive atomistic descriptions of materials structure, materials properties, and a wide range of solid state and fluid phase physico-chemical phenomena.Process Design and Process EngineeringIn chemical engineering, process design is the design of processes for desired physical and/or chemical transformation of materials. Process design is central to chemical engineering, and it can be considered to be the summit of that field, bringing together all of the field's components.Process design can be the design of new facilities or it can be the modification or expansion of existing facilities. The design starts at a conceptual level and ultimately ends in the form of fabrication and construction plans. The documentation of the design can be done by preparing Block Flow Diagrams, Process Flow Diagrams or Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams.The Design of the process is made with the aid of mathematical tools that simulate the process and obtain optimum conditions for operation.Use of simulation in design allows the identification of dangerous operating regions and testing of accident conditions.During process design, economic analysis and feasibility of the process must also be analysed.Some of the areas that one can look into for process engineering are multiscale process operations and control, nanoscale process systems engineering, biochemical process engineering and process optimization.Alternate EnergyOne of those areas where a lot of money is being spent globally to find new and alternate sources of energy.The research themes in this area include, batteries, fuel cells, biofuels, solar energy, carbon dioxide capture and sequestration, hydrogen storage and conversion.Food Science and TechnologyFood Science or Bromatology is a branch of applied Sciences. It is a discipline in which engineering, biological and physical sciences are combines to study the nature of foods, causes of deterioration, underlying food processing principles, and improvement of food products for public consumption.Food industry is practically the largest industry in the world and needs professionals who will be developing food and beverages in response to the needs and demands of the society.There are ample career opportunities in this field as there are less number of graduates than there are positions available to them in the industry.So, what are the areas that you can study in this field?1. Sensory Science- This area primarily involves new product development, creating new tastes and flavors, develop more nutritous food items. It also involves tasting of a new food product, trying to identify what is desirable and what is not. Hence, this involves a lot of work with trained experts and consumers and interaction with them.2.Food Chemistry- It teaches you to understand the structure and function of food ingredients and how to make food healthier for consumption. This is the area where chemistry comes into picture and you learn to ensure product stability, consistent flavor and texture and ease of processing the food items.3. Microbiology- Microbes are all around us and so are they present in our food items. Thus it is necessary to ensure that the food products are safe for consumption. So, this field teaches you to ensure the safety of food supply right from initial storage through processing, transportation and retail channels, until the consumer purchases the item. Therefore, one develops processes, monitors conditions and tests foods for contamination.4. Engineering- Packaging foods in a way their shelf life is extended, flavor and nutrition is preserved and is appealing to the customers falls in the domain of work of an engineer. An engineer is also responsible for developing processes to ensure product quality and maximising process efficiency.5. Fermentation Science- It involves the creation of wines, beers, and fermented food products. It is an ancient art, combined with modern science. It's all the aspects of food science—sensory science, food chemistry, microbiology, and engineering, focused in on a specific set of products. Fermentation scientists know how to analyze ingredients, how to monitor processes, how to adjust procedures to obtain a desired outcome—and how to create a product that is appealing to the consumer.Nanoscience and NanotechnologyDown to Nano Follow the link above to know everything about Nano.Petroleum EngineeringPetroleum engineering is a field of engineering concerned with the activities related to the production of hydrocarbons, which can be either crude oil or natural gas. Typically, a petroleum engineering graduate is given the job to discover natural sources of oil and examine the same. Similarly, developing the latest machines and equipments which can be used in the extraction and processing of oil is part of the job of a petroleum engineer. Petroleum engineers have global career and are hired by global oil companies. The petroleum Engineering is divided into two parts.Upstream SectorThe upstream sector consists of activities like exploration, production and exploitation of oil and natural gases. After gaining a qualification in petroleum engineering, the engineers work in the exploration and production activities of petroleum and other related products. Using the latest drilling technology and geophysics for the exploration of oil reservoirs, they exploit the same for maximum output.Downstream SectorThe downstream sector consist activities such as the refining, marketing and distributing of petroleum products. Production is not the only work carried out in a petroleum company and the job of petroleum engineer does not get over as the oil is produced, rather, it starts at this stage. Refining process is crucial for an oil product as then only it can be used. Marketing and distributing department may require a petroleum engineer to have some management degree.Petroleum engineers divide themselves into two types:1.Reservoir engineers work to optimize production of oil and gas via proper well placement, production rates, and enhanced oil recovery techniques.2.Drilling engineers manage the technical aspects of drilling exploratory, production and injection wells.3.Production engineers, including subsurface engineers, manage the interface between the reservoir and the well, including perforations, sand control, downhole flow control, and downhole monitoring equipment; evaluate artificial lift methods; and also select surface equipment that separates the produced fluids (oil, natural gas, and water).Environmental EngineeringEnvironmental Engineering is often offered as a part of civil engineering department or as a part of the Chemical Engineering department.It is the integration of science and engineering principles to improve the natural environment (air, water, and/or land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and land for human habitation (house or home) and for other organisms, and to remediate pollution sites. Further more it is concerned with finding plausible solutions in the field of public health, such arthropod-borne diseases, implementing law which promote adequate sanitation in urban, rural and recreational areas. It involves waste water management and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, radiation protection, industrial hygiene, environmental sustainability, and public health issues as well as a knowledge of environmental engineering law. It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction projects.Environmental engineers study the effect of technological advances on the environment. To do so, they conduct hazardous-waste management studies to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers also design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems as well as address local and worldwide environmental issues such as the effects of acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and industrial sources. Environmental "chemical" engineers, focus on environmental chemistry, advanced air and water treatment technologies and separation processes.Scope of environmental engineeringSolid Waste ManagementEnvironmental impact assessment and mitigationWater supply and treatmentWaste heat conveyance and causeAir pollution managementBiotechnologyBiotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products. Biotechnology finds application in agriculture, food production and medicine. Over the last couple of centuries, biotechnology has expanded to include genomics, recombinant gene technologies, applied immunology and development of pharmaceutical therapies and diagnostic tests.The fact that living organisms have evolved such an enormous spectrum of biological capabilities means that by choosing appropriate organisms it is possible to obtain a wide variety of substances, many of which are useful to man as food, fuel and medicines. Over the past 30 years, biologists have increasingly applied the methods of physics, chemistry and mathematics in order to gain precise knowledge, at the molecular level, of how living cells make these substances. By combining this newly-gained knowledge with the methods of engineering and science, what has emerged is the concept of biotechnology which embraces all of the above-mentioned disciplines.Biotechnology has already begun to change traditional industries such as food processing and fermentation. It has also given rise to the development of a whole new technology for industrial production of hormones, antibiotics and other chemicals, food and energy sources and processing of waste materials. This industry must be staffed by trained biotechnologists who not only have a sound basis of biological knowledge, but a thorough grounding in engineering methods.The different terms that have been coined to identify the different applications of biotechnology are:1. Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale. Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.2. Blue biotechnology describes the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology.3.Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture.4. Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation.5.White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals.So what kind of applications are we looking at?1. MedicineDrug productionPharmacogenomics-study of how genetic inheritance affects an individual's response to drugsGenetic testing for examination of DNA molecule to identify mutated sequences.Gene therapy- a technique than can be used to treat or even cure genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDSHuman Genome ProjectCloning2. AgricultureCrop yieldReduced vulneraility of crops to environmental stressesImproved texture and taste or appearance of foodReduced dependance on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicalsProduction of novel substances in crop plantsAnimal biotechnology3. Biological engineeringBiotechnologists are employed to scale up bioprocesses from the laboratory to manufacturing scale. It includes branches like biochemical engineering, biomedical engineering, bio-system engineering and bio process engineering etc. It is a field which has an integrated approach of fundamental biological sciences and traditional engineering principles.4. Marine biotechnologyIt is an emerging field encompassing marine biomedicine (new pharmaceuticals discovery), materials technology, bioremediation, marine biomedical model organisms, molecular genetics, genomics, bioinformatics and much more. The fundamental enthusiasm for this discipline is clearly derived from the enormous biodiversity and genetic uniqueness of life in the sea. Thirty four of the 36 fundamental Phyla of eukaryotes are found in the world's oceans. Many of these life forms, such as those that reside in the deep oceans, are poorly known.Materials Science and EngineeringMaterials Science is also known as Materials Engineering. It is an interdisciplinary applying the properties of matter to science and engineering. It incorporates principles of applied physics and chemistry. With significant media attention focused on nanoscience and nanotechnology in recent years, materials science is becoming more widely known as a specific and unique field of science and engineering. As a result, it has been propelled to the forefront at many universities.Materials Science and Engineering encompasses all natural and man-made materials – their extraction, synthesis, processing, properties, characterization, and development for technological applications. Advanced engineering activities that depend upon optimized materials include the medical device and healthcare industries, the energy industries, electronics and photonics, transportation, advanced batteries and fuel cells, and nanotechnology. Students in materials science and engineering develop a fundamental understanding of materials at the nano, micro and macro scales, leading to specialization in such topics as: biomaterials; chemical and electrochemical materials science and engineering; computational materials science and engineering; electronic, magnetic and optical materials; and structural materials.This field not only involves the study of different class of materials but also their synthesis and analysis techniques. There are various ways in which materials can be characterized such as Electron Microscopy, X-ray diffraction, calorimetry, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, Photoluminescence, Electron diffraction. A student of materials Science has the opportunity to study and get hands-on experience with these analysis techniques.The sub disciplines of materials science are:Biomaterials – materials that are derived from and/or used with biological systems.Ceramography – the study of the microstructures of high-temperature materials and refractories, including structural ceramics such as RCC, polycrystalline silicon carbide and transformation toughened ceramicsCrystallography – the study of regular arrangement of atoms and ions in a solid, the defects associated with crystal structures such as grain boundaries and dislocations, and the characterization of these structures and their relation to physical properties.Electronic and magnetic materials – materials such as semiconductors used to create integrated circuits, storage media, sensors, and other devices.Forensic engineering – the study of how products fail, and the vital role of the materials of constructionForensic materials engineering – the study of material failure, and the light it sheds on how engineers specify materials in their productGlass science – any non-crystalline material including inorganic glasses, vitreous metals and non-oxide glasses.Materials characterization – such as diffraction with x-rays, electrons, or neutrons, and various forms of spectroscopy and chemical analysis such as Raman spectroscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), chromatography, thermal analysis, electron microscope analysis, etc., in order to understand and define the properties of materials. See also List of surface analysis methodsMetallography - Metallography is the study of the physical structure and components of metals, typically using microscopy.Metallurgy – the study of metals and their alloys, including their extraction, microstructure and processing.Microtechnology – study of materials and processes and their interaction, allowing microfabrication of structures of micrometric dimensions, such as Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).Nanotechnology – rigorously, the study of materials where the effects of quantum confinement, the Gibbs–Thomson effect, or any other effect only present at the nanoscale is the defining property of the material; but more commonly, it is the creation and study of materials whose defining structural properties are anywhere from less than a nanometer to one hundred nanometers in scale, such as molecularly engineered materials.Rheology – Some practitioners consider rheology a sub-field of materials science, because it can cover any material that flows. However, modern rheology typically deals with non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, so it is often considered a sub-field of continuum mechanics. See also granular material.Surface science/catalysis – interactions and structures between solid-gas solid-liquid or solid-solid interfaces.Textile reinforced materials – materials in the form of ceramic or concrete are reinforced with a primarily woven or non-woven textile structure to impose high strength with comparatively more flexibility to withstand vibrations and sudden jerks.Tribology – the study of the wear of materials due to friction and other factors.Sourec- Edulix

Theoretical frameworks for understanding sleep function can be divided into three groups (see Table below)(1) frameworks that emphasize energy balance and/or metabolic homeostasis(2) frameworks that are grounded in neurodynamics(3) frameworks that view sleep as an emergent state arising from the temporal and/or spatial integration of elementary processes.The reader should realize that each framework “looks” at different aspects of biology. Therefore, different frameworks do not necessarily compete and one framework does not necessarily contradict another. In fact, most frameworks—even all—can be valid, in whole or in part.1. Frameworks that emphasize energy and/or metabolic homeostasisSleep reduces energy consumption by downgrading metabolism, heat generation, nerve conduction, and other energy-consuming processes. Energy conservation theories consider energy-saving the basic reason why animals sleep. Smaller animals lose heat faster and sleep longer than larger animals. Arguments against this theory include the long sleep time of carnivores with energy-dense meals, the energy-saving hypometabolic-hypomotor state of quiet wakefulness, and the high metabolic rates of some brain areas during REM sleep. The energy allocation model argues that the principal reason animals sleep is not to conserve energy but to reallocate energy away from the high demands of wakefulness toward essential sleep-dependent processes.Waste removal theories stress the role of sleep in metabolic waste clearance. The concept of waste removal was galvanized by the discovery of a waste clearance pathway in the brain—now known as the glymphatic system. A recent study found waste elimination through the glymphatic system to be more efficient during sleep, especially in NREM sleep. The authors attributed this to an increase in efficiency of cerebrospinal fluid to interstitial fluid exchange during sleep. Proteins linked to neurodegenerative diseases, including β-amyloid, α-synuclein, and tau, are present in the interstitial space surrounding cells of the brain. Cerebrospinal fluid recirculates through the brain and interchange with interstitial fluid removing these interstitial proteins. According to the protein fragment hypothesis, protein fragments generated in the brain during wakefulness induces sleep which, in turn, results in downregulation of protein fragment production and upregulation of fragment degradation pathways. The free radical flux theory considers the removal of excess free radicals as a key function of sleep.Restoration theories differ in regards to what is being restored. The replenishment of depleted energy stores is the emphasis of energy restoration hypotheses. The Benington-Heller hypothesis purports that astrocytic glycogen is depleted during wakefulness and restored during sleep. Glucose utilization by neurons during wakefulness increases the production of adenosine. Measurements of mRNA transcripts showed that a large number of genes are transcribed in the brain during normal and recovery sleep. Sleep upregulates the synthesis of a variety of proteins involved in metabolism, transmitter trafficking, and membrane signaling.2. Frameworks grounded in neurodynamicsSome theories of sleep invoke neurodynamics—neuronal processes involved in signal generation, transmission, and processing, synchronization of neuronal activity, and the intrinsic regulation of these processes. Sleep theories grounded in neurodynamics are based on three overlapping frameworks—afferent activation, neuroplasticity, and neurodynamic homeostasis.Afferent drive theories emphasize the real-time effects of extrinsic sources on sleep-wake processes. A simple activation model consists of a sleep-wake continuum where activation is minimum at one end (NREM sleep) and maximum at the other (active wakefulness). Afferent drive theories have been relegated to a secondary position as sleep theories based on plasticity and homeostasis gained in popularity. To be complete, a sleep theory must not ignore real-time afferent variables. REM sleep activation and ontogenetic hypotheses argue that brain stimulation in REM sleep is essential for brain plasticity, ontogenesis, and maturation. The wake-up hypothesis of REM sleep asserts that the brain uses REM sleep to wake itself up. Corticofugal projections to brainstem centers progressively increase cortical activity during REM sleep until the waking threshold is reached. The activation-synthesis theory posits that dreams result from the cortical “synthesis” of subcortical activations during REM sleep.Neuroplasticity gives organisms the flexibility to adapt their behavior to constant changes in the environment. It is the basis for learning, memory, and brain remodeling during ontogeny and in response to neuropathology. Like sleep, the molecular mechanisms underlying neuroplasticity are highly conserved in evolution. Most experts agree that sleep is essential for memory consolidation and brain development that is achieved through neuroplasticity. What is not clear yet is whether this occurs primarily by synaptic strengthening, synaptic homeostasis, or both mechanisms.Synaptic potentiation theories argue that sleep promotes memory by strengthening recently used or underused synapses. According to the standard model of memory consolidation, the hippocampus receives input from the neocortex during wake, binds this information into a coherent memory trace, and transfers the information to the neocortex during sleep where it is stored and integrated within preexisting memory traces. In mammals, the transfer process involves connections of the hippocampus with the prefrontal cortex. The dual processes hypothesis argues that NREM sleep and REM sleep consolidate different memories types. So-called replay or reactivation of “off-line” neurons during sleep has been observed in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, striatum, primary visual cortex, and other brain regions. In the classic monocular deprivation experiment, sleep resulted in enhancement of ocular dominance plasticity of the open eye. The dynamic stabilization hypothesis suggests that spontaneous neural excitations in sleep (especially REM sleep) are essential for dynamic stabilization of synapses that are underutilized in wakefulness. Animals with highly developed brains are expected to sleep more and spend more time in REM sleep because their complex brains have more underused circuits that must be stabilized in sleep.Synaptic homeostasis involves net weakening of synapses. According to thesynaptic homeostasis hypothesis (SHY), experience and learning during wakefulness increase the net synaptic strength of brain circuits and sleep promotes global synaptic weakening (downscaling) to renormalize overused synapses. This preserves the relative strength between synapses, allows for further synaptic change, and prevents the metabolic costs associated with excessive synaptogenesis. Therefore, SHY predicts that synapses should be weaker, not stronger after sleep. There is ample experimental evidence in favor and against SHY.Sequential processing theories portray memory formation as a sequence of neuroplastic events commencing in wakefulness, progressing along sleep stages, andculminating in memory consolidation. The synaptic embossing theory proposes that NREM sleep reverberates memories in the absence of sensory interference and REM sleep triggers plasticity-related events in previously activated networks. According to the sequential hypothesis, irrelevant memories are downgraded during NREM sleep and relevant memories are stored and integrated with preexisting memories during REM sleep. Another proposal, links light NREM sleep to synaptic potentiation and deep NREM sleep to synaptic homeostasis. In the boom and bust model, the first few hours of sleep leads to synaptic potentiation, which is greatest in synapses stimulated according to Hebbian rules, followed later by a stage where slower non-Hebbian scaling reduces net synaptic strength across the network. Based on the parallel time course of slow wave activity (SWA) and episodic memory in early development, an imbalance in synaptic regulation during sleep was hypothesized, i.e. memory consolidation and synaptic potentiation are enhanced during sleep but SWA-associated global synaptic downscaling falls short of complete homeostatic recovery.Neurodynamic homeostasis has been barely examined beyond neurons and local circuits. It is not fully understood how prohomeostatic processes in individual neurons interact on the network level, how regulation at multiple sites and multipletime scales interact within neurons and other plasticity mechanisms, and howlocal homeostasis translate into global network stability, flexibility, androbustness. Advances in computational power, modeling algorithms, and molecularimaging technology (e.g. optogenetics) will provide neuroscientists the tools to examine neuron-neuron and neuron-glia interactions taking place acrossdifferent spatial and temporal domains. The ultimate goal is to understand how sleep-wake mechanisms stabilize neuronal, neural circuit, and network functions and how these functions are modified during neural development and learning.3. Frameworks that emphasize temporal and/or spatial integrationThe most influential framework for understanding sleep is the two-process (2p) model of sleep. Two variables are emphasized in this model---the chronophasic variable, dubbed Process C for circadian, and the homeostatic variable, dubbed Process S for sleep The time course of Process S was derived from measurements of slow wave activity (SWA) in the EEG. A quantitative version of the 2p model was subsequently developed and ultradian NREM-REM sleep cycle dynamics was also incorporated into the model. Several variations of the 2p model has been published since its inception. Originally, C and S were modeled as independent (non-interacting) variables but this was later shown to be not the case. SWA correlates with hyperpolarization of thalamocortical neurons during NREM sleep and with adenosine levels in the brain.The state-clock model posits the presence of a background state of synaptic plasticity with a temporal profile that is governed by circadian clocks and biological oscillators, e.g. body temperature and hormonal activity. Waking experience changes the baseline plasticity and sleep results in further neuroplastic changes (consolidation). Thus, sleep neuroplasticity depends on waking experience (activation of specific neural circuits) and on circadian oscillators which, in mammals, consist mainly of brain temperature and hypothalamic-pituitary-axis activity.In the local use-dependent paradigm, parts of the brain that were “used” the most during wakefulness are the ones that “rest” the most during sleep. Sleep isan emergent state arising from the spatial integration of local neurodynamic and metabolic states. With this perspective, some brain areas can be “sleeping” while other areas are “awake”. Evidence for this paradigm include local use-dependent increase in SWA and the ability to model sleep as a fundamental property of neuronal assemblies.The metaregulation paradigm deemphasizes the role of sleep in renormalizing the molecular, cellular, network, and physiological changes the organism incurred during prior wakefulness. Sleep is viewed not as a biological state with specific restorative functions but as a manifestation of metaregulation which enablesefficient moment-to-moment integration of internal and external factors with pre-sleep physiology and ongoing homeostatic demands. The core physiological processes controlling sleep may be common to animals belonging to the same class or order but slight evolutionary modifications result in species-specific integration strategies tosafeguard energy homeostasis as the animal transitions from one adaptive stateto another.A paradigm based on systems biology was proposed to help understand sleep function and evolution. In this framework, sleep is conceptualized as the temporal organization of functional recovery—an evolutionary strategy that increases the overall robustness of an animal. Robustness is the ability of a biological system to maintain its function (and survive) in times of stability (homeostasis) and in the presence of perturbations (e.g. during state transitions and external threats). Various metabolic and cellular processes are integrated in time and organized through circadian mechanisms and built-in delays not only to safeguard homeostasis but, more importantly, to improve overall robustness and functionality. Sleep, as an avenue for recovery, is flexible—depending on homeostatic debt and circadian time, an animal can go from stage 1 to stage 2 to stage 3 NREM sleep rapidly or it can spend more time in stage 2 before entering stage 3 NREM sleep.In the 2-mode 3-drive (2m3d) paradigm of sleep, local neurodynamic-metabolic (N/M) processes switch between two modes (2m)—m0 and m1—in response to three drives (3d)—afferent, chronophasic, and homeostatic. The spatiotemporal integration of local m0/m1 operations gives rise to the global states of sleep and wakefulness. As a framework of evolution, the 2m3d paradigm allows us to view sleep as a robust adaptive strategy that evolved so animals can periodically reinforce neurodynamic and metabolic homeostasis while remaining responsive to their internal and external environment.Important caveat: The theoretical frameworks for sleep that were briefly described above emphasize different aspects of biology. Therefore, most—or even all—of these theories, hypotheses, models, and paradigms may be valid, in whole or in part.References (Peer Reviewed Publications)Berger RJ & Phillips NH. Energy conservation and sleep. Behav Brain Res. 1995; 69, 65-73.Dworak M, McCarley RW, KimT, Kalinchuk AV, Basheer R. Sleep and brain energy levels: ATP changes during sleep. The Journal of Neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 2010;30(26):9007-9016.Schmidt MH. The energy allocation function of sleep: a unifying theory of sleep, torpor, and continuous wakefulness. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014 Nov; 47:122-53.Nedergaard M. Garbage truck of the brain. Science. 2013; 340(6140):1529-1530.Varshavsky A. Augmented generation of protein fragments during wakefulness as the molecular cause of sleep: a hypothesis. Protein Sci. 2012 Nov;21(11):1634-1661.Reimund E. The free radical flux theory of sleep. Med Hypotheses. 1994 Oct; 43(4):231-233.Benington JH, Heller HC. 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The science of so called Global warming (inaptly the correct term is Holocene interglacial) is not settled. My research finds the evidence is weak and the science theory of global warming from minute amounts of non polluting CO2, the air we breathe out at 35,000 ppm, is simply false.The shoddy hypothesis is the preserve of lefty politicians who want to demolish our market eonomic system for a new world socialism.This means the worst thing is for governments to take action with new carbon taxes or wasteful ineffective subsidies for wind and solar.The US and Canada are facing elections soon and so this question is relevant to political candidates. I submit this advice here by Sterling Burnett is relevant for both countries.Alarmist science has espoused an unfounded theory of greenhouse gases being responsible for global warming from human emissions of CO2.This theory has bee debunked often by leading scientists. See -Eight years ago, 2 physicists published a comprehensive 115-page scientific paper entitled “Falsification Of The Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within The Frame Of Physics” in the International Journal of Modern Physics.Gerlich and Tscheuschner, 2009Buttressed by a reference list of over 200 scientific publications, the authors addressed the merits of commonly held greenhouse “conjectures” as they relate to the laws of physics.“By showing that (a) there are no common physical laws between the warming phenomenon in glass houses and the fictitious atmospheric greenhouse effects, (b) there are no calculations to determine an average surface temperature of a planet, (c) the frequently mentioned difference of 33°C is a meaningless number calculated wrongly, (d) the formulas of cavity radiation are used inappropriately, (e) the assumption of a radiative balance is unphysical, (f) thermal conductivity and friction must not be set to zero, the atmospheric greenhouse conjecture is falsified.”From pages 35 to 44, Gerlich and Tscheuschner critiqued 14 different “fictitious” manifestations of the greenhouse effect theory as they have appeared over the course of the last several decades.In a newly-published scientific paper, meteorologist and physical chemist Dr. Martin Hertzberg (and two other chemists) provide a condensed update to the Gerlich and Tscheuschner appraisal of the theoretical greenhouse effect.Hertzberg and colleagues also apply the standard laws of physics to critique 6 current theoretical explanations for the role of greenhouse gases (CO2) in presumably keeping the Earth 15°C warmer than it would otherwise be.Included below is an abridged, less-technical version of the paper in an ostensibly user-friendly format.It should be noted that the conclusions may be controversial even for skeptics of anthropogenic global warming (AGW) alarm. That’s because the vast majority of climate skeptics at least accept the basic tenets of the greenhouse effect theory. Instead, the existing skepticism focuses on the climate’s sensitivity to CO2 forcing in particular (low vs. high), not on whether the greenhouse effect as conventionally expressed is “real” or meets the standards applied by the laws of physics.It is widely assumed that that the common understanding of how greenhouse gases operate in the climate system (the atmosphere and oceans) is both real and supported by scientific observation and physical tests. This paper, like Gerlich and Tscheuschner (2009), may challenge this assumption.Role of greenhouse gases in climate changeHertzberg et al., 2017This study examines the various definitions of the greenhouse effect for compatibility with the laws of physics.Definition 1A greenhouse is a glass/plastic enclosure, warmed by sunlight, facilitating plant growth. Several definitions argue that the effect in the atmosphere is analogous to a greenhouse. It is stated that sunlight transmitted into an enclosure through transparent glass warms the interior of the enclosure, increasing the Infra Red (IR) radiation. As glass is partly opaque to IR radiation, it cannot freely pass outward through the glass and is thus retained within the enclosure. Several definitions infer the radiation is being ‘trapped’ and it is argued that atmospheric gases such as CO2 are analogous to the glass pane action of a greenhouse and this serves to ‘trap’ IR radiation within the atmosphere and obstruct radiative cooling.The CritiqueAn early test of the ‘trapped’ radiation theory was conducted by R. W. Wood. He constructed two enclosures, one covered with a glass plate and the other covered with an IR transmitting rock salt plate. When adjusted so that both were exposed to the same solar input radiation, they both reached the same temperature of 55°C with ‘scarcely a difference of one degree between the temperatures of the two enclosures’. His experiment clearly showed that it was the presence of the enclosure itself that enabled the warming. Therefore, it is the heat generated by absorbed sunlight that becomes ‘trapped’. In the absence of an enclosure, the warmed air near the ground would rise by buoyancy and be replaced by cooler air from the surroundings thus cooling it. This natural convective cooling process is restricted and suppressed by the enclosure. It is the same process that generates a cooling afternoon sea breeze on a beach with cooler air from the ocean replacing rising warmer air over land. To argue that an open gaseous atmosphere confines in the way that the top and sides of a greenhouse enclosure does is not valid. To the contrary, a gaseous atmosphere is conducive to the convective cooling that occurs in the absence of an enclosure. It could be argued that CO2 along with the other gaseous components of the atmosphere in fact helps to cool the Earth’s surface.Definition 2Another common theme among the various descriptions of the effect is that the ‘greenhouse gases’ serve as a ‘blanket’ keeping the earth warm.The CritiqueA simple experiment to test the validity of this argument is to appear naked outside on a cold evening and observe how long the blanket of ‘greenhouse gases’ in the atmosphere keeps you warm. Air warmed by body heat rises by buoyancy and is replaced by cooler air from the surroundings, causing rapid cooling down and shivering. An actual blanket is a flexible insulating enclosure that reduces the rate at which body heat is lost to the surroundings. Thus the atmosphere is more given to being an agent for cooling by way of natural convection.Definition 3A regular description of the ‘greenhouse gas’ heating mechanism is that referred to as ‘back radiation’. Atmospheric gases such as CO2, having a dipole moment, absorb some incoming solar radiation and some of the IR radiation the Earth’s surface radiates toward free space. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, ‘re-radiated energy in the IR portion of the spectrum is trapped within the atmosphere keeping the surface temperature warm’. This ‘trapping’ is assumed to occur as the surface radiates to the atmosphere and the atmosphere radiates back to the surface.The CritiqueThe radiation emitted from the warmer surface absorbed by the colder atmosphere is readily detected by orbiting satellites. However, back radiation from the colder atmosphere to the warmer surface heating the surface further violates the Second Law of Thermodynamics.There are two problems with that amount of down-welling radiation: the atmosphere is not a blackbody with unit emissivity and equally, is not radiating toward a receptive absorber. Yet it is depicted as radiating heat downwards to the warmer Earth’s surface in direct violation of the Second Law.The flow of heat is always from the hotter surface to the colder surface as required by the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Nowhere in the radiation field between the two surfaces is the flux of radiant energy equal to that which either surface would emit if they were facing a complete void. Thus, the simple use of the Stefan-Boltzmann term, δT4 to characterize the emission from a source of radiation in the manner that depends only on the temperature of the source without considering the temperature of the surroundings receiving the radiation, is a misapplication of the equation and the notion that a colder source can transfer radiant energy to a warmer object is a misapplication of the Stefan-Boltzmann equation and a violation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.It would therefore be clear that the application of the Stefan-Boltzmann term to simply characterize radiant energy being transferred from an object to its surroundings without reference to the conditions of the surroundings in radiative contact with that object is a misapplication of the equation.It would be incorrect to talk in terms of radiation exchanging, since transfer occurs only from warmer to cooler matter, from higher energy level to lower energy level.Definition 4A proposed new definition of the greenhouse theory to overcome the objections raised against warming by back radiation argues that IR absorbing ‘greenhouse gases’ hinder radiative transport from the Earth’s surface upwards and aid to keep the surface warm and warmer than it would otherwise be in the absence of those gases.The CritiqueThe definition ignores the fact that those gases themselves emit radiation to free space adding to radiation loss from the system. Radiation loss to free space from the earth’s surface and its atmosphere is essentially the same with or without presence of absorbing gases for the following reasons: the cooling by radiation to free space is a one-step process; in the presence of an atmosphere, it is a two-step process with the same loss, with or without, the absorbing and emitting gaseous atmosphere. When talking about radiation, it is absorbed radiation or emitted radiation that is being considered.Definition 5In many of the various definitions, attempt is made to prove that ‘greenhouse gases’ in the atmosphere keep the Earth warm, warmer than it would otherwise be in the absence of an atmosphere as conveyed by the following [http://enviropedia.org] quote:“This process (radiation trapping) makes the temperature rise in the atmosphere just as it does in the greenhouse. This is the Earth’s natural greenhouse effect and keeps the Earth 33°C warmer than it would (otherwise) be without an atmosphere, at an average of 15°C.”The CritiqueLogically that argues that if the Earth had no atmosphere, its average temperature would be -18°C rather than its current temperature of 15°C. Such a temperature is based on calculated ones, that is ‘otherwise’ ones. The calculations arise from several mistaken assumptions. The most obvious one diminishes the solar radiation input by 37% from the Earth’s cloud albedo while simultaneously taking no account of any lessening of the IR radiation emitted to free space by the same blocking clouds. Equally, all IR radiating entities on the surface are assumed to be blackbodies with unit emissivity. The calculation that yields the -18°C temperature is obviously mistaken. The question is considered and covered in detail in the ‘Cold Earth Fallacy’.Further argument used to illustrate the greenhouse effect of CO2 is the atmosphere of Venus, which is almost entirely [965,000 ppm] CO2. Based upon its distance to the Sun relative to that of the Earth, and using the Earth’s average temperature, Venus surface temperature should be about 280°C. Yet the measured value is about 465°C. This difference is attributed to the strong greenhouse effect of its higher CO2 concentration. The difference is more correctly attributable to Venus’ high surface pressure and the adiabatic compression of the atmosphere adjacent to its surface. Venus’ surface temperature would be just as warm if its atmosphere consisted of any gas whose compressibility was the same as that of CO2. The temperatures in the Mohave Desert and the Dead Sea are higher than the temperatures of surrounding areas at sea level. That is not a greenhouse effect but is caused by adiabatic compression of the higher pressures at their elevations below sea level.Definition 6All atmospheric gases that are believed to be ‘greenhouse gases’ absorb IR radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface. Their absorption spectra are well known and it is relatively easy to calculate the radiation flux, those gases absorb from the Earth’s IR emission.The CritiqueThe problem arises when those radiation fluxes are translated into a resultant temperature rise while ignoring the fact that atmospheric gas is being simultaneously cooled by radiating to the unlimited sink of free space.EpilogueIn one of science’s first ‘thought experiments’ Pierre Prevost (1751–1839) conjectured that a hot body absorbed less radiation from a cold body than the reverse, and that both would eventually reach the same temperature. Thus, the theory of radiant exchanges came into being, a view that predated the more thorough understanding of the Laws of Thermodynamics that came later. Yet it is noted that aspects of Prevost’s 200-year-old theory continue to be applied in regard to ‘net flow’ of heat – a concept that radiation flows both downhill and uphill. The latter flow is a violation of the Second Law, which informs us that a hot body can absorb no radiation from a cold body to make it warmer still.Radiative greenhouse supporters have theorized a blackbody as an all-absorbing entity, capable of absorbing and retaining its own radiation to elevate its temperature and have used radiant exchanges in support of their arguments.[S]o far no way has been found to be able to readily transpose or correlate experiments conducted in the contained, static, isothermal and isobaric conditions of a laboratory to the great vastness of earth’s atmosphere.ConclusionThe various stated definitions of the greenhouse effect have been subjected to the rigorous scrutiny and application of the fundamental laws of physics and thermodynamics. They were found to be unreal, and unless some new definition can be put forward that satisfies and complies with those laws, it can only be concluded that the concept of a ‘greenhouse gas’ or a ‘greenhouse effect’ has not been demonstrated and is thus without merit.3 Chemists Conclude CO2 Greenhouse Effect Is ‘Unreal’, Violates Laws Of Physics, ThermodynamicsBecause the issue of climate change is political this article gives an objective read.WRITTEN BY H. STERLING BURNETT ONMAR 12, 2020. POSTED IN LATEST NEWSWhy Climate Change Is A Losing Issue For RepublicansMembers of the Republican caucus seem not to have learned the lessons of the 2018 election cycle: Climate change is a loser for Republicans trying to play the “me too” game by offering policies intended to demonstrate liberals aren’t the only ones fighting it.Unless one already buys into the delusion that carbon dioxide (CO2) is a pollutant—it’s not, and Republicans should be smarter than to believe it is—then there is no reason the federal government should be intervening in energy markets more than it wrongheadedly already does to fight climate change.To be fair, the climate bills offered by various Republicans in recent weeks are a far cry from the socialist, top-down laws—especially the Green New Deal—being pushed by radical Democrats, including each of the remaining Democratic candidates for the party’s nomination for the presidency.There are no carbon taxes, cap-and-trade schemes, or specific technological mandates in the Republican climate bills.Instead, some Republicans are pushing tree-planting programs and offering subsidies and support for particular technologies to reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.Some Republicans would subsidize the greater use of technologies to sequester carbon dioxide produced at power plants.But—as Steve Milloy, founder of JunkScience.com, notes in an article on American Greatness—although it is technically possible to capture carbon dioxide and inject it underground, there is not enough space underground to store significant amounts of carbon dioxide produced each year permanently.Additionally, the so-called carbon-capture process is expensive. The federal government and private utilities combined have already dumped approximately $10 billion down the black hole of carbon capture and storage.Despite that investment, Milloy notes, “Little-to-no CO2 has been stored. But lots of money has been wasted.”The same Republican proposals would also toss subsidies to technologies already in use by the oil and gas industry.Oil producers have long pumped compressed carbon dioxide, captured from power plants, into wells to enhance resource recovery.Indeed, “enhanced oil recovery” (EOR) often makes economic sense, with the oil produced covering the additional cost of using carbon dioxide to recover it.Operators already receive a federal tax credit of $35 per ton when they use this recovery method. So there is no need for additional support.Arguably, government subsidies for the increased use of EOR will not actually reduce carbon dioxide levels, because EOR produces, on balance, a net increase in carbon dioxide.The additional oil recovered, when it is burned, will produce more carbon dioxide than the amount pumped underground to enhance well production.Another Republican proposal is to plant a trillion trees. In truth, I’ve only got a few complaints about the trillion tree bill. Active forest management has its merits.Many federal forests have more dead and dying trees than growing, thriving trees. Simply managing forests for sustained economic profit by allowing increased logging, along with required replanting, like states and private foresters do, would increase jobs, provide a sustainable supply of timber, improve air and water quality and habitat for species, and reduce the threat and high costs of wildfires.In the process, for those worried about it, it would increase the amount of carbon dioxide stored in forest soils and within the trees themselves, and prevent the massive release of carbon dioxide during wildfires.Rather than a big government tree-planting effort, however, the federal government should simply remove regulatory hurdles to the sustainable harvest of timber from suitable federal lands and, as required under existing law, have logging companies reforest them.There is certainly little justification for giving money to foreign governments to plant trees, as the bill does. Why should U.S. taxpayers subsidize often corrupt foreign government programs more than they already do?In truth, these bills are less about preventing climate change, which humans cannot, in fact, control than about giving Republicans political cover on the climate issue.Public opinion surveys, however, consistently show the climate is just not a top issue for most people, and it is even less important to Republican voters than to voters in general.As a result, Republicans playing climate “me too” are likely to lose more support from their own base than they will gain from independents worried about the climate.As evidence, James Taylor, director of the Arthur B. Robinson Center for Climate and Environmental Policy at The Heartland Institute (where I also work as a senior fellow), noted in the 2018 mid-term elections that more than half of 43 Republicans who were part of the Congressional Climate Solutions Caucus (CSC), a bipartisan coalition of federal legislators who supported climate change reduction policies, lost their reelection bids.On an issue like climate change, one used by radical leftists and progressives to gain ever greater control over people’s lives, Republicans can’t out-liberal the liberals. Nor should they try.Comments (1)JOHN PLUMMERMAR 12, 2020 AT 2:49 PM | #Absolutely right. When it comes to “fighting” our ever-changing climate, right wing parties should never try to out out-liberal the liberals! Instead they should take the initiative: Demand that climate policies be determined by real-world scientific data, not computer model projections dispensed to us by the high priests of this oh-so-fashionable, doomsayer religion! ReplyWhy Climate Change Is A Losing Issue For Republicans