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Thanks for your question! The Second Congo War is an armed conflict that takes place on the territory of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC, formerly Zaire) from 1998 to 2002, with a formal end on June 30, 2003. It involved nine African countries, and around thirty armed groups, making it the largest inter-state war in the history of contemporary Africa. It is also nicknamed the “great African war” or the “(first) African world war”. It is also called “second national liberation war” This conflict has led to numerous Congolese rapes and massacres and has led, according to sources, to the death of 183,000 people according to European demographers. to around 4 to 4.5 million Congolese mainly from famine and disease according to an International report. Rescue Committee. Millions more have been displaced from their land or have found refuge in neighboring countries.Origins of WarThe presence of Rwandan troops in the DRC was motivated by the plan to plunder mineral resources in the region. This is confirmed by a UN report requested by the Security Council which indicates, from interviews conducted by the group of experts, that the Rwandan army remained mainly to procure goods.The report also describes the strategy of armed groups in the area to plunder the basement of resources for their benefit in the context of massacres and rapes.The new Rwandan army, the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), dominated by the Tutsis, began to arm the Tutsi Banyamulenge in eastern Zaire. This intervention was denounced by the government of Zaire by President Mobutu Sese Seko.Rwanda and Uganda began to deliver arms and finance the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of the Congo (AFDL) led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila.Change of allianceWhen Laurent-Désiré Kabila took control of the capital in May 1997, he had to face many obstacles to govern the country which he renamed “Democratic Republic of Congo” (DRC). Behind the scenes, many groups were trying to monopolize plots of power, notably foreign debtors, eager to keep their influence.Furthermore, the conspicuous presence of Rwandans in the capital irritated the Congolese, who were beginning to see Kabila as the toy of foreign powers. Tensions between the new government and Rwanda reach their peak on July 14, 1998, when Kabila dismisses his Rwandan chief of staff, James Kabarebe, and replaces him with a Congolese.It seems that Kabila felt that he had sufficiently secured his Congolese base, to put some distance with the nations which had allowed him to come to power.Two weeks later, Kabila abandoned these diplomatic steps. He thanked Rwanda for its assistance, and requested the withdrawal of the country from the Rwandan and Ugandan military forces. Rwandan military advisers were evacuated from Kinshasa in 24 hours unceremoniously.In Kinshasa, after an anti-Tutsi media campaign set up by the authorities, hundreds of Tutsi Rebel were lynched. The people most concerned about this decision were the Banyamulenge (rwandan refugees) from eastern Congo. They were also used by Rwanda to influence the eastern policy of the DRC. The persistent tension with their Hutu neighbors had been one of the triggers of the First Congo War and will once again be the source of this conflict.Factions in the Congo conflictThe numerous armed groups can be divided into four main components. Because of the open nature of this war, these categorizations are questionable, alliances or splits having been numerous, conflicting interests and evolving.On the other hand, the categories “Hutu” and “Tutsi” are facilities forethnic categorizations resulting from colonization, widely used in the media and by political propaganda.Tutsi forcesincluding the national armies of Tutsi-dominated governments in Rwanda and Burundi, militias created by the Banyamulenge Tutsi populations in the DRC and Goma-based Congolese Rassemblement congolais pour la Démocratie forces, close to the Banyamulenge. These Tutsi groups are mainly active in North and South Kivu, and in other central territories in the direction of Kinshasa.Their goals are to guarantee the national security of Rwanda and Burundi (Congo-Kinshasa refusing to arrest the former Hutu refugees on its territory), to protect the Tutsis present in Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), to limit the growing influence of Uganda in the region, and finally to take control of the natural resources of the territory of the DRC.Hutu forcesincluding the Rwandan Hutus responsible for defending Hutus during the 1994 genocide, the Burundian rebels seeking to overthrow their government, the Congolese Hutus and the associated Mai-Mai militias. The main Hutu group is the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda ( FDLR), operating in Kivu. Its objectives are to expel foreign Tutsi forces and the Banyamulenge, and to overthrow the Tutsi governments in power in Rwanda and Burundi. In addition, the control of natural resources is also crucial here.Forces aligned with Ugandaincluding the Ugandan army and various rebel groups supported by Uganda, such as the Congo Liberation Movement (MLC), which essentially controls the north of the Democratic Republic of Congo. They want to secure the borders of Uganda, prevent the emergence of a strong Congolese state, limit the influence of Rwanda in the region, and also benefit from Congolese natural resources.Forces aligned on Kinshasaincluding the National Congolese Army, various Mai-Mai nationalist groups. They control the west and the south of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Their primary goal is the restoration of national unity, with control over territories and borders, and the control of natural resources.“Ethnic” violence between Hutu and Tutsi forces has regularly been at the center of the conflict, with a mutual fear of eliminating their group. The Hutu forces and the government of Kinshasa have established relations of alliance and proximity, their common interest being the expulsion of the regular armies and associated groups from Uganda and Rwanda. As forces from Uganda and Rwanda worked together to conquer territories at the expense of Kinshasa, competition for natural resources created a crack in their coalition.Nature of the conflictThis war was not a war of great battles and clearly defined front lines. While many regular and trained troops have been involved, the leaders of these nations have been reluctant to involve their own troops in open combat. The equipment and training of these national armies represents a significant investment for poor states. The vast Congo area fragmented the armed groups, and since then the regular units have essentially been stationed around strategic points, such as ports and airports, major roads, rather than in combat zones. Thus, the war was mainly the result of poorly organized military groups. These poorly trained and poorly disciplined troops were responsible for frequent war crimes.Peace is all the more difficult to establish as these militias continue their abuses, despite the cease-fire decreed by their superiors. The main part of the conflict focused on the control of Congo’s natural resources. The Great Lakes states paid for their military expenses by exploiting the minerals, diamonds and rare woods of eastern Congo. The occupying forces levied significant taxes on the local population and economy, and requisitioned the food stocks in the region. A competition for control over resources between anti-Kabila forces also emerged in the conflict. In 1999, Ugandan and Rwandan troops clashed in the town of Kisangani.The RCD split into two factions, weakening the anti-Kabila coalition and now limiting its operations to the Eastern part of the DRC.The course of the warThe initial rebel offensive threatened the Kabila government for a few weeks, which was only saved by the rapid intervention of several other African states. For a moment, it seemed that we were heading towards an open conventional war between several nations on the territory of the DRC. Such an outcome was avoided when the front line stabilized in 1999 . Consequently, the conflict was the result of irregular military forces, with little modification in the territories held by each other.Rebels attack KinshasaThe August 2, 1998, Bomaamulenge’s troops based in Goma mutinied. Rwanda provided immediate assistance to the Banyamulenge, and in early August an armed and organized group was formed, the Rassemblement congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD), composed first of Banyamulenge and supported by Rwanda and Uganda. This group quickly took control of the mineral resources of the eastern provinces of the country, and took the city of Goma as its center of operations and many Congolese civilians were killed as wild animals. RCD also took control of the cities of Bukavu and Uvira in Kivu. The Rwandan government, made up of Tutsis and allied with Uganda, and with the benevolence of Burundi, occupied a portion of northeastern Congo. To counter these new occupiers, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila called for the help of Congolese self defense groups such as Mai—Mai in Eastern Congo and began to mount populations against Tutsi rebels, which caused many lynchings in the streets of Kinshasa, most often by torture of the tire. On August 12, a major loyal to the government of Kinshasa called for resistance on a Bunia radio. The Rwandan government also claimed a significant part of eastern Congo, considered to be “historically Rwandan”.Rwandans also claimed that Kabila was planning genocide against Tutsis in the Kivu region in order to have an excuse for their occupation, genocide and killings in DR Congo. Doubts remain as to the reality of this threat against the Banyamulenge, and its use by the Rwandan army as a pretext for territorial aspirations. In a bypass movement, the RCD rebels seized an airliner and landed at the government base on the Kitona base. On the Atlantic coast, where they were joined by mutinous government troops. Several cities in the east and around Kitona fell under the blows of the RCD, Uganda and Rwanda. Diplomatic conciliation efforts have been in vain. On August 13, the rebels took possession of the Inga hydroelectric complex which supplied electricity to Kinshasa and the port of Matadi, and which was responsible for most of the capital's supply of food and hydrocarbons. Kisangani diamond center fell to rebels on August 23 and forces from the east began threatening Kinshasa in late August. Uganda, which refrained from supporting the RCD with Rwanda, also created a rebel group which it exclusively helped, the Mouvement de Liberation du Congo (MLC). Despite the displacement of the front lines, fighting continued across the country. Even as rebel forces advanced toward Kinshasa, government forces continued to fight for control of the eastern cities. Tutsi rebels with whom Kabila formed alliances were still major forces in the east of the country.Kabila wins regional alliesThe rebel offensive interrupted Kabila’s efforts, which were starting to bear fruit. The first to respond were members of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Although the SADC members were officially bound by a mutual defense treaty against external aggression, several of them took a neutral position in the conflict. However, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Angola quickly supported the Kabila government after meeting in the capital of Zimbabwe, Harare, on August 19. The motivations of these countries varied:Angolacaught in a 25-year civil war against the UNITA rebels, Angola wanted to eliminate the UNITA bases in southern Congo, which supplied the rebellion in exchange for Angolan diamonds. It was for the same reason that Angola briefly participated in the First Congo War to oust Mobutu from power. The Angolan government did not believe that a new president would be preferable to Kabila and feared that instability in the Congo would benefit UNITA.ZimbabwePresident Robert Mugabe was the most ardent support of aid to Kabila, because he was interested in the natural riches of the Congo and wished to increase his prestige and influence in Africa. Kabila and Mugabe had signed a contract worth $ 200 million for companies owned by Mugabe and his family. Various mining contracts were negotiated in 1998 with companies under the control of the Mugabe family. Mugabe was also considered to be sent by President Nelson Mandela, as ambassador of South African interests. The war was also an opportunity to be confronted with another African president, Yoweri Museveni from Uganda.NamibiaPresident Sam Nujoma had interests in Congo similar to those of Mugabe, with members of his family active in the Congolese mines. Namibia itself had little interest to defend and the intervention was denounced by the population and the leaders of the opposition. Several other nations joined Kabila in this conflict for several reasons in the weeks that followed:ChadKabila had initially expected support from French-speaking Africa, but after the Libreville summit in Gabon on September 24, only Chad decided to send a thousand men. For France, which encouraged this operation, it was a question of regaining its influence in Central Africa, lost since the genocide in Rwanda in 1994.LibyaThe government of Muammar Gaddafi provides planes to transport troops from Chad. Gaddafi would have seen an opportunity for financial profit, but also a way to break the situation of international isolation imposed by the United States after the destruction in 1988 of Pan Am flight 103 over Lockerbie, in Scotland.SudanIn September, unconfirmed reports indicated that Sudanese government forces were fighting rebels in Orientale Province, near the Sudanese and Ugandan borders. However, Sudan has not established a lasting and significant presence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.A war on several fronts was launched. In September 1998, Zimbabwean forces were sent to Kinshasa to counter rebel attacks threatening the outskirts of the city, the rebels having sent forces from the south through the borders of Angola and from the west through the enclave of Cabinda., against the rebel besiegers. This intervention by several nations saved the Kabila government, which pushed the front lines away from the capital. However, the rebel forces were not defeated, and there was a direct confrontation with the national armies of Uganda and Rwanda. In November 1998, a new group supported by Uganda, the Mouvement de Liberation du Congo appeared in the north of the country. On November 6, President Paul Kagame first admitted that Rwandan military forces were assisting rebels in the DRC for security reasons, apparently following a request from Nelson Mandela to advance peace talks. The January 18, 1999, Rwanda, Uganda, Angola, Namibia and Zimbabwe decided on a ceasefire at the summit in Windhoek, Namibia, but the Democratic Republic of the Congo was not invited. The fighting continued. Outside Africa, many states remained neutral and called for an end to the violence. These states were reluctant to send troops to the region. Many western mining and diamond companies, particularly American, Canadian, and Israeli, supported the Kabila government in exchange for trade deals. These actions earned them many criticisms of human rights groups.The Lusaka peace agreementThe April 5, 1999, tensions between the RCD over Banyamulenge domination came to a head when RCD leader Ernest Wamba dia Wamba moved his command center from Goma to Kisangani, an area controlled by Uganda. Another sign of rupture appeared when President Museveni of Uganda and Kabila signed a ceasefire on April 18 in Sirte, Libya, after mediation by Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, and to which both the RCD and Rwanda refused to take part. The May 16, Wamba was ousted from the RCD leadership in favor of a pro-Rwanda figure. Seven days later, the different RCD factions clashed for control of Kisangani. On June 8, rebel factions met to try to establish a common front against Kabila. These circumstances contributed to the first cease-fire of the war. In July 1999, the agreement of cease-fire agreement was signed by the six warring countries (Democratic Republic of Congo, Namibia, Angola, Zimbabwe, Rwanda, and Uganda) and the 1st August, the MLC. RCD refused to sign. According to this agreement, the forces of the different parties, under the control of a joint military commission, will cooperate in the disarmament and control of the armed groups present in the territory, and in particular those identified as being at the origin of the genocide in Rwanda from 1994. But the disarmament of these militias is long overdue.The United Nations Security Council ordered the deployment of 90 liaison officers in August 1999 to assist the cease-fire. However, in the months that followed, both accused themselves of regular breaches of the truce. The ceasefire remained fragile. The tension between Uganda and Rwanda reached its breaking point in early August when units of the Uganda Peoples Defense Force and the Rwanda Patriotic Army clashed in Kisangani. In November, government television in Kinshasa declared that Kabila’s army had been rebuilt and was ready to fulfill its “mission to liberate the country”. Rwandan forces launched a large offensive and approached Kinshasa before being recalled. The November 30, 1999, the United Nations authorized a force of 5,500 men, the United Nations Organization Mission for the Congo, better known by its acronym, MONUC, to supervise the cease-fire. However, fighting continued between rebels and government forces, and between Rwandan and Ugandan forces, particularly between Uganda and Rwanda in Kisangani in May and June 2000 during the Six Day War.The August 9, 2000, a government offensive in Equateur Province was stopped along the Ubangui River near Libenge by MLC forces. Despite the failure of military operations, bilateral diplomatic efforts or through the United Nations, the African Union and the South African Development Community failed to make a difference.The assassination of KabilaIn January 2001, Laurent-Désiré Kabila was assassinated by one of his bodyguards. The sponsor could not be identified, but Kabila’s allies were notoriously exceeded by his duplicates, and in particular the delay in implementing a roadmap for the introduction of a democratic constitution leading to free elections. Angolan troops were seen during the Kabila funeral procession in Kinshasa. However, the transition was easy. By a unanimous vote in the Congolese Parliament, his adoptive, Joseph Kabila, was appointed president to replace him. This was largely due to behind the scenes efforts of Robert Mugabe. In February, the new president met with Rwandan President Paul Kagame in the United States. Rwanda, Uganda and the rebels agreed on United Nations mediation for a plan for peace. Uganda and Rwanda began to withdraw their troops from the frontline territory. In April 2001, a group of United Nations experts investigated the illegal exploitation of diamonds, cobalt, coltan, gold and other lucrative resources in the Congo. The report designated Rwanda, Uganda and Zimbabwe as the main countries exploiting Congolese resources, and recommended the imposition of sanctions by the Security Council.The end of the war: the transitional governmentThree rebel groups supported by Uganda, the MLC, RCD-N and RCD-ML, signed a ceasefire, the Gbadolite Agreement, on December 31, 2002. They had to stop the fighting in the Isiro-Bafwasende-Beni-Watsa area, and to accept the arrival of United Nations observers in this area. The agreement also included guarantees of freedom of movement for civilian populations and humanitarian organizations. Despite the official end of hostilities, fighting continued. During January and February 2003, MONUC observed numerous troop movements, mainly between Uganda, Rwanda and their respective zones of occupation. The 1st May 2003, Uganda withdrew its army from Bunia and the Ituri in accordance with the Luanda Agreement. Fighting took place between the Hema and the Lendu between May 7 and 16 in Bunia. The June 30, 2003, the formation of the Transitional Government officially confirms the end of the Second Congo War.EffectsThe conflict had many effects, mainly negative. The war destroyed the economy of this already impoverished region, the investors having moved away, and the resources having served to fuel the war more than to develop the countries. Much of the already moribund infrastructure has been destroyed or damaged. The continuation and the feeding of the ethnic tensions which had already generated the genocide in Rwanda, rapidly accentuated the post-colonial ethnic divisions in the Congo which led to this war and its consequences.Rape of women was used as a means of terror and domination during the conflict. In October 2004, the group of human rights by Amnesty International counted 40,000 cases of rape in the previous six years, the majority of which had occurred in South Kivu. This is an incomplete table, as humanitarian and international organizations do not have access to many of the combat zones, and only women who have identified themselves are counted. The number of women raped is generally estimated to be much higher. All forces present in the conflict have been guilty of rape, although militias and several non-regular army groups are the most guilty. Medically, an abnormally high number of women suffering from vaginal fistulas has been found, which is generally the result of gang rapes. The endemic nature of rape in this conflict has contributed to the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases , including AIDS, In the region.The number of deaths resulting from the war is estimated at 3.3 million people until 2002, a number drawn from investigations conducted by the International Rescue Committee 12. The majority of these deaths (80-90%) result from illnesses and malnutrition, the cause of which is blamed on the inadequacies of health services and agriculture, and the displacement of refugees. The 2004 IRC report in fact estimates this number of deaths between 3.4 and 4.4 million, a difference resulting from the inaccuracies of the simulation model used.In medical terms, many areas did not receive the malaria vaccine, and AIDS spread with the rapes. In childbirth, 1 in 3 women died from lack of care. Simple illnesses, such as appendicitis, led to death for lack of medical personnel. Other effects include the displacement of approximately 3.4 million people within the DRC, as well as the impoverishment of hundreds of thousands of others. The majority of the displaced come from the east of the country. Almost 2 million people have also been moved to neighboring countries, Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. Recently, some have feared a third Congo war. In fact, if the end of the conflict was fixed for June 2003, unfortunately, since that date, atrocities against civilians, and acts of war continue, including many rapes.