National Honor Society Faculty Character Reference Form: Fill & Download for Free

In order to fully answer this question, we need to understand the history of Shinto-Buddhism and their development in relation with the wider Japanese culture. This is a very complex task, so here I will only present the main features of this fascinating process. For a complete overview, please check out my article dedicated to this topic: Beginning of organized religion and foreign contacts in Ancient Japan (The continent of Asia, Shinto-Buddhism, and their contribution to the statecraft of Japan).A common identity, based on some core shared values, can be identified at the foundation of any civilization. In ancient times, religion played a key role in shaping a general conscience. Starting from a wide range of archaic animistic beliefs, Shinto slowly transformed into a state religion, legitimizing the hegemony of the clan leaders and the rule of the first Japanese kings called Okimi. Shinto as we know it today is the result of a complex combination of folklore myths from immemorial times, a constant evolution of collective moral consciousness, economic prosperity closely connected with the division of labor and political intervention, in which the Shinto beliefs were reorganized for personal gains. The second step was the adoption of Mahayana Buddhism in the fifth century AD. Buddhism immediately became a work ethic and a guide for daily interactions between individuals. It also provided the moral support for amazing political, economic and military reforms. In time, Shinto and Buddhism became more and more a syncretic religion, building a strong base for the absolute authority of the Japanese emperor. Furthermore, the debates on the topic of religion provided a vigorous source of inspiration for the first great Japanese works in the fields of statecraft, philosophy, history, literature, architecture, sculpture, painting, music and dancing. Finally, an elementary form of political organization will grow into a state when the neighboring countries acknowledge its existence as a sovereign entity. This is even more true for Japan because the ancient Chinese and Korean states invented a writing system much earlier. At least for the first phases of the Antiquity, all the written sources mentioning the Land of the Rising Sun are foreign. In short, this article wants to answer two important questions: How did the particular spiritual and material elements interact with each other in order to change mentalities, politics and the ancient Japanese society as a whole? and, In what manner did religion and the awareness of otherness contribute to the rise and the consolidation of incipient Japanese statality?The Buddhist faith grew exponentially in the Nara jidai, but Shinto still remained the main religion of Japan. With the exception of a small, highly educated elite, Buddhism was practiced as a complementary spiritual form to the native Shinto. Regardless of how autonomous the Buddhist monasteries became, the clan leaders continued to have the last say in their provinces, as imperial agents sent to control them gradually became more and more corrupt. In their capacity as earthly representatives of the kami, aristocrats sponsored the Buddhist temples from the region that they controlled, conducting Buddhist ceremonies in a Shinto manner. The common folk became more and more enthusiastic about Buddhism, but the vast majority of them ignored the perspective of spiritual enlightenment and salvation, directing their prayers and beliefs towards their everyday problems.Buddhism strengthened social control by imposing a new set of ethics. The architecture of Shinto shrines and religious representations of kamis were also marked by Buddhist art. Before the spread of Buddhism, human-like kami representations did not exist. Some Shinto deities were even worshiped at Buddhist monasteries as protectors of the region, meaning that the archaic tradition of a guardian kami that had powers limited to the space of a local community still continued. Sonoda Koyu underlines the metaphysics behind this peculiar situation. ‘With the rise of increasingly close ties between the native and foreign faiths, doctrines were devised to explain relationships between a protective kami and a protected Buddha. These involved such ideas as a particular kami and Buddha existing as one body and a kami manifesting the essence of Buddha. Therefore the rapid spread of Buddhism during the Nara period was enmeshed - socially, institutionally, and theologically - with native kami worship, making it impossible to understand the development of either without seeing interaction between the two, an interaction commonly referred to as kami-Buddha fusion.’In just a century and a half, Shinto and Buddhism seriously influenced Japanese society, but at the same time, the two religions laid the foundations for the first Japanese state. Matsumae Takashi perfectly describes the situation. ‘The kami were seen as sentient creatures, one step higher than human beings but still possessed by carnal passions and in need of the Buddha’s salvation. On the other hand, kami were regarded as guardians of the Buddhist law. (...) Shinto explained the origins of the Japanese state and sanctified the position and functions of emperors, even though aristocrats below the emperor claimed descent from other kami. Shinto, moreover, linked the court to its own past and to the animistic nature worship that still underlay the whole structure of Japanese society. (...) Shinto was retained in the Japanese belief structure, even though it never developed the metaphysical worldview or system of ethics that characterize world religions. Perhaps this was because of its close connection with Japanese Buddhism, which had enough metaphysics and ethics to serve both.’In terms of trade, technology, arts, literature, military strategy, administrative organization and techniques of good governance, the process of assimilating and borrowing from China and Korea was of utmost importance for the maturing of the Japanese civilization. These mostly secular variables became interwoven with the religious life of the society to such an extent that the phenomenon of ethnogenesis cannot be understood by treating the factors separately. Incipient Shinto was related to other agricultural and animistic religious manifestations from Asia but later evolved as a completely different religion. Clan chieftains justified their sacred authority by taking the role of intermediaries between the people and the gods. Starting as a wide, unpremeditated range of colorful myths, Shinto was partially reshaped to grant the emperor his sacred nature. Buddhism arrived to enhance this absolute authority, offered a prestige that would eventually make the neighboring countries respect and fully recognize Japan as a sovereign entity, and smoothed the road for radical reforms. From a metaphysical perspective, Shinto influenced Buddhism by offering it a more collectivistic trait, while Buddhism came with a complex system of ethics that was completely lacking in the Shinto teleology. The religious syncretism encouraged a remarkable social cohesion which was behind the success of the imperial system, but it also heavily inspired and transformed all the philosophical and artistic forms of expression from the archipelago. Japan managed to adapt the foreign components to its own particular needs. At the end of this procedure, the unique and authentic character of the Country of the Rising Sun emerged.The influence of religion and foreign contacts on the statecraft and national identity of ancient Japan have been analyzed by numerous scholars. Probably the most important ones are Okazaki Takashi, Matsumae Takashi, Sonoda Koyu and Delmer M. Brown. Their contributions have stirred fascinating debates about the circular relationship between material and spiritual elements in history. Did archaic animistic beliefs develop into a national religion thanks to economic prosperity and advanced political strategies, or were economic prosperity and the centralization of an efficient state made possible by the very strong persuasion of pre-existing common spiritual values? Or was the result just a compromise between two complementary phenomena? Do contacts with more developed civilizations encourage the creation of a unique culture or inhibit it because of the imitation?Since the very beginning, the prehistoric culture of the Japanese archipelago was heavily influenced by the continent of Asia. First of all, it’s undeniable that the Incipient Jomon hunter-gatherers arrived in Japan by boat and via land bridges that later disappeared. Second of all, agriculture and iron tools were introduced from China or Korea or both. As in many other ancient societies, the agricultural revolution radically changed the lifestyle of the people. The hunter-gatherers were slowly replaced by a fully sedentary agricultural culture, the Yayoi. In time, the villages grew into tribe federations and from there into small kingdoms. Starting from the Kofun era, Korea was divided into three kingdoms: Koguryo, Silla and Paekche. Those ancient states worked as intermediaries for the cultural, technological and economic transmission from China to Japan. New weapons, military tactics, advanced carpeting techniques and Buddhism were introduced from there. Korea was also the prime source for imports of iron ingots. During the Asuka and Nara periods, Japan grew into a fully fledged civilization based on the model of the Chinese Tang dynasty. Inspired by the economic and cultural successes of the glorious Tang, the Japanese state was centralized under the absolute authority of the emperor, a reign also legitimized by Shinto and Buddhism.Foreign contacts also influenced the ancient Japanese perspective. Although Shinto is now an original and unique religion, in its first phases of development countless myths were borrowed from the Asian continent. Actually, Shinto is a rich source of folk tales and legends, later inspiring works of literature of universal value, simply because the founding pillars were based on varied cultural perspectives, carved by contrasting life experiences. Moreover, the later introduction of Buddhism altered the way Shinto was expressed in arts, added new stories to the traditional narrative, offered ethical perspectives and even adapted some of the animistic rituals, transforming them into more formal and complex ceremonies. Shinto as a state religion was not just a manipulated fraud work of fiction. In order to arrange a compelling force of political legitimization, the ancient scholars tried to choose and be inspired by the most popular and enduring myths from folklore. Even the most enlightened intellectuals of that era were very religious people and their work represented a middle ground between their own mystical beliefs and secular political necessity. By the virtue of this spiritual and material link, Shinto and the ancient Japanese state reached maturity at the same time and were both shaped by each other.While early Shinto progressed spontaneously from the bottom to the top of the pyramid, Buddhism was, first and foremost, used as a political tool. Initially introduced from Korea, the foreign faith was not well received by the native clans whose authority relied on the worship of traditional deities. The numerous aristocrats originating from Korea and China organized themselves around the Soga clan, promoting Buddhism not as a spiritual teaching, but more as a political ideology. Only after the downfall of the Soga family did the Japanese emperors fully recognize Buddhism as a state religion, investing large sums of money in order to consolidate it. Yet, until the late Nara jidai, with a few enlightened exceptions, most of the Japanese understood the Buddhist dogma in a very shallow way, praying for a plentiful harvest or for good health. The reasons behind the adoption of Buddhism were numerous. The Yamato kings wanted to be recognized as the equals of Korean and Chinese sovereigns, and a common religion could have facilitated a better diplomatic dialogue. Trade relations were also facilitated by shared spiritual values. Furthermore, the Japanese started to manifest geopolitical ambitions in the Korean Peninsula and they needed allies to accomplish their high goal. It is not by chance that Paekche, Japan’s most reliable ally, was the one who presented this faith to the Yamato rulers. As China was reunified under the Sui and Tang dynasties, the Japanese elite understood that great political and economic reforms could be faster implemented with the help of a new religion.The main physical features of Japan’s development are less difficult to quantify. From a demographic point of view, the hunter-gatherer society of the incipient Jomon was composed of migrators from Asia, but the Jomon culture flourished in almost complete isolation. The quality of life was significantly improved when they invented and began to trade pottery vessels and when they started to practice plant manipulation, a very early form of agriculture. Looking at the increasing size, complexity and number of the settlements, archaeologists estimated that the population grew from 100,000 to 300,000 inhabitants. Still, the hunter-gatherers were vulnerable to climate changes and their daily existence was very uncertain.Another revolution appeared with the Yayoi migration, when rice agriculture and bronze and iron tools were introduced. Agriculture forced people to settle in villages and work together to a greater extent. Their resources needed to be stockpiled and defended against other villages. The greatest warriors from each locality formed tribes, and by conquering their neighbors, several federations of tribes appeared. Being located closer to Korea and to the iron source, one of the tribes from Northern Kyushu achieved local military supremacy and in the third century AD became the kingdom of the Yamatai mentioned by the Chinese chronicles. Using superior weapons, obtaining more food thanks to better tools and having more resources from the trade with Korea and China, in the course of the next two centuries, the Yamatai advanced toward central Honshu, founding a new capital there. They were named the Yamato kingdom, and after using horse riders tactics inspired from Koguryo, they reached political hegemony in Japan. The rest of the smaller kingdoms either pledged allegiance or were gradually destroyed. In order to honor their victories, the Yamato kings erected huge burial mounds that gave the name of their era: Kofun.With the help of constant trade and advanced agricultural techniques, the Yamato kingdom cultivated vast areas of fertile land. In these auspicious conditions, the population grew and the Yamato kings could collect significant amounts of money from taxes. With larger resources at their disposal, they trained larger and better equipped armies, consolidating their authority by building larger burial mounds. Despite their success, the Korean kingdoms and Chinese empires were becoming even more powerful, posing a potential threat to the Yamato. It became clear that a change was needed, but the political elite was reluctant to radically alter their archaic way of life. Reforms were only moderate. The hesitation was utterly surpassed when Japanese forces were decisively defeated in Korea, and a Silla-Tang coalition could have mounted an invasion at any time. Placed under tremendous external pressure, the king and clan leaders put aside their differences and revolutionized the political, administrative, economic, military and cultural system of the country. At the same time, Shinto-Buddhism emerged as an ideological support.As we have noticed, the previous explanations identified religion, mentalities and ideas in general, as an effect of a material causality. Now we should look at the other side of the argument by saying that none of the great complements mentioned above could have been achieved without the qualitative variables. The Jomon and Yayoi pre-Shinto beliefs had many features from other parts of Asia. The archaeological sites point out, to an overwhelming extent, that the prehistoric population of Japan was religious to its roots. It’s undeniable that the fight for survival motivated the hunter-gatherers to innovate, but another factor was decisive: their inner force. The conviction that everything around them was magical pushed them to express this cosmological feeling in fertility rituals and art. The invention of pottery and other technological advancements were the result of a purpose driven conscience that life was cyclical, and not the other way around. Of course, these things would not have been possible without a friendly natural environment. Although this a necessary cause of the emergence of culture, it is not a sufficient one.The vast majority of scholars conclude that the kingdom of the Yamatai subdued its neighbors more by the force of religious persuasion, and less by military strength. The greatest example was the shaman queen Himiko. Even with the advantage of better weapons from Korea, no tribe was strong enough to subdue all of its neighbors. The ability of the Yamato kingdom to conquer most of Japan solely by military strength is considered even less probable. Technological advancements traveled fast, and after a while, the other kingdoms also adopted new strategies in warfare, and so the conflict reached a stalemate. For example, in her recent article ‘A Hypothesis for Early Kofun Rulership’, Gina Lee Barnes interpreted the apparition of burial mounds as Mother Goddess Worship. To be more precise, the burial mounds helped the Yamato kingdom to become the dominant political force in Japan. According to her, the Yamato kings obtained hegemony following a compromise anchored in religious authority. A coalition of clan chieftains gradually formed around the Yamato sovereigns whose authority and trust were consolidated by a shared early Shinto kami worship and the sacrality of political marriages between the Yamato aristocracy and nobles from other clans. In time, the kingdoms that refused to participate in this system of alliances were defeated by the Yamato coalition. To sum up, the Japanese elite from the Kofun era didn’t manufacture an artificial religion as a form of strengthening an already privileged position, but rather naturally climbed the ladder of power with the help of a spiritual structure that already existed. The making of large-scale projects came as a consequence of the fact that the whole society participated, especially because the population was grounded in archaic traditions that expressed their worldview.The logic of change was not dictated by improving material conditions. William Wayne Farris published a detailed study where he shows that the living standards and demographic and economic growth from the Asuka and Nara periods stagnated and weren’t much better than the ones from the previous era. How then can we explain the success of the reformatory process that we described in this article? A more plausible answer is that thanks to the considerable social ethos created by early Shinto, common traditions and the willingness to accept foreign ideas, the ancient Japanese elite developed an early national conscience. Seeking higher levels of education, they became aware of what was happening on the continent and were inspired by it. A tiny minority represented by leaders like Prince Shotoku had the idea that the shared spiritual framework needed to be supported by stronger pillars. This framework was the real engine of the revolutionary changes from the Classical Antiquity of Japan. Recapitulating, clans that remained loyal expanded together with the Yamato kingdom and their chieftains also erected burial mounds. This was seen by the Yamato sovereigns as a challenge to their reign. The Japanese kings also wished to be treated on equal ground when they talked with their counterparts from Korea and China. The solution for that legitimacy crisis was solved by claiming to be descendants of the most important kami of the Shinto pantheon, and not just any kami. Shinto was a collection of unrelated myths with no ranking system for deities. During the Asuka and Nara jidai, the central government reorganized the traditional faith, transforming the Japanese king into a sacred emperor. The act was officialized in the famous chronicles Kojiki and Nihon Shoki. In parallel, the ruling elite observed that Buddhism had the potential to further sanctify the institution of the emperor, making it stronger in domestic and foreign affairs. Understanding the general background, we can conclude that Buddhism in Japan had at least four stages of development. A initial phase began with the Paekche mission to the Yamato court. Back then Buddhism was embraced only by a small minority, mostly by clans of Korean or Chinese origin. After the crushing defeat at Baekgang, the doctrine was influenced by Silla and so the new religion in Japan was marked by northern and southern Chinese Buddhism. At this point Buddhism spread in all the corners of the country. The third step is represented by the rule of Emperor Tenmu, who integrated Buddhism as an official state religion. Finally, only in the late Nara jidai was the mystical and philosophical system of Buddhism fully comprehended by a broader elite educated according to the Tang model.If we analyze what happened in Nara jidai, it might look like Japan lost its own uniqueness and identity. In reality, the Japanese civilization matured during this process of assimilation. Just as many religious ideas came in different stages from Korea and China, the Japanese art and architecture was inspired from both South Chinese and North Chinese Buddhism, stimulating even more elaborate forms of expression. For instance, the Japanese borrowed the Buddhist iconography and philosophy, but they also adapted the paintings and literary works to the native perspective, highlighting themes like the sorrow of human existence and the fragility of life. As readers might notice in future chapters, the capacity to select and assimilate foreign ideas is one of the most enduring characteristics of the Japanese civilization.Sources used:Delmer M. Brown - The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1, Ancient Japan, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993Curtis Andressen - A short history of Japan from Samurai to Sony, Allen and Unwin, Canberra, 2002W. G. Beasley - The Japanese Experience. A short history of Japan, The Orion publishing group, London, 1999Kenneth Henshall - A history of Japan from Stone Age to Superpower, Palgrave Macmillan, New Zealand, 2012Donald Denoon, Mark Hudson, Gavan McCormack, Tessa Morris-Suzuki - Multicultural Japan: Palaeolithic to Postmodern, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2001W. Scott Morton, J. Kenneth Olenik, Charlton Lewis - Japan Its History and Culture: 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill Publishing, New York, 2005Patricia Buckley Ebrey, Anne Walthall, James Palais - East Asia. A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Houghton Mifflin Publishing, New York, 2009George Sansom - A History of Japan to 1334, Charles E. Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 1958Karl F. Friday - Japan Emerging: Premodern History to 1850, Westview Press, Colorado, 2012R.H.P. Mason & J.G. Caiger - A History of Japan Revised Edition, Tuttle Publishing, Singapore, 1997P. C. Swann- The Art of Japan From the Jomon to the Tokugawa Period, Greystone Press, New York, 1966Noritake Tsuda - A history of Japanese Art. From Prehistory to the Taisho Period, Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2009Penelope Mason - History of Japanese Art. Second Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2005Donald Keene - Seeds in the Heart. Japanese Literature from Earliest Times to the Late Sixteenth Century, Henry Holt and Company Publishing, New York, 1993John Dougill - Japan’s World Heritage Sites. Unique Culture, Unique Nature, Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2014William Wayne Farris - Japan to 1600: A Social and Economic History, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 2009William Wayne Farris - Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures Issues in the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1998Gina Lee Barnes - China, Korea and Japan The Rise of Civilization in East Asia, Thames and Hudson, New York, 1993Gina Lee Barnes - State formation in Japan. Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite, Routledge, London, 2007Gina Lee Barnes - A Hypothesis for Early Kofun Rulership, Japan review 27, 2014, pp. 3-29Wontack Hong - Yayoi Wave, Kofun Wave, and Timing: The Formation of the Japanese People and Japanese Language, Korean Studies Vol. 29, 2005, pp. 1-29Mark Hudson - Rice, Bronze, and Chieftains: An Archaeology of Yayoi Ritual, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 1992, pp. 139-189Naofumi Kishimoto - Dual Kingship in the Kofun Period as Seen from the Keyhole Tombs, Urban Scope publication, vol. 4, 2013, pp. 1-21Allan G. Grapard - Shrines Registered in Ancient Japanese Law. Shinto or not?, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, vol. 29, 2002, pp. 209-232Shigefuji Teruyuki - International exchange of Kofun period chieftains of Munakata Region and Okinoshima rituals, Saga University, Faculty of Culture and Education, pp. 89-136Koichi Yokoyama - Early Historic Archaeology in Japan, Nara National Cultural Properties Research Institute, 1976, pp. 27-41Jean-Pascal Bassino and Masanori Takashima - Paying the Price for Spiritual Enlightenment. Tax Pressure and Living Standards in Kofun and Asuka-Nara Japan (ca. 300-794 AD), Economic History Society Conference, University of Warwick, pp. 1-26, 2013Marija Gimbutas - Bronze Age Cultures in Central and Eastern Europe, Mouton & CO. Press, Paris, 1965Marija Gimbutas - The Kurgan Culture and the Indo-Europeanization of Europe. Selected articles from 1952 to 1993, Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph No. 18, Institute for the Study of Man Washington D. C., 1997Marija Gimbutas and Miriam Robbins Dexter - The Living Goddesses, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2001

I found this answer on Google and thought that it might help!Founding PrinciplesRead the words of James Madison and other FoundersFree lesson on Congress and the ConstitutionDownload PDF for a glossary of terms relating to founding principlesIntroductionThe United States was established on a set of principles and ideals that have guided and shaped the public life of the country since the Founding. The American people continue to strive to realize more fully these principles and ideals. Drawn from an examination of human nature and the purposes of government, these principles and virtues form the framework of the American republican government of ordered liberty. Together with essential civic virtues, they help form the conscience of the nation against which Americans judge the justice of their laws. These civic virtues bind a self-governing people together in communities that facilitate a healthy civil society. As Americans, we believe it is essential to understand and implement these fundamental or founding principles and civic virtues.The American System of GovernmentIn modern times, the terms “democracy” and “republic” are commonly used interchangeably, especially in reference to the expansion of citizenship and rights to previously disfranchised groups. However, the distinction between a democracy and a republic is significant.Democracy: A form of government in which ultimate authority is based on the will of the majority. In a pure democracy (from the Greek demos, meaning “people”) the citizens participate in government directly, rather than by electing representatives. One of the challenges in direct democracy is that there is no protection for the inalienable rights of minorities, leading to the possibility of tyranny by the majority. Moreover, direct democracy is susceptible to changing passions that can lead to mob rule, as well as demagoguery that can lead to tyranny. The form of government established in the U.S. Constitution is sometimes called a representative or indirect democracy.Republic: A form of government in which the people are sovereign (ultimate source of power) and give their consent to representatives to make laws. The term, republic, comes from the Latin res publicae, meaning “thing of the people.” In a republic, the will of the people is filtered through several steps, making it less likely that a majority faction can endanger the rights of particular individuals or groups. In Federalist #10, Madison explained why a republic, or system of representation, is the form of government best suited to protecting the rights of all. Madison noted that the Constitution’s structure and limitations on power created a republic that would “refine and enlarge the public views, bypassing them through the medium of a chosen body of citizens, whose wisdom may best discern the true interest of their country, and whose patriotism and love of justice will be least likely to sacrifice it to temporary or partial considerations.”Principles of GovernmentThis list of principles and virtues is not meant to be comprehensive but instead to be a starting place for the investigation of the American experiment in self-government.Checks and Balances: Constitutional powers are distributed among the branches of government allowing each to limit the application of power of the other branches and to prevent expansion of power of any branch.I thought that this part might help you with your question.(Consent of the Governed/Popular Sovereignty: The power of government comes from the people.)_____________________________________________________________________________________Due Process: The government must interact with all people according to the duly-enacted laws and apply these rules equally with respect to all people.Equality: All individuals have the same status regarding their claim as human beings to natural rights and treatment under the law.Federalism: The people delegate certain powers to the national government, while the states retain other powers; and the people, who authorize both the states and national government, retain all freedoms not delegated to the governing bodies.Freedom of contract: Freedom of individuals and corporations to make legally binding mutual agreements without arbitrary or unreasonable legal restrictionsFreedom of religion: The right to choose one’s religion or form of worship, if any, without interference; freedom of conscienceFreedom of speech, press, and assembly: The legal right to express one’s opinions freely, orally or in writing, and the right to gather with others in groups of one’s choice without arbitrary or unreasonable restrictions.Liberty: Except where authorized by citizens through the Constitution, government does not have the authority to limit freedom.Limited Government: Citizens are best able to pursue happiness when government is confined to those powers which protect their life, liberty, and property.Majority Rule/Minority Rights: Laws may be made with the consent of the majority, subject to the limitation that those laws do not infringe on the inalienable rights of the minority.Natural/Inalienable Rights: Rights which belong to us by nature and can only be justly abridged through due process. Examples are life, liberty, property, and the pursuit of happiness.Private Property: The natural rights of all individuals to create, obtain, and control their possessions, beliefs, faculties, and opinions, as well as the fruits of their labor.Rule of Law: Government and citizens all abide by the same laws regardless of political power. Those laws are justly applied, consistent with an ethos of liberty, and stable.Separation of Powers: A system of distinct powers built into the Constitution, to prevent an accumulation of power in one branch.Virtues and VicesVirtue is conduct that reflects universal principles of moral and ethical excellence essential to living a worthwhile life and to effective self-government. For many thinkers throughout the ages, attributes of character such as justice, responsibility, perseverance, respect, and others were thought to flow from an understanding of the rights and obligations of human beings. Virtue is compatible with, but does not require, religious belief. One’s thoughts and words alone do not make a person virtuous. According to Aristotle, virtue must be based on a just objective, it requires action, and it must become a habit.Private Virtue: The idea that, in order to sustain liberty, individuals must be knowledgeable and must conduct themselves according to principles of moral and ethical excellence, consistent with their rights and obligations.Civic Virtue: A set of actions and habits necessary for the safe, effective, and mutually beneficial participation in a society.Vice: Immoral or wicked behavior.VirtuesCivil Discourse: Reasoned and respectful sharing of ideas between individuals is the primary way people influence change in society/ government, and is essential to maintain self-government.Contribution: To discover one’s passions and talents, and use them to create what is beautiful and needed. To work hard to take care of oneself, one’s family, and one’s community.Courage: The ability to take constructive action in the face of fear or danger. To stand firm as a person of character and do what is right, especially when it is unpopular or puts one at risk.Honor: Demonstrating good character, integrity, and thinking and acting honestly.Humility: To remember that one’s ignorance is far greater than one’s knowledge. To give praise to those who earn it.Integrity: To tell the truth, expose untruths, and keep one’s promises.Initiative: Exercising the power, energy, or ability to lead, organize, or accomplish something.Justice: Upholding of what is fair, just, and right. To stand for equally applied rules that respect the rights and dignity of all, and make sure everyone obeys them.Moderation: The avoidance of excesses or extremes.Perseverance: To continue in a task or course of action or hold to a belief or commitment, in spite of obstacles or difficulty; choosing to take the right path rather than the easy path, and to stay the course.viiRespect: Honor or admiration of someone or something. To protect one’s mind and body as precious aspects of identity. To extend that protection to all other individuals.Responsibility: Acting on good judgment about what is right or wrong, or deserving the trust of others. To strive to know and do what is best, not what is most popular. To be trustworthy for making decisions in the best long-term interests of the people and tasks of which they are in charge. Individuals must take care of themselves and their families, and be vigilant to preserve their liberty and the liberty of others.Resourcefulness: Taking constructive action in difficult situations quickly and imaginatively.Self-Governance: To be self-controlled, avoiding extremes, and to reject unwise influence or control by others.Vigilance: Being alert and attentive, taking action to remedy possible injustices or evils.VicesAmbition: To be driven by self-interest while pursuing power and fame for oneself rather than serving the republic or the good of others.Avarice: To allow the love of wealth to lead one to do wrong in acquiring it.Deception: To lie to oneself and/or others, thinking and behaving as though something is right when it is wrong and unjust.Demagoguery: To lead others astray because one controls or manipulates their emotions through moving words or a deceptive vision.Hubris: To have excessive pride, vanity, and arrogance that usually leads to a tragic fall.Injustice: To harm others by applying unequal rules and damaging another’s inalienable rights and dignity.Political Intolerance: Disrespect for the different political views of others, leading one to violate their inalienable rights.I truly hope that this helps.

Because in Islam we have Akhlaq, which is learnt from exposure to it in a child's or adults environment.‘Akhlaq’ which (Arabic: أخلاق‎) is the practice of virtue, morality and manners in Islamic theology ad falsafah (philosophy), in a word 'conduct'.Morality in Islam encompasses the concept of righteousness, good character, and the body of moral qualities and virtues prescribed in Islamic religious texts. The principle and fundamental purpose of Islamic morality is love: love for God and love for God's creatures.More on Akhlaq below.Good or Evil virtues are learnt by immediate proximity to it or over constant exposure to an environment contains it. There is nothing genetic about good or bad in a person, it has to be learnt or tolareted by one’s self, it's never in our gene's.Please read on.Akhlaq: Ethical Theory in IslamIslam has the unique capacity to transform its various theological tenets and values into practical and moral principles. In fact, the Islamic Shariah was specifically established with an eye to instilling gracious behavior and lofty morals among its adherents and to refine their characters, all of which contributes to general well being among people and throughout the land.These goals are aimed at guaranteeing a safe and peaceful existence for each person and protecting all aspects of the lives of individuals, whether in the arena of beliefs, wealth, honor, or peace of mind.According to Islam, human well being begins and ends with manners and morals. It begins with the call for people to accept guidance and righteousness and culminates in producing behaviors among human beings indicative of humanity, nobility, and love.Islam has set down laws and rules which, by their nature, serve to ensure the establishment of good morals and manners within Islamic society, whether at the level of individuals as they deal with one another or at the level of societies in the greater world. These rules ensure the survival and protection of Islam’s ethical structure, thus allowing human beings to live among one another on the basis of peace and mutual cooperation.There are regulations governing the poor due, charity, pledges, expiations, and financial guarantees as well as rules touching upon joint responsibilities necessary to the preservation of a stable society among Muslims. There are rules regarding the punishment of criminals, traitors, killers, and adulterers due to the fact that their disregard for moral values poses a threat to the group and transgresses against society and its integrity. It is necessary to treat such offenders harshly in order to guarantee a safe and peaceful society.-Definition of AkhlaqThe famous ethicist Ibn Miskawayh defines character (khuluq, pl. akhlaq) in his profound book, Tahdheeb Al Akhlaq, as “a state of the soul which moves it toward action without any need for reflection or deliberation. This state can be divided into two: The first is that which is natural, and is a part of one’s true disposition, such as a human who laughs excessively at any small thing that amuses him, or feels sadness and sorrow and any small matter that afflicts him. The second is that which is borne of training and habituation, and though it may originally be a product of reflection and deliberation eventually becomes a character trait .”In his book Ihya Ulum Uddeen, Imam Abu Hamid al-Ghazali in defining Ethics is quoted to have said, “Character is a term for a firmly entrenched form in the soul from which actions emanate with ease and facility, without need for reflection or deliberation. Inasmuch as this form in the soul produces beautiful and praiseworthy actions by the measures of reason and the shari’a, it is called a good character; and inasmuch as it produces repugnant actions, it is called a bad character. We have specified that it be a firmly entrenched form, for he who spends of his wealth rarely, and for a specific need of his, cannot be called generous unless this quality is firmly established within him. And we have further stipulated that actions proceed from him with ease and without deliberation because he who spends of his wealth or remains silent during anger only after some effort and deliberation, it cannot be said of him that he possesses a generous or patient character.So, there are four matters to consider:first, a beautiful or repugnant action;second, the ability to perform them;third, knowledge of them;fourth, an entity in the soul which inclines a person to either excellence or repugnance, and facilitates that for him.Clearly, character does not refer to actions, because perhaps a person is of a generous character but cannot spend either due to a lack of money or some other hindrance, or alternatively perhaps he is of a miserly character, and though he spends he only does so for a reason or to show off.Nor does it refer to the ability or power to perform such actions. This is because power is connected to both giving and withholding, and every person is born with the capacity to give and withhold, but that doesn’t mean that they are either generous or miserly in character.Nor does it refer to knowledge, for knowledge is connected to all beautiful and repugnant things in the same manner.As such, it refers to the fourth, i.e., the form in the soul through which the soul is equipped to give and withhold. Character, therefore, refers to this form .”-The concept of akhlaq in the Qur’an and sunnaThe word akhlaq appears in the Qur’an in the verse that says of the Prophet “Indeed, you are of lofty character” (al-Qalam: 4). As well, it appears in numerous hadiths affirming the necessity and importance of ethics in Islam. An example is the hadith: “The most beloved of you to Allah are the best of you in character ,” BukhariThere is also the hadith, “The best of you are the best in character .” And on the authority of Abu Tha’laba al-Khushani, that the Prophet said, “The most beloved to me, and the nearest to me, are those of you who are the best in character. And the most detested to me, and the farthest from me, are those who are of the worst character: those who chatter among themselves, are braggarts, and are long-winded .” BaihaqiOn the authority of Abu Salih who said that Abu Hurayra said that the Prophet said, “I have been sent down only to complete the best of manners .” Baihaqi. To “complete” here means to add to something already present. As such, this saying of the Prophet directs us to the fact that ethics are shared between people. For this reason, he also said, “The best of you in the period of jahiliyya are the best of you in Islam if you come to understand .” AhmadThe Prophet would smile at the mention of Ibn Jud’an, so A’isha asked the Prophet, “O Prophet of Allah, during the period of jahiliyya, Ibn Jud’an would keep good relations with his family and feed the poor. Is that to his benefit?” The Prophet said, “It does not benefit, for he never once said, ‘My Lord, forgive me my sins on the Day of Judgment ." Muslim. Through this, the Prophet points us to the fact that ethics were already present, and it is incumbent on us to respect them even when they emanate from those who are not sincere. They have a strong impact on creation that was understood and regarded by the Prophet himself.The issue of ethics is therefore fundamental to the make-up of mankind, regardless of whether or not it is accompanied by faith. The Prophet (peace be upon him) urged us towards these values. This is why we find in the famous hadith of Gabriel that, “A man came forward [towards the Prophet] and sat at his knees, and asked, ‘O Prophet of God, what is Islam?’ He responded, ‘That you not associate anything with God; that you establish prayer; that you give the zakat; and that you fast in Ramadan.’ He said, ‘You have spoken the truth. O Prophet of God, what is faith (iman)?’ The Prophet responded, ‘That you believe in God, His angels, His scriptures, the meeting with Him, His Prophets, the resurrection [on the Day of Judgement], and fate.’ He said, ‘You have spoken the truth. O Prophet of God, What is excellence (ihsan)?’ He responded, ‘That you fear Allah as if you see Him. For if you do not see Him, He sees you.’ He said, ‘You have spoken the truth.’ ... The Prophet later said, ‘That was Gabriel. He wanted to teach you when you don’t ask yourselves .’” Bukhari and MuslimWhen asked about Islam and faith, the Prophet spoke of their constituent parts respectively. However, when asked about ihsan, he spoke with respect to ethics. Based upon this, Muslims divided their disciplines of learning. They made fiqh the science of Islam, while aqida studies matters of faith, and Sufism studies excellence (ihsan).-The Prophet’s s Invitation to Gracious Morals and MannersThe Prophet s urged us to consider gracious morals and manners an adornment and to abandon every sort of vice. In a great many texts and traditions touching upon a large variety of situations he repeatedly emphasized the importance and nobility of good manners. This call to ethical behavior is at two levels.On a general level, there is the Messenger of God’s s exhortation clarifying the need for nobility of character in matters both direct and indirect. It is incumbent upon both the mind and the soul to strive towards engaging in every conceivable sort of meritorious behavior, whatever the situation. The Prophet made it abundantly clear that the best way to express love of the Prophet and God is to practice high morals and behave with good manners. He expressed the centrality of ethics to his mission, saying, “I was sent in order to establish good morals and manners.” Muwatta Malik. He has encouraged high standards of behavior by stressing their importance and praising those who live by them, noting the honor accorded to such persons in both this world and the hereafter. He described such persons as being possessed of perfect faith, saying s, “The Muslims whose faith is most perfect are those whose manners and morals are best.” Truth be told, it is they who are the most beloved of the Messenger of God s, as evidenced by his saying, “The most beloved by me among you are those of you whose morals and manners are best.” Bukhari. The Prophet, when asked what is most likely to get a person into heaven, responded, “Fear of God along with good morals and manners.” Tirmidhi. He correlated high values with high rewards from God u when he stated that, “There is nothing weightier in the scales than good morals and manners.” Abu Dawood. High morals place an ordinary person upon the same footing as that enjoyed by the devotee whose time is consumed in acts of worship. He s informed us that, “Truly, the believer can reach, by means of good manners and morals, the degree of one who constantly fasts" Abu Dawood.On the micro level, the Prophet specified the manner in which each individual value ought to be exemplified, be it peace, love, respect, or tolerance. By means of his call to high morals he clarified the importance of values and their merit as well as the means by which they may be acquired and instilled and the levels of adherence to them. Likewise, he prohibited specific vices, such as cheating, lying, and transgressing against the rights of others.The Prophet’s s call to morality took on many forms. Sometimes he taught lessons explicitly while at other times observation of his example in the context of real life situations provided an implicit lesson. These various strategies for disciplining the character will become clear to us as we study the prophetic texts which have been selected for analysis in this treatise. The existence of a comprehensive prophetic methodology for character discipline will be demonstrated by the texts and traditions touched upon.Indeed, the Prophet s laid down for this nation the framework of perfect human morality. The Lord God Almighty said of him, “Truly, your character is Excellent" ( Al Qalam:5) He came as the perfect embodiment of what it means to be moral and mannerly. His role among his companions was not limited to issuing orders and ensuring that they were carried out. Rather, his life was lived among his friends, sharing in their work and worries. He was right there with them, helping to build the mosque and digging, alongside of them, the ditch which was prepared in defense of Medina, just as he emigrated to Medina, fought in battles, and patiently endured hunger and pain. He did not in any way give himself preferential treatment. In point of fact, he suffered right along with the least of his companions and preferred them to himself in many situations.Instruments and Styles of Character Discipline used by the Prophet:The Prophet’s Sunna gives great importance to the role played by the style employed in instilling disciplined character along with its overall effectiveness in shaping the individual. It seeks to steer him towards the point where he is strong and implements the tenets of morality. These various styles shepherd the individual along the path as his mind, soul, and body develop.Before we set down the references from hadeeth literature that demonstrate the variety of tactics employed in moral education and their places within the context of the Prophetic method of character discipline we must state the following so that we may remain focused upon these points as we examine the proofs.1-The Prophet used many vehicles to reinforce high moral values, among them parables, references to goings-on, and facial expressions. Also, the Prophet encouraged his companions to engage in thought and got them accustomed to conferring and reckoning with themselves, thus developing their consciences and their sense of religious responsibility. Many times he s would engage in dialogues with them characterized by thoughtful reflection and logic, focused upon a particular goal and a limited responsibility. Instruments such as these, if grasped and used well by the instructor, yield fabulous results when applied to teaching morals and manners.2-Among the various strategies for inculcating moral discipline used by the Prophet s are:• Direct communication in its various forms, whether through acts of worship, descriptive narrations, stories, argumentation, emotional appeal, or persuasion• Parables• Providing real life examples of how to put the moral precept into practice• Participating in real life situations which demonstrate how to live morally• Use of athletics as a means of developing the spirit of cooperation, tolerance, and unity among the group• Issuing warnings and reminders of the rewards and punishments of the Hereafter• Encouraging upright behavior by demonstrating the rewards of practicing good morals and the unhappy consequences of engaging in immorality3- The linguistic composition of the Prophet’s s narrations regarding manners and morals played a role in his methodology of character development. He varied his style according to the state of those whom he was addressing. The Arabs, as a people, placed great importance upon language and regarded eloquence with great respect. Well chosen vocabulary and sentence structure impressed them. Therefore, the Prophet s, in his call to high values, employed the most eloquent of styles, wording his messages such as to combine precision of meaning, clarity of purpose, appropriateness to the emotional content of the message, and logic of argumentation and proofs. Hi speech was both elegant and easy to understand, which is not surprising, considering that he was gifted with superb communication skills. He made use of parables and drove home the wisdom at hand by means of narratives as well as story-telling. His phrases were succinct and meaningful, resonating deeply within the soul.4-He s was gifted at making the most of chances to impart character lessons and did not allow opportunities to form links between character lessons and real life situations slip him by, which allowed for the forging of an understanding of the relationship between the event and the lesson in the minds of those who lived through or heard about such events.5-Differentiation is clearly made use of such that the manner in which orders pertaining to moral principles are imparted varies depending upon whether the address is directed at an individual and his particular personal situation or is intended to serve as an explanation of the injunction itself and its relative lenience or strictness. He s was sure to take under consideration the personal characteristics of every individual among his companions, not attempting to impart moral discipline to them all according to a standard and inflexible procedure. Rather, he sought to bring about their development by means appropriate to them and suited to their individual traits and personalities. That is why his answer to the question, “Which works are best?” differed according to the petitioner; his response was tailored to match the circumstances and natural disposition of the inquirer.• Similarly, in the Quran there are various levels to the dispensation of justice. Islam respects the human being’s right to demand retribution for wrongs committed against him and defend himself when his rights are transgressed against or appropriated, while, on another level, it encourages people to overlook wrongs and attempt reconciliation. On a third level, there is ideal behavior, which only the very committed are able to achieve, wherein the person forgives the transgressor and patiently endures whatever harm his fellow man might inflict upon him. God u says, “And those who, when an oppressive wrong is inflicted on them, (are not cowed but) help and defend themselves. The recompense for an injury is an injury equal thereto (in degree): but if a person forgives and makes reconciliation, his reward is due from Allah: for (Allah) loveth not those who do wrong. But indeed if any do help and defend themselves after a wrong (done) to them, against such there is no cause of blame. The blame is only against those who oppress men and wrong-doing and insolently transgress beyond bounds through the land, defying right and justice: for such there will be a penalty grievous. But indeed if any show patience and forgive, that would truly be an exercise of courageous will and resolution in the conduct of affairs.” (ash Shuraa:39-43)Moral uprightness in Islam is characterized by the recognition that there are ideal as well as realistically expectable behaviors as demonstrated by the existence, in Islamic morality, of different categories. Such persons as are able to purify their souls and perceive things from a lofty perspective are not prohibited from advancing to the summits of idealism. At the same time, those who prefer to seek retribution for such wrongs as are inflicted upon them are not considered to be engaging in immoral behavior.6-The Prophet set about to get his companions accustomed to logical thinking about life in general and moral behavior in particular. When he s contemplated sending Muath as an emissary to Yemen he asked, “How will you judge among them if any legal issue comes up?” to which Muath responded, “I will judge among them according to the dictates of The Book of God.” He s then inquired, “And if you do not find an answer there?” and was told by Muath, “Then, by the Sunna of the Messenger of God shall I judge.” He s continued, “And if you should find nothing upon which to base your judgment in either The Book of God or the Sunna of His Messenger?” to which Muath responded, “I will make my own best judgment, neither shying away from offering it nor using my authority in offering it to perpetrate injustice.” The Messenger of God s then beat upon his chest and exclaimed, “Praise be to God, who has given His Messenger’s messenger success in pleasing the Messenger of God.” Abu Dawood.• The importance of praising those responsible for imparting character discipline is evident in the foregoing scenario. The Prophet s made singular use of this style by remarking, “Praise be to God, who has given His Messenger’s messenger success in pleasing the Messenger of God.” In so doing he praised Muath while simultaneously letting him know that his chosen course of action was a wise one and that he had only arrived at it by the grace of God, just as the Messenger of God had only been successful at imparting the lesson by God’s grace. The scenario combines humility before God Almighty with adeptness at properly understanding God and His Messenger along with the bestowing of praise in such a way as to motivate him to attain to an ever greater level of knowledge and sincerity.1. Character discipline, in Islam, aims at the following:• Maintaining a good relationship between the individual and his Lord, whether in matters open or hidden• Developing the individual’s moral conscience• Strengthening the will power of the individual and endowing him with a feeling of personal responsibility regarding the duty to remain at the helm of his instincts and whatever whets his appetites.• Refining human behavior and guiding it• Bringing the individual up with a feeling of moral responsibility towards the group as a whole• Achieving total happiness for the Muslim in this world by ensuring him of a dignified life within society, and happiness in the next world by ensuring that he receives forgiveness, approval, and entrance into heaven. That is one of the aims of Islamic character discipline which distinguishes it from western concepts of morality, which limit themselves strictly to worldly happiness.• Consciousness of the idea of resurrection and judgment in the hereafter renders the Islamic paradigm of character discipline a detail oriented system established upon a clear foundation. Morals and manners are not such that there is but a single yardstick by which they are measured which is universally agreed upon. Rather, the standards of each belief system are determined by its perspective on the world and existence. Globalism in the modern world seems to be engaged in a battle with other worldviews and cultural systems, its proponents seeking to impose their particular understanding of right and wrong upon all and sundry and to force human beings the world over to follow its dictates. In so doing, globalism impacts the individual’s moral dealings within his own self as well as with others, for the standards by which it appraises actions are inexact and built upon a weak foundation. Sometimes, it takes society and its established traditions and culture as the arbiter; others, it takes the mind as arbiter, which leads to the imposition of the morals and manners of the strong upon the weak, without regard for whether or not they are corrupt. Additionally, it leads to the prevalence of specific values systems, tastes, and behaviors in developing countries at the expense of the national characters of their peoples, leaving them just another casualty of cultural alienation and social disruption.But, did the scholars put forth principles of ethics? Or are they many and not amenable to being set out in precise terms the way Islam and faith are? The understanding of akhlaq in Islam is taken from the understanding of God’s beautiful names. Allah has described himself in the Qur’an by 152 different qualities, and the Prophet (peace be upon him) described Him in a hadith by 164 qualities. After discarding repetitions, we arrive at a number of 220 qualities. Thereafter, in a hadith on the authority of Abu Hurayra, the Prophet said, “Allah has 99 names – a hundred less one. Whosoever exhausts them, Allah admits him into Paradise.” This hadith comes in 3 different versions, each of which differs by 34 names, which is how we arrive at the 164 that the Prophet used to describe Allah the Exalted.By, “he who exhausts him” is meant “he who shapes himself after them”The beautiful names of God may indicate:1-His Beauty, such as “The Compassionate” or “The Merciful”2-His Perfection, such as “The Creator” or “The Originator”3-His Glory, such as “The Vengeful” or “The Proud”. This category are not to be used as models, for they are the sole prerogative of God.A hadith related by ‘Abdullah b. Mas’ud indicates that there are Names and Qualities of God we do not know about. He related that the Prophet would invoke Allah using the following words “O Allah, I am Your servant, son of Your servant and of your female-servant. My forelock is in Your Hand. Your Judgement with regards to me is Just. I ask You by every name of Yours, either that You have named yourself, or revealed to us in your Book, or taught one of your creation, or kept solely in Your Knowledge, that you make the Qur’an the spring of my heart, the light of my eyes, the solace for my sadness, and the solution to my worries .” Tabarani-Categories of EthicsEthics can be divided into two categories:1. Theoretical ethics: This refers to a specific genre made up of the principles of conduct (suluk). It consists of fundamental principles and general rules extracted from them. A person is able to follow them in all sorts of places and different eras.2. Practical ethics: This refers to the set of principles of conduct, through regard for which a person is able to reach his ultimate goal, and attain all happiness and goodness .Ethics are an indispensable part of life which depict for us the good life and the means to it, and aid us in arriving at a balance between private individual demands and the necessities of life in a society.-Ethics between Man and SocietyThe wisdom of God in creating man is that he made the individual unable to fulfill the requirements of his life by himself, and similarly unable to build the earth without cooperation and harmonious living with others. This is what is meant by the philosophers and intellectuals by their repeated invocation of the saying, “Man is by nature a social being.” In order for man to have natural resources, the principles of proper conduct must guide his behavior. In all of his conduct, he must base himself on laws of social ethics, and take regard of others in ever matter he undertakes.If matters proceed in this manner, social membership will belong to individuals, and virtue will be realized, especially if every member of a society is placed in a place that is appropriate to him and his capabilities. In contrast, if chaos takes over, and there is an absence of ethics specifying how people ought to deal with themselves and with others, corruption will enter into the society and eventually lead it to collapse.Based upon these premises, and the mercy of God towards mankind who are His representatives on earth, Allah has sent prophets and messengers in order to spread guidance and values springing from the religion. The last of these is Islam, about the bearer of whose message, the Prophet (peace be upon him), God said, “You are of the highest of character” (al-Qalam: 4) .Ethics in Islam thus refer to principles and fundamentals ordered for human behavior, and specified by revelation, to organize the life of man in a manner that allows him to realize the purpose of creation in this world in a complete and perfect manner.This Islamic system of ethics is distinguished by two features. The first is its divine character, that is the Will of God; and the second is its human character, that is there is an effort and role for specifying this system from the practical direction.It is a system which is complete only when the theoretical and practical meet. It is not simply a part of the general Islamic system. Rather, it is the very essence of Islam, its spirit, in force in all domains. That is to say, the Islamic system in general is based on the philosophy of ethics at its most fundamental. Rather, ethics are the very essence of the divine messages.“Ethics are necessary for the continuation and cohesiveness of social life, and they contribute towards the progress and flourishing of civilization. Islamic ethics are distinctive in that they perfect the process of building sociality by fixing human relationships on the basis of belief and sincerity. They also push towards perfection in the fields of work, crafts and knowledge. Each of these is necessary for a truly happy human life .”Indeed, throughout his whole life, a man may never feel the need for certain matters of knowledge. It may never occur to him. However, we will never be able to put aside his concerns for ethical matters, even for an instant. This is because humanity is always in need of fundamental principles in order to order his relationships with God and with the rest of creation.-The superiority of Islamic ethicsThere is no doubt that reason is one of the most important faculties of knowledge, and that the senses are a means to it. However, these are insufficient in and of themselves to distinguish completely and correctly between the good and the evil, the beautiful and the repulsive. This is due to a number of reasons.The first is the limitations of the mind. There are some matters that are difficult for the mind to grasp. Instead, people resort to speculating and guessing, and knowledge of these matters grows progressively due to experience. But it is not properly known from the first instant.The second is the limitations of the senses. These are the mind’s means for grasping things, but are open to error. The third is the difference in people’s capacities for reasoning and arriving at the truth of things. For, some minds judge a thing to be beautiful, while others judge it to be repulsive. Indeed, it is possible for a thing to be thought of as repulsive among many people, though it is not in reality, and vice versa. To further the point, it is even possible for one’s judgment of a thing to change .Secular ethics, which specify their standards to be different theories and philosophies, remain relativistic – relative to the claims or rebuttals of individuals. The solution is to resort to principles of character derived from religion. For religion comprises beliefs and principles, commands and prohibitions, desires and values, lofty examples and general principles for behaviour, certainly plays an important role in the lives of believers. It is a central source for ethical obligation. That which distinguishes ethical principles extended from religion, on the one hand, from those taken from the individual and society, one the other, is: their generality, humanity, sacredness, everlastingness and permanency over generations. Their sacredness is a result of their divine source that is revelation from God .So, the Qur’an in that it preserves and continues that which preceded it may be distinguished by its wide orbit which includes the essence of ethics. This is what had become separated apart in the teachings of the clergy and the philosophers, both deontologists and utilitarians. They were far apart from each other both in terms of time and place, and perhaps some of them left no trace behind so that their teachings may be preserved. It may be said that this is the greatest characteristic of the Qur’an, if not the most valuable characteristic altogether.The purity and steadfastness of this ethical teaching becomes apparent through its forms; the methods it takes to present its lessons, different from those of previous teachings; its unified structure which does not admit of any inconsistency; and its manner of dealing with differences and variety within the framework of complete harmony. This is because it began to disagree with previous laws whenever they took to excess, and re-established equilibrium where they would tend towards one side or the other, and directed towards a singular goal, infusing it with a unified spirit, such that the truth become to be attributed to it in all morals and ethics.Among the greatest characteristics of Quranic discourse has been its ethical nature. It is not satisfactory, in reality, to say with regards to the ethics of the Qur’an that they only preserved the heritage of our forebears, reinforced them and reconciled their different theories and philosophies. We must add that Qur’an has restructured and beautified these ethical principles and invited mankind to inculcate them to achieve felicity in both worlds.How was the Qur’an able to have such a miraculous impact? Its style was extremely simple, in that it chose to express its principles with particularly impactful language – language that is always located halfway between the abstract and ambiguous, on the one hand, and the empirical and formalistic, on the other hand.From the perspective of clarity of content, we find that the clarity of each principle impedes chaos and following one’s whims. However, at the same time, the lack of specificity of the content leaves to each individual the freedom to choose the form of speech that is the best example, in accordance with his experience. Similarly, he is able to choose between the form that is best suited to a pressing need and other ethical demands. So, there are two issues: formation and compatibility. It is necessary, through careful effort, to distance oneself from excessive laxity and exaggeration.This is how the Qur’anic shari’a was able to accomplish such perfection, unlike any other philosophy, in realizing harmony between two seemingly opposite sides: kindness in resoluteness, advancement in steadfastness, and diversity in unity .-Ethical obligationObligation is a fundamental concern of any ethical school, for if there is no obligation, there cannot be responsibility toward any ethical system or law. But what is the source of this ethical obligation? Is it the human conscience, as some philosophers say? Or social pressure as others says? Or is it reason?Scholars have spoken of these three sources at length, in particular with respect to their relativity and their limitations. The reality is that it is impossible for either individual conscience or reason or a given society to set up ethical laws and demand their imposition on all consciences, minds and societies.Despite the efforts of those who mock the values, as well as those who are blindly devoted to ethics, to say that there is no firm standard by which to specify what is good or bad, and that the matter is relative to particular societies, we may respond by saying that what they claim is a form of the philosophies of corruption, and a dissolution of ethics, which has an extremely negative impact on societies and individuals.It is therefore necessary to refer to a higher legislative authority to settle such disagreements, one that is capable of being comprehensive as well as applicable in every place and time, and to all people in general. This authority cannot be found except in the very Creator of existence, time, place, and people, He Who sees all and knows about all He creates. As the Qur’an informs us, “Should He not know,- He that created? and He is the One that understands the finest mysteries (and) is well-acquainted (with them)” (al-Mulk: 14).So the source of ethical obligation in Islam is the divine commands of which Allah informs us in the Holy Qur’an and through the Prophet (peace be upon him).However, the Qur’an takes great care to link every teaching and ruling of the shari’a with the ethical value that forms its basis. So, for example, when it invites us to make every effort towards reconciliation amongst our families, even when it is not in our interests, Allah supports His call by saying “And reconciliation is better” (al-Nisa’: 128). Similarly, when the Qur’an invites us to engage in commerce by weighing fairly, He says, “Give full measure when ye measure, and weigh with a balance that is straight: that is the most fitting and the most advantageous in the final determination.” (al-Isra: 35). Also, when he sets out the principles of modesty which demand from men that they lower their gazes in the presence of women and guard themselves from impropriety, He goes on to explain, “That is purer for them” (al-Nur: 30). And after He commands us to clarify the reasoning before promulgating a legal ruling, He explains that it is so “lest ye smite some folk in ignorance and afterward repent of what ye did.” (al-Hujurat: 6).There are also numerous examples of the Qur’an guiding us towards spirituality and ethical values. These include the following verse: “Say: "Not equal are things that are bad and things that are good, even though the abundance of the bad may dazzle thee” (al-Ma’ida: 100); and “But the raiment of righteousness,- that is the best” (al-A’raf: 26); and “he to whom wisdom is granted receiveth indeed a benefit overflowing” (al-Baqara: 269). Indeed, the fundamental principle on which the shari’ais based is “Allah never commands what is shameful” (al-A’raf: 28); and “Allah commands justice and the doing of good” (al-Nahl: 90) .Therefore, the primary source of obligation in Islam is the divine revelation as found in the Qur’an and sunna. After that, there are other things that the shari’a takes account of, such as the societal responsibility to protect these ethics and morals. This is why Allah has commanded us to “command the good, and forbid the evil.” As well, the shari’a takes account of reason and human conscience (or the senses) in specifying the good and the evil. This is the reason that the wisdoms behind rulings, as well as ethical commands, were related in the Qur’an-Features of ethical obligation1. Action must be something one is capable of doingAllah says, “On no soul doth Allah Place a burden greater than it can bear.” (al-Baqara: 286); “Allah puts no burden on any person beyond what He has given him.” (al-Talaq:7); “So fear Allah as much as ye can” (al-Taghabun: 16). In terms of ethical obligation Islam takes account of human capability, and does not entrust them which with anything beyond their capacity. As such, obligation is conditional on the capacity of the legal agent.2. Ease and lifting difficultyThe second feature of ethical obligation is the consideration of ease and avoiding difficulty. For Islamic ethics are not only in keeping with the capacities and capabilities of people; they are in fact meant to be easier than even that. As Allah says, “Allah intends every facility for you; He does not want to put to difficulties.” (al-Baqara: 185); and “Allah doth not wish to place you in a difficulty” (al-Ma’ida: 6). And it is related by Abu Hurayra that the Prophet said, “You were only sent to make things easy; you were not sent to make things difficult .”Similarly, Islam has lightened the burden on legal agents who find some of the rulings difficult. This may take the form of complete leniency, or partial leniency. Sometimes, it means permission to delay an action until when is capable of doing it, and sometimes it means outright replacing it with another, less cumbersome, action. This is from the Mercy of God, and His Compassion towards them.3. The different ranks of rulingsIslam has ordered ethical responsibilities in a particular manner. The most obligatory is the individual obligation, then the communal obligation, then the mandatory, then the emphasized sunna, then the non-emphasized sunna, then the supererogatory, and finally the extra perfections.Similarly, it has ordered the prohibitions, or evils, into: the major sins, the minor sings, the disliked, and that which it is preferred to avoid.From another perspective, Islam divides obligations into specific and non-specific, and temporary and permanent. It has also set out a space between the good and evil, though it is neither: this is the permissible, one side of which borders the good, and the other side of which borders the evil. And he has commanded people to orient themselves towards the good and keep away from the evil .Two important matters follow from this discussion of ethical obligation: ethical responsibility, and recompense.1. Ethical responsibility: Ethical responsibility means that a person assumes the burden of the outcome of the actions he commits to, or agrees to, or chooses, whether these actions are positive or negative.God has made responsibility conditional upon the acceptance of a trust, as related in the Qur’an: “Lo! We offered the trust unto the heavens and the earth and the hills, but they shrank from bearing it and were afraid of it. And man assumed it. Lo! he hath proved a tyrant and a fool.” (al-Ahzab: 72). So the Qur’an connects human responsibility on the freedom to choose. So, the one who is compelled or forced does not bear responsibility for that which he is forced to do. For this reason, human responsibility does not go beyond the realm of an agent’s freedom.One of the most beautiful parables in the Qur’an demonstrates this, i.e., the comparison between he who is deprived of the freedom to choose and the servants of God whom He has made free. “Allah sets forth the Parable (of two men: one) a slave under the dominion of another; He has no power of any sort; and (the other) a man on whom We have bestowed goodly favors from Ourselves, and he spends thereof (freely), privately and publicly: are the two equal? (By no means ;) praise be to Allah. But most of them understand not. Allah sets forth (another) Parable of two men: one of them dumb, with no power of any sort; a wearisome burden is he to his master; whichever way be directs him, he brings no good: is such a man equal with one who commands Justice, and is on a Straight Way?” (al-Nahl: 75-76).He then follows this up by saying, “It is He Who brought you forth from the wombs of your mothers when ye knew nothing; and He gave you hearing and sight and intelligence and affections: that ye may give thanks (to Allah)” (al-Nahl: 78), in order to emphasize that man is given awareness so that he is able to be a free and responsible person with reason and will. As Ghazali said, “He is a messenger from the interior, and the Prophets are also messengers from the exterior.” And so, if a person’s freedom diminishes, his ethical responsibility diminishes in equal measure .The noble shari’a has affirmed personal responsibility based on Qur’anic texts. This constitutes a challenge to previous regimes which partook in collective punishment. Among these Qur’anic texts are clear verses which establish individual responsibilities, and consist of a unity of thought which begins with the act of knowing, includes civic responsibilities, and ends with ethical responsibility.Among the verses that set out the act of knowing as a personal responsibilities are: “ Each soul earneth only on its own account, nor doth any laden bear another's load.” (al-An’am: 164); and “if any will see, it will be for (the good of) his own soul; if any will be blind, it will be to his own (harm)” (al-An’am: 104). The first verse is a clear reference to the acquisition of ethical values, and the second to the acquisition of knowledge. The word used for seeing, ibsar, connotes also knowledge and behavior, and the word for being blind, ‘ama, means being ignorant of the primordial truths, like knowledge of God, His angels, books, and prophets; and behavior in accordance with that knowledge.So, the Qur’an has ordered things such that the act of knowing comes first. Believing in Islam is itself a sort of knowledge, followed by action. And so, some jurists have including knowledge as a stage of legal obligation.As for the verses that impose metaphysical responsibility on the individual, these are many. They include, “So on that Day no power shall they have over each other, for profit or harm: and We shall say to the wrong-doers, "Taste ye the Penalty of the Fire,- the which ye were wont to deny!” (al-Saba: 42). In modern social science, this is known as an individual undertaking to set out his behaviour in accordance with his conscience. This does not negate responsibility in the life of this world, even though the true and superior responsibility is that which pertains to the next life.2. Ethical Recompense: Ethical recompense is a natural consequence of ethical responsibility. It is necessary for the maintenance of justice among people. If there is recompense for every ethical behavior, there will be a commitment to ethics and virtue.There are many types of recompense:i. Divine: As Allah says, “That man can have nothing but what he strives for; That (the fruit of) his striving will soon come in sight: Then will he be rewarded with a reward complete.” (al-Najm: 39-41); and “That Day will every soul be requited for what it earned; no injustice will there be that Day, for Allah is Swift in taking account. ” (al-Ghafir: 17)ii. Psychological, sentimental, or mental: This is the pain and stress felt by he who acts in an evil manner. As Allah says, “But he who turneth away from remembrance of Me, his will be a narrow life” (Ta ha: 124). This feeling is from the sentiments or conscience which censure a person for the sins he has committed.iii. Legal: This is the punishment administered to the person of poor character. In Islam, the penal system consists of two types of punishments• The hudud: These are clearly specified in the shari’a, such as the amputation of the hand of a thief• The discretionary punishments: These are left to the judicial system to decide upon.iv. Social censure: This is the lack of trust in a corrupt or evil person that results from his behaviour and character. As a result of this, his testimony is not accepted, and he often fails to find respect or acceptance among people. This is of course extremely difficult on the human soul .-The comprehensiveness of ethics in IslamThe feature of comprehensiveness becomes readily and undoubtedly apparent in the ethics of the Qur’an. This is not only because the commands of the Qur’an are directed towards humanity as a whole, such as the sayings of Allah, “Say: ‘O men! I am sent unto you all, as the Messenger of Allah’” (al-A’raf: 158) and “Blessed is He who sent down the criterion to His servant, that it may be an admonition to all creatures” (al-Furqan: 1).”Rather, the principle of justice, or public virtue, must be applied by every individual in a consistent manner, no matter whether it is applied upon oneself or upon others. As the Qur’an says, “Do ye enjoin right conduct on the people, and forget (To practise it) yourselves” (al-Baqara: 44); and “do not even aim at getting anything which is bad, in order that out of it ye may give away something, when ye yourselves would not receive it except with closed eyes” (al-Baqara: 267); and “Woe to those that deal in fraud,- Those who, when they have to receive by measure from men, exact full measure, But when they have to give by measure or weight to men, give less than due. ” (al-Mutaffifin: 1-3).Similarly there is no regard for whether it is applied upon one’s close relatives or others; or upon the rich or the poor: “O ye who believe! stand out firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah, even as against yourselves, or your parents, or your kin, and whether it be (against) rich or poor” (al-Nisa’: 135).Nor is there any regard for those who are outside of a particular group or within it: “And among them there is he who, if thou trust him with a piece of gold, will not return it to thee unless thou keep standing over him. That is because they say: We have no duty to the Gentiles. They speak a lie concerning Allah knowingly. Nay, but (the chosen of Allah is) he who fulfilleth his pledge and wardeth off (evil); for lo! Allah loveth those who ward off (evil).” (Aal Imran: 75-76).Nor is there any regard for discriminating between friends or enemies: “And let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice. Be just: that is next to piety” (al-Ma’ida: 8).Islamic ethics do not leave out any portion of human life, be it spiritual or material, religious or worldly, rational or sentimental, individual or communal. In all cases, there is an exemplary framework for sublime behavior. What ethicists have routinely divided up into religion, philosophy, custom and society all come together in the ethical system of Islam in an orderly, complete and perfect manner.1. There is that which is concerned with the individual from different perspectives:i. Physically speaking, the body has needs and necessities. Allah addresses this by saying, “Eeat and drink: But waste not by excess, for Allah loveth not the wasters.” (al-A’raf: 31). And the Prophet (peace be upon him) has said, “Your body has a right over you.”ii. Rationally, the individual has talents and horizons. The Qur’an says: “Say: "Behold all that is in the heavens and on earth"; but neither Signs nor Warners profit those who believe not.” (Yunus: 101); and “Say: ‘I do admonish you on one point: that ye do stand up before Allah,- (It may be) in pairs, or (it may be) singly,- and reflect (within yourselves): your Companion is not possessed: he is no less than a warner to you, in face of a terrible Penalty.’” (Saba’: 46).iii. Spiritually, there are passions, desires and impulses. The Qur’an says, “Truly, he succeeds that purifies it, And he fails that corrupts it!” (al-Shams: 9-10).2. There is that which is concerned with the family from different perspectives:i. The relationship between spouses: “Live with them on a footing of kindness and equity. If ye take a dislike to them it may be that ye dislike a thing, and Allah brings about through it a great deal of good.” (al-Nisa’: 19)ii. The relationship between relatives and intimates: “Allah commands justice, the doing of good, and liberality to kith and kin” (al-Nahl: 90).3. There is that which is concerned with society from different perspectives:i. In terms of manners, etiquette and protocol: “O ye who believe! enter not houses other than your own, until ye have asked permission and saluted those in them: that is best for you, in order that ye may heed (what is seemly).” (al-Nur: 27).ii. In commercial transactions and legal matters: “Allah doth command you to render back your Trusts to those to whom they are due; And when ye judge between man and man, that ye judge with justice” (al-Nisa’: 58) .We may go on and spell out all the fields taken up by the Islamic ethical system, and the path it sketches out to be followed in every minor and major matter of the lived reality of its adherents.And so, the concept of ethics in Islam brings together all that had been divided by religious sects and philosophical schools, both realist and idealist, in terms of their way of looking at ethics and their explanation of the source of ethical obligation. Not all of what these groups say is false, nor is all of it true. The deficiency of each viewpoint is that they have looked at the subject from one perspective and neglected it from another perspective. This is unavoidable for human cognition, which is incapable of taking up an issue in a manner that encompasses all times and places, all types and personalities, all circumstances and perspectives. This comprehensive viewpoint requires an All-knowing and Wise God .If we turn our attention to the Torah, for example, we find that it is concerned to set out fundamental principles for legislating behavior: do not kill, do not steal, etc. We see that the leading consideration here is to specify rights, and to seek justice and equality. Then, if we turn to the New Testament, it sets out ethical principles in addition to affirming what had come before in the Torah and supplementing it. The most important features here are tolerance, mercy and good conduct. Finally, when we come to the shari’a of the Qur’an, we find an affirmation of both of these predecessors in a single consistent system: “Allah commands justice and the doing of good” (al-Nahl: 90). In its manner of affirming both, the Qur’an grants to each its proper place in the balance of values. “And the recompense of evil is punishment like it, but whoever forgives and amends, he shall have his reward from Allah; surely He does not love the unjust” (al-Shura: 40). Then, we also add to this new areas, formulating etiquettes for interpersonal interaction, sketching out a framework for generous behavior for lofty societies. This includes the etiquette of greetings, permissions, address, meetings, etc. These have been spelt out in detail in the Qur’anic chapters al-Nur and al-Mujadala .-The cultivation of moralsHumans are capable of acquiring the characteristics and habits he is brought up with. Indeed, the importance and benefit of ethics are what make it capable of development and evolution, and open the way for education and training. For it is by continuous training and some amount of time that we are able to ground the ingredients of good character in the personality of an individual such that it becomes a habit and natural disposition.There are a few matters that are necessary for the proper cultivation and refinement of ethics.1. The company of the righteous: What trains a person best is the company of righteous people. Man is passionate for customs and fashions. Just as he follows those around him in clothing, for examples, he will follow those around him in deed, and model himself after their mannerisms and ethics. As the Prophet said, “A man is on the religion of his close friends, so look carefully whom you befriend .” Ibn Ata’ Allah says, “Do not spend time with he whose state does not invigorate you, and whose words do not guide you towards Allah. ... Instead, spend time with knowledgeable old people, who inspire you because their aspirations are connected to Allah. Do not resort to any but them, and do not entrust your affairs to any but then. Their words will point you towards Allah due to their knowledge of Him. Keeping the company of the righteous is a great step on the path towards Allah. And keeping company with the evil, it is extremely blameworthy due to the regression from high levels of piety that it entails .”2. Struggling with the self: “And for such as had entertained the fear of standing before their Lord's (tribunal) and had restrained (their) soul from lower desires. Their abode will be the Garden.” (al-Nazi’at: 40-41). And it is related from the Prophet that he said to his companions, while returning from battle, “We have returned from the lesser jihad to the greater jihad.” They asked him, “What is the greater jihad, Messenger of Allah?” He said, “struggling against the self.” Al-Hasan used to say, “Your enemy is not he whom if you kill him, you are relieved of him. Rather, your enemy is your own self, between your two sides .” Dhun-Nun al-Misri once said, “Be only in a state of opposition with your soul, and at a distance from the devil.”3. Expanding one’s horizons: If one’s circle of thinking is narrow, this leads quickly to lowly morals. He becomes like the person who sees no good except in himself, and sees none in creation deserving of goodness but him. The cure for this is to expand one’s horizons os that he may come to realize his true value to his society – that he is neither a vital organ of the body, nor the center around which everything else revolves. Rather, he is like all the others in his society merely a drop in the ocean. The truth is that narrow-mindedness is a source of numerous vices, to the point that it may lead one to consider oppression to be justice and vice versa. It is not possible for a person to rid himself of this prejudice until he loves the truth more than his own opinion and his own community, and he is enamored with the idea of setting out to search for the truth. If this thinking expands, and he arrives at a correct judgement and follows it, his morals too will advance .4. Studying the lives of the righteous: This is because their lives will appear in front of the reader, and inspire him to follow them. No community or nation is devoid of such righteous people. And no one can read about their life stories without feeling a new spirit enter him, impelling him to the best of deeds. Much of what has pushed people to great actions and feats has been the stories they have read of great people, or stories of events related to them. We may add to these, parables and wisdom tales, for these have deep meanings which are efficacious for the soul, and dwell deeply in the mind .One of the best things that has been said about this is from al-Ghazali:“Know that some people who have taken to excessive idleness have found it burdensome to struggle against the self, and discipline it, and involve themselves in purifying the soul and cultivating good morals. And so, they do not allow themselves to advance due to their incapacity and deficiencies. So they claim that character is incapable of change.They argue this in two ways. First, they say that character is the interior form just as one’s body is the exterior form. The latter is not capable of change, for the short person is incapable of making himself tall, and the tall person is not capable of making himself short. Nor can the ugly person make himself beautiful. And so, similarly, for the person who is spiritually repulsive, or evil.Secondly, they say that good character curbs lewd desires and anger. We have experienced this through struggling against the soul, and we know that these are in fact a result of one’s temperament and disposition and so cannot be separated from a person. Involving oneself in such a struggle is simply futile, and a waste of time, for what is desired is itself impossible.We say that if morals are not capable of change, there would be no point to the many advices and admonitions, such as the Prophet’s express command, “Beautify your morals.” How can this be denied to people while we admit it as a possibility for animals. Both falcons and dogs may be domesticated. And a recalcitrant horse may be made obedient. These are all examples of changes in character.Beautiful morals are indeed open doors from the heart to paradise and closeness to the All-Merciful. And poor morals are diseases of the heart, and poisons for the soul. This is a disease that forfeits the eternal life of the hereafter, and not simply the bodily life of this world. Doctors stress the setting down of principles for curing bodies, and since the life of the hereafter is more precious to the believer, there should be even more care to setting down the principles for curing the diseases of the soul. This sort of healing must be learned and practiced by all people of understanding.