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Ashoka (English: /əˈʃoʊkə/; IAST: Aśoka, Brāhmi: ),[4]sometimes Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperorof the Maurya Dynasty, who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent fromc.268 to 232 BCE.[5][6]The grandson of the founder of the Maurya Dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka promoted the spread of Buddhism. Considered by many to be one of India's greatest emperors,[according to whom?]Ashoka expanded Chandragupta's empire to reign over a realm stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east. It covered the entire Indian subcontinent except for parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The empire's capital was Pataliputra (in Magadha, present-day Patna), with provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain.Ashoka waged a destructive war against the state of Kalinga (modern Odisha),[7]which he conquered in about 260 BCE.[8]In about 263 BCE, he converted to Buddhism[7]after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War, which he had waged out of a desire for conquest and which reportedly directly resulted in more than 100,000 deaths and 150,000 deportations.[9]He is remembered for the Ashoka pillars and edicts, for sending Buddhist monks to Sri Lanka and Central Asia, and for establishing monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha.[10]Beyond the Edicts of Ashoka, biographical information about him relies on legends written centuries later, such as the 2nd-century CE Ashokavadana ("Narrative of Ashoka", a part of the Divyavadana), and in the Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle"). The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka. His Sanskrit name "Aśoka" means "painless, without sorrow" (the a privativum and śoka, "pain, distress"). In his edicts, he is referred to as Devānāmpriya (Pali Devānaṃpiya or "the Beloved of the Gods"), and Priyadarśin (Pali Piyadasī or "He who regards everyone with affection"). His fondness for his name's connection to the Saraca asoca tree, or "Ashoka tree", is also referenced in the Ashokavadana. In The Outline of History, H.G. Wells wrote, "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star."[11]ContentsBiographyAshoka's early lifeThe name A-so-ka(, Ashoka) in the Maski Minor Rock Edict, c.259 BCE. Brahmi script.Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor, Bindusara and Subhadrangī (or Dharmā).[12]He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya dynasty, who was born in a humble family, and with the counsel of Chanakya ultimately built one of the largest empires in ancient India.[13][14][15]According to Roman historian Appian, Chandragupta had made a "marital alliance" with Seleucus; there is thus a possibility that Ashoka had a Seleucid Greek grandmother.[16][17]An Indian Puranic source, the Pratisarga Parva of the Bhavishya Purana, also described the marriage of Chandragupta with a Greek ("Yavana") princess, daughter of Seleucus.[18][19]The ancient Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain texts provide varying biographical accounts. The Avadana texts mention that his mother was queen Subhadrangī. According to the Ashokavadana, she was the daughter of a Brahmin from the city of Champa.[20][21]:205She gave him the name Ashoka, meaning "one without sorrow". The Divyāvadānatells a similar story, but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyānī.[22][23]Ashoka had several elder siblings, all of whom were his half-brothers from the other wives of his father Bindusara. Ashoka was given royal military training.[24]Rise to powerThe Buddhist text Divyavadana describes Ashoka putting down a revolt due to activities of wicked ministers. This may have been an incident in Bindusara's times. Taranatha's account states that Chanakya, Bindusara's chief advisor, destroyed the nobles and kings of 16 towns and made himself the master of all territory between the eastern and the western seas. Some historians consider this as an indication of Bindusara's conquest of the Deccan while others consider it as suppression of a revolt.[20]Governor of UjainThe commemorative inscription from Saru Maru, Madhya Pradesh.Following this, Ashoka was stationed at Ujain, the capital of Malwa, as governor.[20]A commemorative inscription found in Saru Maru, Madhya Pradesh, mentions the visit of Piyadasi (honorific name used by Ashoka in his inscriptions) as he was still an unmarried Prince.[25][26]This inscription confirms Ashoka's presence in Madhya Pradesh as a young man, and his status while he was there.[27]Piyadasi nama/ rajakumala va/ samvasamane/ imam desam papunitha/ viahara(ya)tay(e).The king, who (now after consecration) is called "Piyadasi", (once) came to this place for a pleasure tour while still a (ruling) prince, living together with his unwedded consort.—Commemorative Inscription of the visit of Ashoka, Saru Maru. Translated by Falk.[27]Bindusara's death in 272 BCE led to a war over succession. According to the Divyavadana, Bindusara wanted his elder son Susima to succeed him but Ashoka was supported by his father's ministers, who found Susima to be arrogant and disrespectful towards them.[28]A minister named Radhagupta seems to have played an important role in Ashoka's rise to the throne. The Ashokavadana recounts Radhagupta's offering of an old royal elephant to Ashoka for him to ride to the Garden of the Gold Pavilion where King Bindusara would determine his successor. Ashoka later got rid of the legitimate heir to the throne by tricking him into entering a pit filled with live coals. Radhagupta, according to the Ashokavadana, would later be appointed prime minister by Ashoka once he had gained the throne. The Dipavansa and Mahavansa refer to Ashoka's killing 99 of his brothers, sparing only one, named Vitashoka or Tissa,[3]although there is no clear proof about this incident (many such accounts are saturated with mythological elements). The coronation happened in 269 BCE, four years after his succession to the throne.[29]Emperor Ashoka and his Queen at the Deer Park. Sanchi relief.[2]Buddhist legends state that Ashoka was bad-tempered and of a wicked nature. He built Ashoka's Hell, an elaborate torture chamberdescribed as a "Paradisal Hell" due to the contrast between its beautiful exterior and the acts carried out within by his appointed executioner, Girikaa.[30]This earned him the name of Chanda Ashoka (Caṇḍa Aśoka) meaning "Ashoka the Fierce" in Sanskrit. Professor Charles Drekmeier cautions that the Buddhist legends tend to dramatise the change that Buddhism brought in him, and therefore, exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion.[31]Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, from the present-day Assam in the East to Balochistan in the West; from the Pamir Knot in Afghanistan in the north to the peninsula of southern India except for present day Tamil Nadu and Keralawhich were ruled by the three ancient Tamil kingdoms.[23][32]MarriageFrom the various sources that speak of his life, Ashoka is believed to have had five wives. They were named Devi (or Vedisa-Mahadevi-Shakyakumari), the second queen, Karuvaki, Asandhimitra (designated agramahisī or "chief queen"), Padmavati, and Tishyarakshita.[33]He is similarly believed to have had four sons and two daughters: a son by Devi named Mahendra (Pali: Mahinda), Tivara (son of Karuvaki), Kunala (son of Padmavati, and Jalauka (mentioned in the Kashmir Chronicle), a daughter of Devi named Sanghamitra (Pali: Sanghamitta), and another daughter named Charumati.[33]According to one version of the Mahavamsa, the Buddhist chronicle of Sri Lanka, Ashoka, when he was heir-apparent and was journeying as Viceroy to Ujjain, is said to have halted at Vidisha (10 kilometers from Sanchi), and there married the daughter of a local banker. She was called Devi and later gave Ashoka two sons, Ujjeniya and Mahendra, and a daughter Sanghamitta. After Ashoka's accession, Mahendra headed a Buddhist mission, sent probably under the auspices of the Emperor, to Sri Lanka.[34]Conquest of Kalinga & Buddhist conversionAshoka's empire stretched from Afghanistan to Bengal to southern India. Several modern maps depict it as covering nearly all of the Indian subcontinent, except the southern tip.[35]Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund believe that Ashoka's empire did not include large parts of India, which were controlled by autonomous tribes.[35]While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's teachings after his conquest of the Kalinga on the east coast of India in the present-day states of Odisha and North Coastal Andhra Pradesh. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy. With its monarchical parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata where there existed the concept of Rajdharma. Rajdharma means the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and dharma. The Kalinga War happened eight years after his coronation. From his 13th inscription, we come to know that the battle was a massive one and caused the deaths of more than 100,000 soldiers and many civilians who rose up in defence; over 150,000 were deported.[36]Edict 13 of the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions expresses the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga:Directly after the Kalingas had been annexed began His Sacred Majesty’s zealous protection of the Law of Piety, his love of that Law, and his inculcation of that Law. Thence arises the remorse of His Sacred Majesty for having conquered the Kalingas, because the conquest of a country previously unconquered involves the slaughter, death, and carrying away captive of the people. That is a matter of profound sorrow and regret to His Sacred Majesty.[37]Legend says that one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. The lethal war with Kalinga transformed the vengeful Emperor Ashoka to a stable and peaceful emperor and he became a patron of Buddhism. According to the prominent Indologist, A. L. Basham, Ashoka's personal religion became Buddhism, if not before, then certainly after the Kalinga war. However, according to Basham, the Dharma officially propagated by Ashoka was not Buddhism at all.[38]Nevertheless, his patronage led to the expansion of Buddhism in the Mauryan empire and other kingdoms during his rule, and worldwide from about 250 BCE.[39]Prominent in this cause were his son Mahinda (Mahendra) and daughter Sanghamitra (whose name means "friend of the Sangha"), who established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).[40]The Diamond throne built by Ashoka at the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, at the location where the Buddha reached enlightenment.Death and legacyAshoka's Major Rock Edict at Junagadh contains inscriptions by Ashoka (fourteen of the Edicts of Ashoka), Rudradaman I and Skandagupta.Ashoka ruled for an estimated 36 years and died in 232 BCE.[41]Legend states that during his cremation, his body burned for seven days and nights.[42]After his death, the Mauryan dynasty lasted just fifty more years until his empire stretched over almost all of the Indian subcontinent. Ashoka had many wives and children, but many of their names are lost to time. His chief consort (agramahisi) for the majority of his reign was his wife, Asandhimitra, who apparently bore him no children.[43]In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It is said that she had got Ashoka's son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila and the heir presumptive to the throne, blinded by a wily stratagem. The official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer accompanied by his favourite wife Kanchanmala. In Pataliputra, Ashoka heard Kunala's song, and realised that Kunala's misfortune may have been a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself. He condemned Tishyaraksha to death, restoring Kunala to the court. In the Ashokavadana, Kunala is portrayed as forgiving Tishyaraksha, having obtained enlightenment through Buddhist practice. While he urges Ashoka to forgive her as well, Ashoka does not respond with the same forgiveness.[30]Kunala was succeeded by his son, Samprati, who ruled for 50 years until his death.[citation needed]The reign of Ashoka Maurya might have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, had he not left behind records of his reign. These records are in the form of sculpted pillars and rocks inscribed with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published under his name. The language used for inscription was in one of the Prakrit "common" languages etched in a Brahmi script.[44]In the year 185 BCE, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Maurya ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pushyamitra Shunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty (185-75 BCE) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. Many of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire (modern-day Afghanistan and Northern Pakistan) became the Indo-Greek Kingdom.[citation needed]King Ashoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, is also considered as one of the most exemplary rulers who ever lived.[45]Buddhist kingshipThe Major Rock Edict No.13 of Ashoka, mentions the Greek kings Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magasand Alexander by name, as recipients of his teachings.Main article: Buddhist kingshipFurther information: History of Buddhism, History of Buddhism in India, Buddhism in Nepal, Buddhism in Sri Lanka, and Buddhism in BurmaOne of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state. Emperor Ashoka was seen as a role model to leaders within the Buddhist community. He not only provided guidance and strength, but he also created personal relationships with his supporters.[46]Throughout Theravada Southeastern Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka replaced the notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the Angkorkingdom, for instance). Under this model of 'Buddhist kingship', the king sought to legitimise his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha. Following Ashoka's example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately led to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism of Thailand and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader. Ashoka also said that all his courtiers always governed the people in a moral manner.[citation needed]According to the legends mentioned in the 2nd-century CE text Ashokavadana, Ashoka was not non-violent after adopting Buddhism. In one instance, a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of Nirgrantha Jnatiputra (identified with Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara of Jainism). On complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest him, and subsequently, another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order.[21][47]Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture. Ashoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house.[47]He also announced an award of one dinara (silver coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to Ashokavadana, as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd.[21]However, for several reasons, scholars say, these stories of persecutions of rival sects by Ashoka appear to be clear fabrications arising out of sectarian propaganda.[47][48][49]Historical sources"Devānampiyasa Asoka", honorific Devanampiya (in the adjectival form -sa) and name of Asoka, Brahmi script, in the Maski Edict of Ashoka.Main articles: Edicts of Ashoka, Ashokavadana, Mahavamsa, and DipavamsaAshoka had almost been forgotten, but in the 19th century James Prinsep contributed in the revelation of historical sources. After deciphering the Brahmi script, Prinsep had originally identified the "Priyadasi" of the inscriptions he found with the King of Ceylon Devanampiya Tissa. However, in 1837, George Turnour discovered an important Sri Lankan manuscript (Dipavamsa, or "Island Chronicle" ) associating Piyadasi with Ashoka:"Two hundred and eighteen years after the beatitude of the Buddha, was the inauguration of Piyadassi, .... who, the grandson of Chandragupta, and the son of Bindusara, was at the time Governor of Ujjayani."—Dipavamsa.[50]The Minor Rock Edict of Maskimentions the author as "Devanampriya Asoka", definitively linking both names, and confirming Ashoka as the author of the famous Edicts.Since then, the association of "Devanampriya Priyadarsin" with Ashoka was confirmed through various inscriptions, and especially confirmed in the Minor Rock Edict inscription discovered in Maski, directly associating Ashoka with his regnal title Devanampriya ("Beloved-of-the-Gods"):[51][52][A proclamation] of Devanampriya Asoka.Two and a half years [and somewhat more] (have passed) since I am a Buddha-Sakya.[A year and] somewhat more (has passed) [since] I have visited the Samgha and have shown zeal.Those gods who formerly had been unmingled (with men) in Jambudvipa, have how become mingled (with them).This object can be reached even by a lowly (person) who is devoted to morality.One must not think thus, — (viz.) that only an exalted (person) may reach this.Both the lowly and the exalted must be told : "If you act thus, this matter (will be) prosperous and of long duration, and will thus progress to one and a half.—Maski Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka.[53]Another important historian was British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall, who was director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath, in addition to Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and army engineer, and often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, unveiled heritage sites like the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple. Mortimer Wheeler, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the Taxila.[citation needed]The Kandahar Edict of Ashoka, a bilingual inscription (in Greek and Aramaic) by King Ashoka, discovered at Kandahar (National Museum of Afghanistan).Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the Sanskrit Ashokavadana ('Story of Ashoka'), written in the 2nd century, and the two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka (the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known information about Ashoka. Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Ashoka, whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (Priyadarshi—'He who regards everyone with affection') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Maurya. Architectural remains of his period have been found at Kumhrar, Patna, which include an 80-pillar hypostyle hall.[citation needed]Edicts of Ashoka -The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, made by Ashoka during his reign. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism, moral precepts, religious precepts, and his notions of social and animal welfare.[54]Ashokavadana – The Aśokāvadāna is a 2nd-century CE text related to the legend of Ashoka. The legend was translated into Chinese by Fa Hien in 300 CE. It is essentially a Hinayana text, and its world is that of Mathura and North-west India. The emphasis of this little known text is on exploring the relationship between the king and the community of monks (the Sangha) and setting up an ideal of religious life for the laity (the common man) by telling appealing stories about religious exploits. The most startling feature is that Ashoka's conversion has nothing to do with the Kalinga war, which is not even mentioned, nor is there a word about his belonging to the Maurya dynasty. Equally surprising is the record of his use of state power to spread Buddhism in an uncompromising fashion. The legend of Veetashoka provides insights into Ashoka's character that are not available in the widely known Pali records.[30]A punch-marked Coin of Ashoka[55]A silver coin of 1 karshapana of the empire Maurya, period of Ashoka Maurya towards 272-232 BC, workshop of Mathura. Obv: Symbols including a sun and an animal Rev:Symbol Dimensions: 13.92 x 11.75 mm Weight: 3.4 g.Mahavamsa -The Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle") is a historical poem written in the Pali language of the kings of Sri Lanka. It covers the period from the coming of King Vijaya of Kalinga (ancient Odisha) in 543 BCE to the reign of King Mahasena (334–361). As it often refers to the royal dynasties of India, the Mahavamsa is also valuable for historians who wish to date and relate contemporary royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent. It is very important in dating the consecration of Ashoka.[citation needed]Dwipavamsa -The Dwipavamsa, or "Dweepavamsa", (i.e., Chronicle of the Island, in Pali) is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka. The chronicle is believed to be compiled from Atthakatha and other sources around the 3rd or 4th century CE. King Dhatusena (4th century) had ordered that the Dipavamsa be recited at the Mahinda festival held annually in Anuradhapura.[citation needed]SymbolismCaduceus symbol on a punch-marked coin of the Maurya Empire in India, in the 3rd-2nd century BCE.The caduceus appears as a symbol of the punch-marked coins of the Maurya Empire in India, in the 3rd-2nd century BCE. Numismatic research suggests that this symbol was the symbol of king Ashoka, his personal "Mudra".[56]This symbol was not used on the pre-Mauryan punch-marked coins, but only on coins of the Maurya period, together with the three arched-hill symbol, the "peacock on the hill", the triskelis and the Taxila mark.[57]Perceptions and historiographyThe use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. Romila Thappar writes about Ashoka that "We need to see him both as a statesman in the context of inheriting and sustaining an empire in a particular historical period, and as a person with a strong commitment to changing society through what might be called the propagation of social ethics."[58]The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept. For example, Amartya Sen writes, "The Indian Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE presented many political inscriptions in favor of tolerance and individual freedom, both as a part of state policy and in the relation of different people to each other".[59]However, the edicts alone strongly indicate that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, many edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka", and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. However, he used the word more in the spirit than as a strict code of conduct. Romila Thappar writes, "His dhamma did not derive from divine inspiration, even if its observance promised heaven. It was more in keeping with the ethic conditioned by the logic of given situations. His logic of Dhamma was intended to influence the conduct of categories of people, in relation to each other. Especially where they involved unequal relationships."[58]Finally, he promotes ideals that correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.[60]The Ashokavadana presents an alternate view of the familiar Ashoka; one in which his conversion has nothing to do with the Kalinga war or about his descent from the Maurya dynasty. Instead, Ashoka's reason for adopting non-violence appears much more personal. The Ashokavadana shows that the main source of Ashoka's conversion and the acts of welfare that followed are rooted instead in intense personal anguish at its core, from a wellspring inside himself rather than spurred by a specific event. It thereby illuminates Ashoka as more humanly ambitious and passionate, with both greatness and flaws. This Ashoka is very different from the "shadowy do-gooder" of later Pali chronicles.[30]Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the several inscriptions that he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good.[61]These inscriptions promoted Buddhist morality and encouraged nonviolence and adherence to dharma (duty or proper behaviour), and they talk of his fame and conquered lands as well as the neighbouring kingdoms holding up his might. One also gets some primary information about the Kalinga War and Ashoka's allies plus some useful knowledge on the civil administration. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most notable of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd century BCE. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back), which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether or not some events ever actually happened, but the stone etchings clearly depict how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and remembered.[citation needed]Focus of debateFront frieze of the Diamond throne, built by Ashoka at Bodh Gaya.Recently scholarly analysis determined that the three major foci of debate regarding Ashoka involve the nature of the Maurya empire; the extent and impact of Ashoka's pacifism; and what is referred to in the Inscriptions as dhamma or dharma, which connotes goodness, virtue, and charity.[62]Some historians[who?]have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire, while others have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated". The dhamma of the Edicts has been understood as concurrently a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of universal religion", or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an essentially political ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire. Scholars are still attempting to analyse both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental, and culturally and economically highly variegated, 3rd century BCE Indian empire. Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices."[63]Legends of AshokaAshoka and his two queens, in a relief at Sanchi. The identification with Ashoka is confirmed by the similar relief from Kanaganahalli inscribed "Raya Asoka".[64][2]Ashoka with his Queens, at Sannati (Kanaganahalli Stupa), 1st-3rd century CE. The inscription "Rāya Asoko" ( , "King Ashoka") in Brahmi script is carved on the relief.[64][65]Until the Ashokan inscriptions were discovered and deciphered, stories about Ashoka were based on the legendary accounts of his life and not strictly on historical facts. These legends were found in Buddhist textual sources such as the text of Ashokavadana. The Ashokavadana is a subset of a larger set of legends in the Divyavadana, though it could have existed independently as well. Following are some of the legends narrated in the Ashokavadana about Ashoka:1) One of the stories talks about an event that occurred in a past life of Ashoka, when he was a small child named Jaya. Once when Jaya was playing on the roadside, the Buddha came by. The young child put a handful of earth in the Buddha's begging bowl as his gift to the saint and declared his wish to one day become a great emperor and follower of the Buddha. The Buddha is said to have smiled a smile that “illuminated the universe with its rays of light”.[20]These rays of light are then said to have re-entered the Buddha's left palm, signifying that this child Jaya would, in his next life, become a great emperor. The Buddha is said to have even turned to his disciple Ananda and is said to have predicted that this child would be “a great, righteous chakravarti king, who would rule his empire from his capital at Pataliputra”.2) Another story aims to portray Ashoka as an evil person in order to convey the importance of his transformation into a good person upon adopting Buddhism.[20]It begins by stating that due to Ashoka's physical ugliness he was disliked by his father Bindusara. Ashoka wanted to become king and so he got rid of the heir by tricking him into entering a pit filled with live coals. He became famous as “Ashoka the Fierce” because of his wicked nature and bad temper. He is said to have subjected his ministers to a test of loyalty and then have 500 of them killed for failing it. He is said to have burnt his entire harem to death when certain women insulted him. He is supposed to have derived sadistic pleasure from watching other people suffer. And for this he built himself an elaborate and horrific torture chamber where he amused himself by torturing other people. The story then goes on to narrate how it was only after an encounter with a pious Buddhist monk that Ashoka himself transformed into “Ashoka the pious”. A Chinese traveler who visited India in the 7th century CE, Xuan Zang recorded in his memoirs that he visited the place where the supposed torture chamber stood.3) Another story is about events that occurred towards the end of Ashoka's time on earth. Ashoka is said to have started gifting away the contents of his treasury to the Buddhist sangha. His ministers however were scared that his eccentricity would be the downfall of the empire and so denied him access to the treasury. As a result, Ashoka started giving away his personal possessions and was eventually left with nothing and so died peacefully.[20]At this point it is important to note that the Ashokavadana being a Buddhist text in itself sought to gain new converts for Buddhism and so used all these legends. Devotion to the Buddha and loyalty to the sangha are stressed. Such texts added to the perception that Ashoka was essentially the ideal Buddhist monarch who deserved both admiration and emulation.[20]Ashoka and the relics of the BuddhaAccording to Buddhist legend, particularly the Mahaparinirvana, the relics of the Buddha had been shared among eight countries following his death.[66]Ashoka endeavoured to take back the relics and share them among 84,000 stupas. This story is amply depicted in the reliefs of Sanchi and Bharhut.[67]According to the legend, Ashoka obtained the ashes from seven of the countries, but failed to take the ashes from the Nagas at Ramagrama. This scene is depicted on the tranversal portion of the southern gateway at Sanchi.King Ashoka visits Ramagrama, to take relics of the Buddha from the Nagas, but in vain. Southern gateway, Stupa 1, Sanchi.[2]ContributionsApproach towards religionsAshoka's title "DevanaṃpiyenaPiyadasi" ( ) in the Lumbini Minor Pillar Edict.According to Indian historian Romila Thapar, Ashoka emphasized respect for all religious teachers, and harmonious relationship between parents and children, teachers and pupils, and employers and employees.[68]Ashoka's religion contained gleanings from all religions.[citation needed]He emphasized the virtues of Ahimsa, respect to all religious teachers, equal respect for and study of each other's scriptures, and rational faith.[citation needed]Global spread of BuddhismStupa of Sanchi. The central stupa was built during the Mauryas, and enlarged during the Sungas, but the decorative gateway is dated to the later dynasty of the Satavahanas.As a Buddhist emperor, Ashoka believed that Buddhism is beneficial for all human beings as well as animals and plants, so he built a number of stupas, Sangharama, viharas, chaitya, and residences for Buddhist monks all over South Asia and Central Asia. According to the Ashokavadana, he ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas to house the Buddha's relics.[69]In the Aryamanjusrimulakalpa, Ashoka takes offerings to each of these stupas traveling in a chariot adorned with precious metals.[70]He gave donations to viharas and mathas. He sent his only daughter Sanghamitra and son Mahindra to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka (then known as Tamraparni).According to the Mahavamsa (XII, 1st paragraph),[71]in the 17th year of his reign, at the end of the Third Buddhist Council, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to nine parts of the world (eight parts of Southern Asia, and the "country of the Yonas(Greeks)") to propagate Buddhism.[72]The word Upāsaka (, "Buddhist lay follower", in the Brahmi script), used by Ashoka in his Minor Rock Edict No.1 to describe his affiliation to Buddhism (circa 258 BCE).Ashoka and Monk Moggaliputta-Tissa at the Third Buddhist Council. Nava Jetavana, Shravasti.Ashoka also invited Buddhists and non-Buddhists for religious conferences. He inspired the Buddhist monks to compose the sacred religious texts, and also gave all types of help to that end. Ashoka also helped to develop viharas (intellectual hubs) such as Nalanda and Taxila. Ashoka helped to construct Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple. Ashoka also gave donations to non-Buddhists. As his reign continued his even-handedness was replaced with special inclination towards Buddhism.[73]Ashoka helped and respected both Shramanas (Buddhists monks) and Brahmins (Vedic monks). Ashoka also helped to organise the Third Buddhist council (c.250 BCE) at Pataliputra (today's Patna), conducted by the monk Moggaliputta-Tissa.[74][75]Emperor Ashoka's son, Mahinda, also helped with the spread of Buddhism by translating the Buddhist Canon into a language that could be understood by the people of Sri Lanka.[76]It is well known that Ashoka sent dütas or emissaries to convey messages or letters, written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant to spread his dhammavijaya, which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the Kharosthi script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script, as Achaemenid influence is seen in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls.[77]Hellenistic worldDistribution of the Edicts of Ashoka, and location of the contemporary Greek city of Ai-Khanoum.[78]Territories "conquered by the Dharma" according to Major Rock Edict No.13 of Ashoka (260–218 BCE).[79][80]In his edicts, Ashoka mentions some of the people living in Hellenic countries as converts to Buddhism and recipients of his envoys, although no Hellenic historical record of this event remains:Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochosrules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni. Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamktis, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been, these people too, having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it and will continue to do so.—Edicts of Ashoka, Rock Edict (S. Dhammika)[81]It is not too far-fetched to imagine, however, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the dütas sent by Ashoka himself).[77]Dionysius is reported to have been such a Greek ambassador at the court of Ashoka, sent by Ptolemy II Philadelphus,[82]who himself is mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka. Some Hellenistic philosophers, such as Hegesias of Cyrene, who probably lived under the rule of King Magas, one of the supposed recipients of Buddhist emissaries from Asoka, are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings.[83]The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the Mahavamsa, XII[84]).Some Greeks (Yavana) may have played an administrative role in the territories ruled by Ashoka. The Girnar inscription of Rudradaman records that during the rule of Ashoka, a Yavana Governor was in charge in the area of Girnar, Gujarat, mentioning his role in the construction of a water reservoir.[85][86]As administratorMauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum.Ashoka's military power was strong, but after his conversion to Buddhism, he maintained friendly relations with three major Tamil kingdoms in the South—namely, Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas—the post-Alexandrian empire, Tamraparni, and Suvarnabhumi. His edicts state that he made provisions for medical treatment of humans and animals in his own kingdom as well as in these neighbouring states. He also had wells dug and trees planted along the roads for the benefit of the common people.[61]Animal welfareAshoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is not good, and no animal should be sacrificed for slaughter.[87]However, he did not prohibit common cattle slaughter or beef eating.[88]He imposed a ban on killing of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible", and of specific animal species including several birds, certain types of fish and bulls among others. He also banned killing of female goats, sheep and pigs that were nursing their young; as well as their young up to the age of six months. He also banned killing of all fish and castration of animals during certain periods such as Chaturmasa and Uposatha.[89][90]Ashoka also abolished the royal hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the royal residence.[91]Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents".[92]Ashoka ChakraMain article: Ashoka ChakraThe Ashoka Chakra, "the wheel of Righteousness" (Dharma in Sanskrit or Dhamma in Pali)"The Ashoka Chakra (the wheel of Ashoka) is a depiction of the Dharmachakra (the Wheel of Dharma). The wheel has 24 spokes which represent the 12 Laws of Dependent Origination and the 12 Laws of Dependent Termination. The Ashoka Chakra has been widely inscribed on many relics of the Mauryan Emperor, most prominent among which is the Lion Capital of Sarnathand The Ashoka Pillar. The most visible use of the Ashoka Chakra today is at the centre of the National flag of the Republic of India (adopted on 22 July 1947), where it is rendered in a Navy-blue color on a White background, by replacing the symbol of Charkha (Spinning wheel) of the pre-independence versions of the flag. The Ashoka Chakra can also been seen on the base of the Lion Capital of Ashoka which has been adopted as the National Emblem of India.[citation needed]The Ashoka Chakra was created by Ashoka during his reign. Chakra is a Sanskrit word which also means "cycle" or "self-repeating process". The process it signifies is the cycle of time—as in how the world changes with time.[citation needed]A few days before India became independent in August 1947, the specially-formed Constituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities. A flag with three colours, Saffron, White and Green with the Ashoka Chakra was selected.[93]Stone architectureThe Pataliputra capital, a 3rd-century BCE capital from the Mauryan palace in Pataliputra, displaying Hellenistic designs.Rampurva bull capital, detail of the abacus, with two "flame palmettes"framing a lotus surrounded by small rosette flowers.Ashoka is often credited with the beginning of stone architecture in India, possibly following the introduction of stone-building techniques by the Greeks after Alexander the Great.[94]Before Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in non-permanent material, such as wood, bamboo or thatch.[94][95]Ashoka may have rebuilt his palace in Pataliputra by replacing wooden material by stone,[96]and may also have used the help of foreign craftmen.[97]Ashoka also innovated by using the permanent qualities of stone for his written edicts, as well as his pillars with Buddhist symbolism.Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha)Main article: Pillars of AshokaThe Ashokan pillar at Lumbini, Nepal, Buddha's birthplaceThe pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. Originally, there must have been many pillars of Ashoka although only ten with inscriptions still survive. Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they were erected. The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16th century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi. The wheel represents the sun time and Buddhist law, while the swastikastands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and guards against evil.[citation needed]Lion Capital of Ashoka (Ashokmudra)Main article: Lion Capital of AshokaAshoka's pillar capital of Sarnath. Ashokan capitals were highly realistic and used a characteristic polished finish, Mauryan polish, giving a shiny appearance to the stone surface. This sculpture has been adopted as the National Emblem of India. 3rd century BCE.The Lion capital of Ashoka is a sculpture of four lions standing back to back. It was originally placed atop the Ashoka pillar at Sarnath, now in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. The pillar, sometimes called the Ashoka Column, is still in its original location, but the Lion Capital is now in the Sarnath Museum. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the wheel ("Ashoka Chakra") from its base was placed onto the center of the National Flag of India.[citation needed]The capital contains four lions (Indian / Asiatic Lions), standing back to back, mounted on a short cylindrical abacus, with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull, and a lion, separated by intervening spoked chariot-wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital was believed to be crowned by a 'Wheel of Dharma' (Dharmachakra popularly known in India as the "Ashoka Chakra"). The Sarnath pillar bears one of the Edicts of Ashoka, an inscription against division within the Buddhist community, which reads, "No one shall cause division in the order of monks."[citation needed]The four animals in the Sarnath capital are believed to symbolise different steps of Lord Buddha's life.[citation needed]The Elephant represents the Buddha's idea in reference to the dream of Queen Maya of a white elephant entering her womb.The Bull represents desire during the life of the Buddha as a prince.The Horse represents Buddha's departure from palatial life.The Lion represents the accomplishment of Buddha.Besides the religious interpretations, there are some non-religious interpretations also about the symbolism of the Ashoka capital pillar at Sarnath. According to them, the four lions symbolise Ashoka's rule over the four directions, the wheels as symbols of his enlightened rule (Chakravartin) and the four animals as symbols of four adjoining territories of India.

The British (and Empire forces) were the first military force to stop the Germans (Tobruk) and then they were also the first to secure defeats on land (El Alamein), at sea (Battle of the Atlantic) and in the air (Battle of Britain).The planning, technical ability, experience and courage to do this in all theatres of war, concurrently, in all corners of the globe and against an Axis of better prepared forces and vastly superior numbers was outstanding. The notion of Britain not doing much util USA entered the war is therefore wonderfully naive.Taken from my previous answer to “Did Britain continue to do anything for the war after America became involved in 1941?”“As well as achieving the first three victories against the ‘unstoppable’ German military machine, Britain achieved that which no other nation could accomplish early in 1940 —namely fighting, at any one time, a global war in the Middle East, Far East, Asia Minor, Indian subcontinent, Australasia, the Pacific, North Africa, West Africa, East Africa, South Atlantic, North Atlantic, Hebrides and Irish Seas, Bay of Biscay and English Channel, North Sea, Mediterranean, Adriatic and of course mainland Western Europe, Eastern Europe, the Balkans, Iceland, Scandinavia and the Arctic Sea —Russia also because, whilst Uncle Sam was navel gazing, Britain had already battled the unforgiving Baltic, past Bismark and through U–Boats, gifting 1,900 fighters and 420 tanks to Stalin helping win the Battle of Moscow. Germany’s war was regional. Japan, Italy and Vichy France too —whilst events may be termed a world war, only Britain fought a world war.Securing these three wins for the democratic free was, by any standard, let alone because Britain was smaller than these pea-cocking belligerents, a feat of brilliance. However, if being the only power in history to plan, lead and achieve the aforementioned is not a convincing case for military competence, there are six additional reasons why Britain capably managed throughout the war:1. THE ROYAL AIR FORCEThe Battle of Britain was Germany’s first defeat —it stopped the rot, it showed the world Britain was serious and able to punch hard when nobody else seemingly had capacity, preparedness or inclination to do so.“The days of easy victory were over. We had met the Royal Air Force head on”Werner Kriepe, He111 pilot, Kampgeschwader 2Post WWII Soviet interrogators asked Wehrmacht commander Field Marshal von Rundstedt which WWII battle he believed most decisive. Expected to say ‘Stalingrad’, he replied ‘The Battle of Britain’ because, for the first time in a decade (defined by The Occupation of the Rhineland, Anschluss, Lebensraum and the invasions of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Belgium, France, Holland, Denmark and Norway), Germany had lost the initiative —it was Churchill’s famously phrased ‘end of the beginning’.Fighter Command —The RAF had the world’s first and only integrated national air defence (the Dowding System, using British invented Radar, then called Radio Detection Finding) to identify approaching enemy planes hundreds of miles away with a centralised command centre (networked to regional airfields through bomb–proof and buried phone lines) to scramble and vector fighters towards incoming enemy to intercept at height. The system was a force multiplier efficiently counteracting Luftwaffe 3:1 numerical advantage.“From the first the British had an extraordinary advantage, never to be balanced at any time during the whole war, which was their radar and fighter control network organisation. It was for us a bitter surprise. We had nothing like it. We could do no other than knock frontally against outstandingly organised and resolute defence of Britain”Adolf Galland, Me109 AceIn the 1930s, whilst bi–plane flying Yankee fighter pilots moonlighted as crop sprayers, inventor Air Chief Marshall Dowding had successfully integrated cutting edge communications, information gathering, target identification, target prioritisation, flight scheduling and interception guidance —at a glance he had foreseen the global future for national air defence for the next 100 years.“As soon as we took off we were detected by the English. We learned soon that English radar was just perfect, but we neglected to attack it”Adolf Galland, Me109 AceKnowing Radar was ‘perfect’, as Germany’s most famous Ace described, against the world’s first nation targetting women and children with aerial bombing ‘terror’ campaigns (Guernica, Warsaw, Rotterdam, Belgrade), Britain had no compulsion to share its insight and claimed pilots simply ‘ate carrots’ for improved vision. When Spitfire pilot (and later best-selling author) Len Deighton, was shot down and asked by interrogators how Britain achieved such early warning he said “We have powerful binoculars”.It is ironic Germany is so famed for its ‘wonder weapons’ —none of which were decisive on the battlefield as was Radar. The Dowding System was copied globally and is used by USA to this day, barring carrots —although in Iowa and Wisconsin I’m less sure.Supermarine Spitfire —WWII’s most successful fighter–interceptor (with a development potential accredited as unequalled in military aviation: the last of its lineage was the Spitfire 21), received weapon, power, armour protection and fuel capacity upgrades for the 6 year span of war. Its unparalleled heritage lay in winning the international Schneider Trophy air speed race for the third time running and in using Merlin —a development of the same Schneider winning race engine. Supermarine’s S.6B racer became the world’s first to pass 400mph (407.5 mph) and Spitfire was the weaponised offspring of these 15 successful, world leading, race development years. Her thoroughbred cutting edge lines are seen in her Schneider winning forebear and Spitfire is popularly vaunted as the war’s ‘beautiful’ plane. After its debut test flight lasting 8 minutes on 5 March 1936 the test pilot, Mutt Summers, stepped out of the cockpit to say the famous words “Don’t change a thing”.Whilst Battle of Britain’s early Spitfire (Mk 2) merely equalled Me109 in performance (each having differing advantages) Spitfire matured to outclass Me109 in every measurable attribute. The RAF downed 52 planes on 15 September 1940 alone and Goering halted his 5 month failing attack —the battle was won. Spitfire had given the Luftwaffe such a surprise Goering fielded sardonic requests from his Aces (specifically Galland) for a Spitfire squadron for Luftwaffe use. By 1942, the quantum leap of (‘interim’) Spitfire Mk9 left Me109 and Fw190 trailing to the war’s end:“Bf 109 and Fw 190 have been caught up with and overtaken by the English… to my annoyance they also have greater range… this is unpleasant. Above all Spitfire is ahead, a thing our fighter pilots do not like” … “It is amazing how Spitfire flies so high beyond Koln and Frankfurt. They are a great hindrance. How they do it is unknown”Field Marshall Herman Goring“There we were hanging over London like ripe plums and Spitfires would dive on us from 3 or 4 thousand feet above at over 350mph. That’s when I realised Spitfires were better than us”Ulrich Steinhilper, Me109 Pilot“Spitfire is now absolutely and unquestionably superior to the Me109”Field Marshall Herman GoringBy 1942 Me109 development had plateaued and Willy Messerschmitt’s ‘light fighter’ concept, founded on early principles learned in his gliding career, were antiquated and surpassed —a wonderful local attack–fighter for Blitzkrieg but without legs for strategic missions. By contrast to Spitfire’s patient evolutionary rise through two–decades of Schneider involvement, Me109 had been knocked up in an afternoon.“Me 109 has reached its peak performance, no further improvement is possible”Field Marshall Herman GoringMe109 (specifically the wing) was too small for both serious weapon upgrades and drop tanks, Fw190’s shining success had a short time in the sun (it was outclassed by Britain’s Typhoon which was specifically designated as the Fw190 ‘hunter’), Japan’s Zero, once best in class, quickly became outmoded and American P38, P39, P40, Brewster Buffalo, Kittyhawk, Tomahawk were all unfit for purpose at bomber interception altitude where the big boys played.Russian low level ground–attack fighters were excellent (although late) and good US fighters (arriving even later) had a brief appearance. P51 Mustang was underpowered at altitude and required the British Merlin to save it from the scrapheap. When Yanks claim ‘their’ P51 was the war’s best fighter I always wonder which half they refer to —British or American? Russia disliked Mustang’s excessive weight causing low altitude underperformance and also her belly–scoop (air intake, radiator, coolants) which was dangerously exposed to small arms fire —all too often was it downed by sandal wearing soldiers (hence early withdrawal from Korea). Mustang, although one of the greats, does not share Spitfire’s legendarily lofty and iconic status.USA took another 20 years to supply an interceptor (F4 Phantom) to adequately meet exacting British avionic requirement and there is good reason why Uncle Sam shops abroad solely with Britain for his avionics —Canberra (precursor to U2 —flew with impunity and, unlike its successor, was never downed), Lynx (the world’s fastest helicopter hopped over Cold War hedges to deploy eight lethal shape charged TOW anti–tank missiles) and Harrier (precursor to F35 was a world first much loved by US Marines. Taking off from forest clearings the size if a squash court, it was NATO’s only operational jet fighter if the then Soviet Union destroyed its airfields in a First Strike scenario). In WWIII, as far as air power is concerned, the RAF would have been alone against the usurpers of democracy, once again because no other nation would have been able to fly jets. 50 years post Pearl, USA was still seemingly unable or unwilling to learn the lesson of whirlwind surprise attacks.Avro Lancaster —the Lanc ‘heavy’ took bombing to Germany like Uncle Sam could not. Carrying a payload 5 times Flying Fortress (22,000 pounds to 4,500) and with 25% superior range (2,530 miles to 2,000), Lanc was markedly superior and, according to US military history, the war’s most capable:“The Lancaster was the finest bomber in the European theatre of Operations”Dr William Murray, US author, A War to be WonLoved by crew, it was smaller, more powerful and more manoeuvrable. Lanc flew low–level at night through darkened valleys in hilly terrain to accurately drop specialised ordnance deep behind enemy lines. Equally brave US pilots only dreamt of expediting such operations in their lumbering 1930’s designed Cadillac–like B-7 whilst Luftwaffe doctrine, with no ‘heavy’ at all, was ultimately flawed —a problem to both hinder and haunt Germany’s Battle of Britain, Blitz, Barbarossa and North Africa offensives.Surprisingly Britain was the war’s only nation to use pay load as key criteria for ‘heavies’ from inception —AVRO Chief Designer Roy Chadwick located the wing struts passing over rather than through the fuselage bomb bay (using a mid-mounted cantilever monoplane wing) resulting in a bomb bay uninterrupted by structure and twice the size of all others. By war’s end it was completing many jobs USA couldn’t, or had failed to, carry out.“The remarkable Avro Lancaster, easily the best heavy bomber to appear during WW2”J Killen, The Luftwaffe: A HistorySpecialised Ordnance —Such a capable ‘heavy’ encouraged the innovation of deadly aerial munitions to fell bridges, topple viaducts, penetrate bunkers, collapse tunnels, breach dams, smash U–Boat pens and sink the largest Kriegsmarine battleship raiders —targets otherwise surviving tens of unsuccessful US missions. Gneisenau endured 290 bombing raids in Brest before it was put out of action in Kiel with a single RAF Tall Boy bomb and the Bielefeld viaduct was surrounded by a thousand craters before being toppled by a single earthquake bomb.GRAND SLAM —The ‘earthquake bomb’, (informally Ten Ton Tess), was 9m long and hung under Lanc’s fuselage, went supersonic when released from height, drove itself underground using an armoured nose and exploded creating tremors to collapse otherwise hard to hit structures (Bielefeld and Arnsberg viaducts, Valentin and Farge submarine pens, Bremen, Arbergen and Nienburg bridges, railway tunnels, underground V1 and V2 rocket pens, bunkers and Hitler’s super-gun —completed and then ranging on London). Although one wonders what messages were chalked on Grand Slams dropped on Hitler’s mountain Berghof retreat Berchtesgaden —it wasn’t Yankee Doodle. Grand Slam remained the most powerful non-atomic aerial bomb in global combat until 2017 when USAfinally made its own, misleadingly named ‘Mother of all Bombs’ (MOAB). Granted, MOAB’s no shrimp but only because it stands on giants’ shoulders —namely Ten Ton Tess, rightful ‘Mother of MOAB’.UPKEEP —All the while Upkeep (‘Bouncing Bomb’) skimmed across torpedo nets to smash industrial targets also impossible to destroy through conventional US bombing. Op Chastise(617 Squadren, ‘The Dam Busters’) successfully breached Möhne and Sorpe (damaging Edersee) in Upkeep’s very first outing.TALL BOY —22,000lb Tall Boy passed through Germany’s largest battleship fortified decks lifting them clear of the water (Tirpitz, Lützow). Tall Boywas given to the US and used widely throughout the Korean War and specifically on the summit of Vietnam’s Hamburger Hill (enabling the infamous position to at last be taken). Those who think Uncle Sam invented ‘bunker buster’ for ‘shock ’n awe’ Taliban flushing from Tora Bora should think again —the RAF had it covered half a century earlier. The world knows not otherwise because Britain doesn’t go in for one–eyed sensationalist side–show media such as Fox News.More importantly, dazzling intruder raids such as these, were Churchill’s successful down-payment for credit at the house of Lend Lease. Wisely America would only lend to a nation capable and willing to see their investment through —the British fought to save democracy whilst, for many Americans, the war surely defended capitalism.There is little doubt hitting a ship’s deck from 12,000ft, using a conventional ‘dumb’ bomb, primitive WW2 sights and a manual release, was some of the most skilful bombing in military history. The same can be said for releasing a bouncing bomb from a four–engined bomber at 30ft, over water, at night, whilst taking violent anti–aircraft tracer (once bomb dropped, crews bravely flew alongside others’ bomb–runs drawing flak thus increasing operational success).Such specialised raids, using home invention, home technology, home manufacturing and manpower, were the war’s most capable and audacious and illustrate how limited USA was in her inability to deviate from factory-line ‘carpet bombing’ alternatives borne from the ponderously predictable precept ‘throw enough against the wall and some will stick’.ATOM BOMB —Highly successful conventional bombing aside, Britain was ahead of USA in ‘A Bomb’ development. Cambridge students designed the first mechanism for atomic detonation in 1940 (Frisch–Peierls Memorandum). They used separated uranium-235, requiring small mass to achieve criticality (or ‘fission’ —a term first coined at Cambridge) creating an immensely powerful detonation. Operation Tube Alloys was to make a British nuclear bomb using Canadian uranium. It’s a long story (Op Tizard) but Britain gifted the designs to USA in return for Lend Lease aid and Manhattan Project partnership.“Without active and continuing British interest, there would have been no atomic bomb to drop on Hiroshima" Lt Gen Leslie R Groves Jr. US Army Corps of Engineers (directed Manhattan Project and Pentagon construction)Britain had gifted USA its nuclear knowledge and, as peace was signed with Tojo, USA reneged on its Manhattan partnership excluding Britain access to shared bomb manufacturing. Scientists had visas revoked, were effectively expelled and the knowledge stolen. Britain, unbeturbed and by that time quite familiar with less than honest allies, simply developed its own capability. Either British scientists had good memories or the task wasn’t worth the Yanky song and dance.De Havilland Mosquito —The world’s fastest plane re-invented aerial bombing itself and was the world’s first ‘schnellbomber’ (‘quick bomber’: an undefended intruder, so fast as to outrun interceptors). Britain’s Vulcan, America’s B2 Spirit, Blackburd, B1 Lancer and Russia’s Tupolev Blackjack all originate from Mosquito, a truly ground-breaking first generation plane and godfather to all intruders of today. USA may have Blackbird but its Daddy was a Brit from the Midlands who’s designer chuckled whilst the world thought his concept impossible —with no government backing or belief, Geoffrey DeHavilland quietly designed, tested, manufactured and flew the plane himself. In its maiden show to government he personally put the plane into a steep climb, turned the plane on its back and at the apex to the loop he cut both engines to glide the craft to the tarmac. Nobody had dreamt of such a bomber.Mosquito World Record 1HIGHEST SPEED — Mosquito was the world’s fastest plane when it rolled off production. And it was a bomber. The twin-engined ‘Wooden Wonder’ carried a 4,000 pound payload (same as 4–engined Flying Fortress) yet its top speed was, due to light-weight all wood construction, a whopping, record breaking, 425mph and 100mph faster than Many of its fighter-plane peers. Twin Merlin engines and light weight construction coupled with a perfectly smooth wooden skin (lacking the airflow–interrupting rivets of ‘modern’ aluminium planes) and sleek aerodynamic lines, Mossie, as she affectionately became known, was the plane to beat worldwide. It was the only fighter–bomber capable of day and night precision bombing, equally fast at 43,000 feet as at tree top level (frequently returning from operations with Dutch telephone lines wrapped round its tail wheel)Mosquito World Record 2LOWEST LOSS — Being the battlefield’s nimblest, ‘Mossie’ required no guns or armour to slow it and losses were 4% —lowest of all aircraft on any side during WWIIMosquito World Record 3WAR’S ONLY DOUBLE COUNT — Being the fastest, most versatile fighter-bomber of WW2, Mosquito is the world’s only aircraft a nation’s airforce has officially attributed 2 kills when downing 1 aircraft.Mosquito World Record 4MOST MISSIONS — Accordingly, the ‘Wooden Wonder’ (or ‘Timber Terror’) was difficult to counter (its wooden construction making it invisible to radar) and Mosquito B Mk IX (LR503, ‘F for Freddie’) survived 213 missions —the most combat operations flown by a bomber in war, ever. Brave B17 crew were obliged to complete 25 missions and, in 1943, most didn’t survive 5.“To fly in the 8th Air Force is like holding a funeral ticket —your own” Popular USAF sayingMosquito World Record 5ONLY PLANE COPIED BY ENEMY —Mosquito remains the only warplane envied so much by an enemy to be copied bolt for bolt. Germany captured a Mosquito, reverse engineered it and, in a twist of fate, failed to go into production: Mosquito’s ability to target single buildings with pin-point accuracy enabled it to destroy the very glue factory joining parts for the German copy (imaginatively called Moskito). Moskito was therefore aptly destroyed by its very namesake Mosquito. Furthermore, having failed to copy the plane, Germany sufficed to nickname their Focke-Wulf Ta-152 ‘Moskito’ in admiring emulation. If ever two better examples of ‘if you can’t beat them, join them’.Mosquito World Record 6FIRST COLLATERAL DAMAGE AVOIDANCE — Mosquito struck so accurately it successfully breached a single prison wall behind enemy lines (Op Jericho), enabling the break-out of 200 resistance fighters facing imminent SS execution. The prisoners were housed some 30 metres from the target wall which was successfullt breached within a planned two minute time–window of accuracy. When the bombs fell French Resistance were waiting across the road to aid escapees and none were injured. It was warfare’s first aerial precision bombing operation taking collateral damage avoidance as key mission priority.Mosquito World Record 7FIRST AERIAL STRIKE LIVE RECORDING — Mosquito was sent to kill Goering in a Berlinrecording studio during a scheduled live radio address to his people. If one listens to the day’s recording, an explosion is heard in the background, then a commotion (one imagines Goering ushered from the room) and, finally, the ‘live’ address switches to Wagner pre-record. It was the world’s first military mission timed so precisely and accurately so to achieve live international media coverage.Mosquito World Record 8FIRST AERIAL ASSASSINATION MISSION —successfully landing a bomb in Goering’s studio was history’s first aerial bombing mission to assassinate a single senior military figure. At 4pm the same day, 3 more Mosquitos bombed Goebbels during his Nazi Party 10 year anniversary rally speech. USAF has only recently mastered similar missions using high-tech drones, laser guided bombs and GPS guided missiles to assassinate high ranking Taliban.Mosquito World Record 9LONGEST REACH —the Goering assassination attempt, usurping Goebbels’propaganda machine, was an international embarrassment for the Nazi Party and a live announcement to the world —no despot was safe and Britain had a surgeon’s scalpel with a longer reach than any nation. Furthermore, those in occupied Europe who had not listened to the live attacks on German radio heard the story through BBC World Service. CNN, notorious to envy a scoop, did not yet even exist.[The RAF extended their ‘long reach’ bombing record with Op Black Buck, a successful 12,000 mile bombing raid on Port Stanley airfield in the Falklands Conflict, 1982 (requiring 17 Victor air–to–air refuel tankers to get a single Vulcan bomber over target and back) —a record USA only matched a full two decades later with B52 over Iraq]Mosquito Tsetse — A 6 Pounder (57mm anti–tank) gun, mounted on Mosquito Tsetse (named after the biting fly), was highly successful against U–Boats and German armour. In an attacking dive, firing an artillery round per second, pilots had time to fire 7 or 8 tracer–directed armour piercing shells to open up thinner top-side armour like a Yankee can of Heinz. It took the US until the 70’s to develop similar capability with A10 ‘Warthog’.Whilst flying ‘Mossie’, Wing Commander Paul Bingham Elwell chased down five Fockewolf 190s, forced them to dogfight, destroyed two and damaged a third. I know of no other incident where a bomber has actively chosen to brawl with outnumbering interceptors and so decisively won. The warplane was unparalleled and to argue any other has equalled Mosquito in anger is an exercise in futility —she was first and final proof, after two decades of design experimentation, that ‘the bomber will always get through’ — the dawn of a new age in aviation.Pilot Numbers —outward-looking nation Britain, called upon a global network of pilots (Australian, American, Barbadian, Belgian, Canadian, Czech, Free French, Irish, Israeli, Jamaican, Kiwi, Polish, South African and Southern Rhodesian) whereas Hitler, had few overseas friends. Germany’s international spokesperson, had never been abroad (apart from the Somme, 1916) possibly being the world’s most insular politician. Few crossed the globe to fight for the Luftwaffe (or indeed Uncle Sam) and many brave Americans, frustrated with their nation’s feet dragging, flew for the RAF well before USA joined the war.Aggressive Pilots —Accordingly the RAF had the Polish —the war’s most tenaciously revengeful pilots. The result was 303 Squadron, WWII’s highest kill rate unit (downing 126 planes in 43 days). By war’s end, they scored 203 aircraft for the loss of 29, a testament to Hawker Hurricane. This American attributes the RAF to teaching his boys all they knew:"They sent us to train with the hottest combat squadron in Britain, 303rd Polish Pursuit Group. Those Polish kids taught us everything”Capt. Newell O Roberts, USAF303 Squadron’s first enemy encounter (6 Hurricanes facing over 300 enemy aircraft), the Poles attacked head on with 600mph closing speed. Germans had never experienced such aggression and scattered, each RAF pilot downed a bomber without loss. During the Blitz one English pilot, Ray Holmes, having expended all ammunition, was witnessed (by Londoners below) to destroy a Dornier using his propeller alone. Wikipedia’s ‘Aerial Ramming’ details a long list of such incidents in Europe by RAF pilots (one returning with blood on his broken propellers). No single similar such US incident is reported —post war Luftwaffe interviews reveal US pilots to seldom attack without numerical advantage.Hawker Hurricane —Famed for simple wood and canvas construction, it was easy to build, out–turned Me109, (pulling 6g turns to Me109’s 5g without stalling) had greater pilot survivability, unmatched durability and 8 tapered Browning machine guns resulting in a rare volume of concentrated firepower for devastating effect against bombers (especially so with De Wilde incendiary ammunition).“The bastards can make such infernally tight turns. There seems to be no way of nailing them”Heinz Knoke, Messerschmitt 109 pilotHurricane could re-fuel, re-arm, patch up and turn around in 6 minutes and, on both sides, downed the most planes in the Battle of Britain —for destroying bombers, Spitfire’s ‘ugly big sister’ was highly effective. Her sturdy wing roots carried eight guns, cannon, rockets, bombs and a quick firing auto loading 40mm anti-tank gun. Whilst behemoth B-17 fired 50 cal thumb–sized bullets the plucky little British fighter fired fist–sized shells wreaking havoc upon German El Alamein retreat.Revellers of big gun talk, such as our learned American friends, often claim Hurricane lacked the destructive capability of Me 109 nose cannon. Whilst accurate and high–calibre armament is devastating in Aces’ hands, less capable pilots benefit from a wide spread of fire and, since 99% of pilots are less capable than Aces, 8 Brownings was the correct choice —the numbers speak for themselves: 2 enemy aircraft were downed for each Hurricane lost during The Battle of Britain.Contrary to US belief, big is not always best and pissing contests are for children —vanity does not run deep in the RAF.Hurricane was most versatile. Operational in the arctic, the tropics, the desert, the Eastern and Western Fronts, over land and sea and for bomber interception at height as well as low level ground attack. During the Battle of the Atlantic it was catapoulted, using rockets, from girdered steel ski–jumps on merchant ships making it the world’s first ship–launched monoplane interceptor. It was perhaps also the most enduring —operating from the first day of the war to the last. Like Animal Farm’s never complaining Boxer, Hurricane was the not too clever unsung hero work–horse of WW2 and, for its role over Kent in 1941, probBly the plane the world owes its freedom to.All said, Spitfire and Hurricane were a perfect team for differing roles —one a svelt sniper against escorts, the other a burly brawler against bombers. Britain was the only airforce to have a best in class fighter, fighter–bomber and ‘heavy’ —truly a rare, if not unique, trinity of excellence.Jet Power —From 1929 onwards Britain’s Frank Whittle was busy in his garage inventing the jet engine. Britain’s Gloster Meteor fighter–jet, although appearing after USA joined the war, was the fruit of this pre–war period.Meteor flew faster than Germany’s Me262 (Meteor F Mk 4 flew 570mph to Me262’s 530mph), climbed faster (a record breaking 30,000 feet in 4 min / 7,500 feet per min), was more reliable (Me262’s Jumo 004 jet engine, lacking specialist alloys [due to successful British naval blockade] lasted 10 hours to Meteor’s 150), was more rugged (only Meteor could take–off from grass strips), was more adaptable (flying ground attack, V1 interception, armed reconnaissance, photo reconnaissance, intruder and night–fighter missions) and, unlike Me262, did not stall when full power was applied quickly (200 pilots were killed by Me262 stalls and exploding engines in training).Meteor went on to be successfully flown by 15 other nation’s airforces to Me262’s none. In WW2 Meteor destroyed 46 enemy aircraft and over 100 V1 Doodlebug rockets for no combat losses (only one accidental air collision in bad weather) —more could have been acheived but Meteor was banned from flying over German airspace lest its technology was captured. Nevertheless, Meteor’s kill ratio was higher than any other fighter of the entire war.On 7 Nov 1945 Meteor broke the world air speed record at 606 mph and 6 months later broke it again at 616 mph. Meteor then broke the world record for flight endurance. Meteor then broke the world record for climb. And lastly Meteor performed a stunt even today’s F22 Raptor can not equal today using its vaunted vectored thrust —the ‘Zurabatic Cartwheel’. Meteor jets were positioned apart enough for individual engines to throttle back and forward achieving a seemingly stationary vertical cartwheel and was therefore the first fighter ever to hover. Meteor was painted pure white so as not to be mistaken with Me262—she was beautiful.Frank whittle, an Englishman, had successfully invented the jet engine in his garage, Rolls Royce had successfully manufactured the jet (without Germany’s compromised access to nickel and cobalt due to British naval blockade) and the RAF had successfully deployed the jet on operations. So, please, let’s put to bed this childish comic–book myth of German science superiority at the dawn of the jet age. Britain had simply got on with the same job, more capably, with less fuss and with better results.One if the war’s greatest ironies is America was developing the Lockheed L133 at the time —without any question the most advanced jet-fighter of the war and, after Concorde, the most beautiful jet of the last century (utilising both canard wing form and afterburner technologies not to appear otherwise until the 1950s). L133amalgamated fuselage with wing in a futuristic aerodynamic form 20 years ahead of its time. Unfortunately both Kelly Johnson (laminar flowwing) and Nathan Price (L1000 axial flow jet with world’s first afterburner) lived alongside dogged USAF strategists with limited foresight and imagination. The gracefull (and projected to fly supersonic) plane never flew and USA fell behind Germany and Britain in the jet race. A position, in theory and on blueprints, USA held supreme —L133 utilised the same technology and personnel upon which Skunk Works was later founded. USAcould have been flying a strike–fighter from Thunderbirds in 1941 and the Allies were poorer for USA missing her moment. As a result it was Britain who ruled the advent of the jet age, Germany second and USA the wooden spoon.Aircraft Production —However, the coup de grace Britain served the Luftwaffe was quietly dealt by an understated pinstripe civilian from a desk in Whitehall. Lord Beaverbrook, Minister of War Production, initiated aircraft production streamlining and factory dispersal to quietly achieve one of the most important single factors in winning The Battle of Britain. Lord Beaverbrookensured wooden Mosquitos and Hurricanes could be produced by plentiful furniture, cabinet and piano makers in dispersed and abundant rural workshops, impossible for the Luftwaffe to locate and destroy (Canada and Australia also produced Mosquito due to their plentiful timber and abundance of skilled woodworkers). Even Lanc was designed in 5 individual modular sections, each safely manufactured in dispersal whilst its Merlin engines were assembled in three separate ‘shadow’ factories (also under licence in the US) ensuring most British pilots flew a Rolls Royce —the war’s benchmark and only ‘celebrity’ engine was produced in unhindered abundance.The Battle of Britain was won by these insightful manufacturing decisions made in the 1930s with calm reflection over a quiet pot of tea in Whitehall. Conversely, the Germans, thinking war a game of Top Trumps, believed horsepower, gun calibre and short term Blitzkrieg more exciting matters to ponder as they twitfully goose-stepped up and down Berlin’s Sportsplast broadcasting both their military wares and strategy to the world. Trump cards and Aces are best kept under the sleeve, but this takes reserve, guile and foresight —something Brits had in abundance.Germany found itself in a war it spent 10 years preparing for yet had no friends to call upon for equivalent overseas manufacturing aid. Centralised urban factory production (building overly complicated planes) was bombed mercilessly by the RAF whilst the Royal Navy’s crippling blockade of Germany hindered its access to much needed alloys. Furthermore, slave labour production forces purposefully built in manufacturing errors so Luftwaffe pilots often lacked confidence in their aircraft. All the while, British manufacturing had been on a two shifts a day women worker war footing since 1939 ensuring British aircraft production increased in a capacity Germany never matched —as late as 1943, German ‘Strength Through Joy’ paid male only aviation workers were still doing a 48 hour week with an all too often 20% absenteeism due to Allied bombing.“It makes me furious when I see Mosquito. I turn green and yellow with envy. The British, who afford aluminium better than we, knock together a beautiful wooden aircraft every piano factory is building, and they give it a speed increased yet again… there is nothing the British do not have. They have the geniuses and we have the nincompoops. After the war is over I'm going to buy a British radio set — at least I'll own something that has always worked"Field Marshall Herman Goring, LuftwaffeRoyal Air Force Summary —With a national perimeter of RADAR early detection masts, integrated coastline Observer Corps identification posts and offshore observer boats, central command using bomb–proof telecommunications networks, cutting edge interceptor design, vectored RADAR deployment, devastating strategic bomber ‘heavies’, pinpoint accurate and fastest ‘intruder’ fighter-bombers, specialised ordinance, decentralised and international aircraft production, a pool of international pilots, the war’s best engine, uncomplicated, rugged and quick to build aircraft, the first aircraft fitted with air to air radar, first aircraft fitted air to sea radar, first monoplane ship–launched interceptors and the war’s most capable jet, there is little doubt —the RAF was the war’s most widely capable and resilient airforce, by some margin. When it comes to national air defence, the RAF clearly wrote the book.[The RAF also, quite literally, wrote the book for the US Top Gun syllabus (aerial combat tactics and manoeuvres) but that’s best in appendix —see page bottom for ‘how the RAF taught under-performing US pilots to dogfight in Vietnam’]“The English were the toughest opponents we had. No doubt about it. They were very good fighter pilots and of course you have to add the British had much greater reserve”Gerhard Baeker, Luftwaffe He 111 bomber pilot“The RAF were outstanding. They were a well trained and highly motivated force, with good equipment and good morale. We learned our lessons over the British Channel, and we had tremendous losses against the Royal Air Force. I had the highest respect for them”Günther Rall, third highest scoring Luftwaffe Ace of WW2I’m sorry, we should discuss helpless Britain and I got sidetracked by Luftwaffe claims of pesky RAF fly–boys being their toughest opponents of the war. Let’s dish dirt on the Royal Navy instead who’s power was surely bluster and all they really wanted was a hug from Uncle Sam.2. THE ROYAL NAVYThe Royal Navy outnumbered Kriegsmarine 20 to 1. The Royal Navy was the world’s largest, most powerful and experienced naval force at the time and possibly also the most innovative and successful military sea force in history. Kriegsmarine largely remained under the sea’s surface as a result whilst its surface raiders were all sunk, the Italian navy skulked in harbour and France had half her fleet sunk in Oran then scuttled the remainder in Vichy home harbour.Kriegsmarine (German Navy) —all major German battleships, the largest the world had seen, were systematically put beyond use by Britain. Scharnhorst, Graf Spee, Admiral Scheer, Bismarck, Tirpitz, Gneisenau and Lützow were located, chased, engaged and destroyed by a vastly more experienced Royal Navy (and RAF) using smaller, agile and more capable ships to Hitler’s projects of vanity. Bismarck, the largest of all, was sunk on her maiden voyage —in cricket, we call that a ‘duck’ but a nation of rounders players, where batsmen have three chances lest they cry home, might not understand the crippling psychological effect of ‘out first ball’.The Bismark ‘duck’ was achieved using cutting edge technology and tactics —it was the world’s first carrier–fleet engagement and Britain had successfully vanquished revolutionary doctrine. The aircraft carrier concept, then unproven, had been blooded against Bismark, the world’s largest and most powerful warship and, thereafter, the battleship concept was consigned to history by a single carrier–launched British torpedo bomber. Here too Britain had written the book —well before anyone had heard of Midway or the Coral Sea.Donitz had predicted a German requirement for 300 U-boats to succeed with blockade of Britain (100 in battle, 100 to–ing and fro–ing between harbour and operations and 100 in refit at any one time). The land–lubber corporal, gave him 27 for starters. ‘Z Plan’ (Germany’s post Versailles Kriegsmarine rearmament programme) was not due for completion until 1948. Hitler had taken his nation to war 9 years before readying a third of his armed forces. Raeder’s proposed fleet of aircraft carriers and (H39, H42 and H44) battleships, larger than even Bismark, would have troubled Britain —H44 would have weighed 155,000 tons and was to be four times the length of HMS Hood. However all too typical Nazi infighting won the day —Raeder disobeyed a direct order and allowed Tirpitz to leave her Norwegian fjord sanctuary to attack a British convoy and the Corporal had a (likely drug–fuelled) tantrum, sacked Raeder, cancelled Z Planand broke up his remaining surface vessels using the guns in his Atlantic Wall. Tirpitz was spared for it was the Corporal’s favourite of all —so the Royal Navy broke her back using X Craftsubmarines then passed the baton to the RAF, who sank her using Tall Boy. A fitting combined arms end to Kriegsmarine.Regina Marina (Italian Navy) —With pressure from Hitler, Mussolini summoned courage to ‘put on a show’ (Operation Gaudo) and The Regina Marina fleet left harbour to ‘prove to the world’ they owned the Mediterranean or, as Mussolini put it ‘Nostre Mare’ (‘Our Sea’) arrogantly quoting a claim from times of Roman Empire. However, due to the Suez Canal, it was of course the British reigned the Med. The Italian fleet was swiftly decimated by the Royal Navy at Cape Matapan in March 1941 and received the rest of her ignominious defeats (the Taranto raids) idling in home harbour for the war’s duration. So successful were the British aircraft carrier launched Taranto raids Yamamoto based his Pearl Harbour battle plan upon them. We might agree therefore Britain wrote the book for the Japanese too.An Italian destroyer at Cape Matapan was boarded for intelligence gathering before she sank and all hands were found drunk and incapacitated —indeed, thinking approaching British ships on the horizon were friendly, the Italians signalled their position with a location flare. The Royal Navy, the only sea force to train for night operations using RADAR, chose to meet the Italians after dark —illustrating a navy not fighting at night is as useful as an army not fighting on Sundays.Marine National (French Navy) —Speaking of not fighting on Sundays, after the collapse of France, and fearing French battleships at Mers El Kébir in Algiers, may fall to Germany, Churchill gave the lack-lustre French navy an ultimatum to join the Allies, sail to a neutral port, scuttle or be sunk in harbour. The French refused to negotiate and Churchill followed through his threat. To add insult to injury the second (and last) French naval action of the war was the scuttling of their 166 remaining ships in Toulon (3 battleships, 7 cruisers, 18 destroyers, 13 torpedo boats, 6 sloops, 21 submarines, 9 patrol boats, 19 auxiliary ships, 1 school ship, 28 tugs, 4 cranes, 39 small ships and probably the odd kayak). Again the French had decided to bolsh rather than fight The Battle of the Atlantic —thus proving they were adept with ships as they were with Maginot.Contemporary historians realise it was the deterrent capability of the Royal Navy which fended off German sea–borne invasion: The Battle of Britain, as narrative for halting Operation Sea Lion (the invasion of Britain), is an all but necessary romantic fiction —Churchill told the British people of a victory much needed to be heard at the time. Revisionist historians accept Germany lacked the capability to invade fortress Britain even with air superiority. Op Sealion would have been bloody and the British would have lost ships to Stuka but the primitive and vulnerable German flotilla of troop laden flat–bottomed river barges would have been shattered.“Think flat bottomed and low riding Ruhr river barges versus Royal Naval Destroyers —the bow wave alone would have swamped them”The War was Won at Sea, Telegraph, 2006“So long as the British Navy exists, invasion would be to send my troops into a mincing machine”General Jodl, Chief of Ops, German Army“…in a German invasion of England the British would unhesitatingly commit their navy, to the last ship and man, in an all-out fight for survival. Our Air Force could not be counted on to guard our transports from British fleets… It could not be expected that even for a brief period our Air Force could make up for our lack of naval supremacy”E Raeder, Kriegsmarine commander-in-chiefAccordingly, Britain had control of both sea and air in her defence, or at least Germany believed so which is all that counts. And so to the Royal Navy in attack and The Battle of the Atlantic:Anti Submarine Warfare (ASW) —Methodical scanning of the Atlantic for U Boats required patience, determination, planning, courage and the home invention of many new technologies. By 1941, just before USA joined the war, Britain had turned the tide of the Battle of the Atlantic (this good fortune famously turned for the worse when USA joined the war, more below). The attrition rate for U Boat crews was higher than for Luftwaffe pilots in the Battle of Britain and here follows some of the highly successful British inventions and capabilities responsible:Invention 1: ULTRA. The world’s most advanced code-breaking enabled Britain to read Enigma coded messages to plot U Boat deployments and locations, confirm kills, read Donitz battle tactics, know enemy materiel strength, monitor morale and pre–empt and counter German technological advancesInvention 2: RADIO DETECTION FINDING. Each time a U Boat used radio announcing the discovery of a convoy to the ‘wolf pack’ the British plotted its position by triangulating its signal with a system called Huff Duff. Radio receivers in Iceland, Gibraltar, Scotland and Canada triangulated a U Boat’s transmissions to a map coordinate accurate to a few hundred metres. The position of every Atlantic U Boat was therefore known at any time by the Admiralty who, by battle’s end, was re–routing convoys safely round wolf packsInvention 3. ASDIC: Sonar precursor, see belowInvention 4. SONAR. Subsurface vessel detection via bouncing sound waves against underwater objects. Distance and bearing is accurately guaged by measuring echo delay and direction (although depth was harder to measure as sound travels at differing speeds according to temperature and salinity bands at varying depths)Invention 5. AIR-TO-SEA RADAR. As it became clear U Boats sailed on the surface for 95% of operations (where Sonar detection was ineffective) the invention of the cavity magnetronenabled miniaturised Centimetric Radar to be fitted to search planes thus forcing U Boats to stay underwater where they were less effective (managing 2 to 5 knots) and too slow to track merchant convoys (9 to 17 knots)Invention 6. LEIGH LIGHT. A powerful searchlight fitted to a maritime patrol plane’s underside illuminating surface submarines at night after their position had been ascertained via RDF ‘huff duff’. Once then identified using air to sea radar, U Boats could be illuminated with the Leigh Light and destroyed by air–launched rockets, torpedo, cannon or air deployed depth charges.Invention 7. ESCORT CARRIERS. Aircraft carriers specifically designed to give air cover to slow moving merchant convoys thereby forcing U Boats to submerge much reducing their offensive capability (by making them almost blind — sighting targets with a periscope facing oncoming seas is extremely difficult)Invention 8. HEDGEHOG. Multiple forward firing mortar depth charges covering an area the size of half a football field —an improvement to rolling single charges over a ship’s side (in this position, over and above a target, Sonar contact was momentarily lost). Hedgehog allowed U Boats to be fired upon whilst maintaining contact and remaining in the chaseInvention 9. FOXER. Ship-towed anti torpedo sound decoys counteracting Germany acoustic homing torpedo. Canadian ships took to dragging iron railway lines tied to chains behind their ships. The underwater noise drowned the sound of propellors, U Boat commanders surely has headaches and German torpedos were ineffectiveInvention 10. DEGAUSSING . The ‘wiping’ of a ship’s magnetic signature to make magnetic mines ineffective. Achieved by circling a ship’s hull with charged electric cableInvention 11. SEA-LAUNCHED FIGHTERS. Hurricat was the world’s first sea-launched monoplane interceptor (using solid fuel rockets on take off) and eliminated the German Condor long range anti-ship bomber threatInvention 12. CAM (catapult aircraft merchant ship) was a merchant vessel with a permanent launch–pad for Hurricat rocket fighter air defence — a successful stop–gap solution until enough escort carriers were built. There were nine CAM combat launches with nine German aircraft destroyed (four Condors, four Heinkels and a Junkers 88). With nowhere to land brave pilots ditched close to the convoy and hoped to be picked up. All pilots volunteered.Invention 13: CONVOYS. A British invention USAbelieved to be barmy. USA refused to adopt convoys in 1941 when war with Germany was declared. USA suffered such heavy losses along her eastern seaboard the British system was soon adopted by Admiral King who had thought he knew betterInvention 14: ANTI-SUBMARINE SUBS. British submarine HMS Venturer, captained by Jimmy Launders, became the world’s first submarine to sink an enemy submarine with both crafts submerged. The U Boat in question was carrying plans, parts and scientists to Japan to manufacture jet fighters to destroy US B29 bombers. The sinking was an unprecedented achievement and enabled USA to bomb Tokyo unhindered. Jimmy Launders’ method became Cold War standard NATO doctrine for submerged subs attacking the same.There are many, many more inventions, tactics and capabilities but perhaps you get the picture — Britain was resolutely inventive and steadfast in sea defence and clearly the most advanced navy in the world at the time.Royal Navy Summary —Rather like the RAF’s prudent and successful decade–long preparation for air defence with radar, the Royal Navy spent the same inter–war period quietly developing technologies in defence of all foreseen threats to her Atlantic supply lines. With regards to anti–submarine warfare, Britain wrote the book (from both the surface, from underwater and from the air), again. As she had done with sinking the world’s largest battleships. As she had done with national air defence. As she had done with carrier borne attacks on navies in home harbour using torpedo planes. And finally as she had done with fighting a combined arms world war —for no other nation has ever done so, before or since.3. BRITISH LAND FORCESBritain had become a fortress well defended by land and sea. That her army was not yet prepared for offensive operations in 1939 was as inconsequential as it was irrelevant —Britain, achieves geo–political aims through ‘soft power’ and does not go around invading neighbours. Britain’s foreign policy and military strategy has therefore, for 500 years, been unwavering:British Military Policy —any power threatening the European military balance with continental armed forces monopoly (Britain’s only irksome military scenario) is to be met with decisive military force —a disunited Europe suits Britain best.British Military Strategy —in such scenarios Britain decides when and where to face her enemy and favourable battlefields and timings are chosen to call ‘Last Orders’ at the swinging despot’s hullabaloo. A bloody nose normally works best:WHEN —timing coincides with the invention of a force multiplier (at the battle of Gravelines during the Armada the British used 5 times rate of fire cannon, Agincourt and Crécy used the revolutionary and havoc wreaking Longbow, Trafalgar boldly used Cutting the T, Battle of Britain secretly used radar and The Falklands War surprised the world with VTOL). After all, only the unprepared fight even odds.WHERE —battle is planned forcing enemies to position on disadvantaged ground —Agincourt funnelled and restricted French cavalry, Waterloo masked Wellington’s strength behind a hill’s brow, Cutting the T at Trafalgar caused French ships to face wrongly to a broadside and the Battle of Britain drew German forces over home soil with all its tactical advantages. ‘Location, location, location’.With Luftwaffe checked and U Boats being hunted, Britain remained virtually impregnable allowing time to attack where and when she chose. Such are advantages of island nations.WHEN —Britain took 4 years to ready her civilian army with skirmishes, raids, battles and ‘soft underbellies’ —all in time to choose 1944(allowing 4 years to raise an Alliance), 5 June(calm seas for safe and orderly crossing), full moon (favourable visibility for paratroop deployment), low tide (avoiding Rommel’s beach defence obstacles), rising tide (enabling landing craft to get afloat after beaching themselves, in order to return with second wave troops), 06:30 hours (dawn firstly allowed enough light for bombers to soften beach defences and secondly was preceeded by darkness thus cloaking a secret channel crossing). Only a watchmaker for the ministry of Swiss Train Timetables dreamt such precision.WHERE —At a time of readiness Britain chose Normandy: distanced enough from Britain to be less obvious a landing site (thus less defended) yet close enough for 24 hour Allied close–air support.All the while deception ensured surprise to be the force multiplier. Thinking the Allied invasion required a port, Germany never guessed Britain would tow its own (Mulberry) harbour and lay its own (Juno) undersea cross channel fuel line to a remote Normandy beach. As a result, Hitler and Rommel both believed Britain’s deception (Op Fortitude) —that invasion would occur in Norway or the Pas de Calais established port.The die was cast and Britain, as ever choosing the when and where of battle, was ready put into action that which she had done best for 500 years —doing a jig with continental crackpots.‘Tommy’ —the British civilian soldier first won German respect in Crete. Such heavy death toll was inflicted upon his paratroopers, Hitler never again fielded his beloved Fallschirmjäger in their true role and in Tobruk, staunch defence had checked German advance for the first time. However, although Tommy also won huge respect from the Afrika Corps, he wasn’t the fiercest fighter for four good reasons:1). Small armies afford less risk2). Britain valued her soldiers’ lives leading to further caution (only megalomaniacs like Stalin, Hitler and Tojo willingly sacrificed men)3). Unlike Russia or Germany, Tommy was not desperately defending homelands from revengeful hordes. Ambivalent to the continent’s fetish for extreme authoritarian big man politics (Napoleon, Kaiser Wilhelm, Stalin, Hitler, Mussolini, Franco, Tito, Ceausescu, Milosevic…), Tommy considered himself comparatively level–headed and, being civilian, thought mediating yet another fight to crown a goose–stepping twit all rather tedious. Tommy spent much time quietly drinking tea, a precept of the civilised.4). Britain did not indoctrinate her youth with violent ideology. Tommy was a civilian soldier, the Wermacht and SS too often a murderer. Having committed atrocities, German troops potentially faced trial and noose upon capture and fought like animals. Soviet troops similarly because they were shot if they did not. And the Japanese because military death would bring them eternal afterlife via their living god Emperor. A bit like those of ISIS except sanctioned by both government and its people.Those are the 4 reasons for Tommy’s caution. Now to its effect and why the free world breathes a sigh of relief for his caution in war:After the fall of France, Hitler expected an ‘understanding’ with Britain who, being isolated, was expected to experience political collapse followed by negotiated peace. The British however, unlike others, were hesitant to give up against numerical and material superiority and made a CAUTIOUS tactical withdrawal at Dunkirk to save its tiny army from being squandered with otherwise gung–ho ‘face saving’ tactics. From hereon Britain would fight without underperforming allies to her flanks and would choose the where and when of the next battlefield.“If Britain had given up in 1940, at least half of the German [army] divisions in the west, plus the crack Afrika Korps, (10% of German Panzer strength), plus nearly all aircraft based in western Europe and the Mediterranean would have been used against Russia [summer of 1941]. To these should be added German airborne forces which would not have been decimated in Crete. The result would have been a crushing German victory against Russia and a Nazi dominated Europe”C Dorne, BBC, July 2000.Gung-ho Americans wanted D–Day in 1943 and British CAUTION dissuaded them of such folly saving D Day from being history’s largest combined forces military disaster. Caving under pressure from Stalin to start a second front, Roosevelt pushed for D Day in Calais 1943. The British, thanks to Canadian experience at Dieppe (proving urban beach assaults problematic) and sober strategic influence of Field Marshall Allan Brooke, told America she was ill-equipped, ill-advised, untrained and utterly unready.“The Limeys want us in even with our hastily made plans and our half-trained and half-equipped troops”Gen Jo Stilwell, US ArmyA 1943 D Day armada would have been challenged by U Boats, E Boats, lack of Higgins landing craft, lack of landing troops, lack of war–fighting experience, lack of tanks, lack of fuel (no under-sea Juno fuel pipe), no Mulberry Harbours, lack of air cover (the Luftwaffe still dominated French skies). US planners were woefully naive. CAUTIOUS British planning, experience and willingness to play the long game meant timing, location and performance were, indeed, impeccable.All this having been said, cautious Tommy had many guises feared with good reason:Glider-borne Troops —Best in the world. The taking of Pegasus Bridge, a successful moonlit landing in a field smaller than a football pitch on the dawn of D day, was the war’s only Allied operation on a par with spectacular German glider-borne achievements at Fort Eben-Emael, Belgium 1939. The British were the first to land on D day for the operation’s riskiest raid because nobody else, particularly USA, had the war–fighting experience and capability to do the same —British Commandos had already been raiding occupied France for 4 years.SAS —the Special Air Service were unique and the thorn in Rommel’s side. Sterling’s men achieved in single nights that which airforces achieve in months (61 aircraft destroyed in their first raid, with N Afrika campaign tally estimates alone as high as 350). Sterling’s right hand man, Paddy Maine, had a personal tally of over 100 enemy planes for no loss making him the highest scoring Allied ‘Ace’. The SAS were the most elite soldiers of WW2, as they remain today.Commandos —Hitler so hated Commandos a directive was issued for them to be shot even in surrender. No such conventional unit had been seen, the concept was new thinking —men chosen for individuality. The Commando raid on St Nazaire, successfully denying Tirpitz and Bismark Atlantic access for the entire war, was so successful and daring it is, to this day, referred to by historians as ‘The Greatest Raid of All’. It changed the course of The Battle of the Atlantic and thus the war. No other nation of the war raided enemy coasts like the BritishParatroopers —British Paras fought like devils (Op Torch, Op Market Garden) —battle hardened German SS Panzer Divisions admiringly nicknamed them ‘Rote Teufel’ (Red Devils) after their fighting spirit and distinctive red beret.Anzacs and Canadians —tenacious, reliable and brave. Possibly the Allies most revered infantry fighter —a well deserved accolade after their vaunted ‘break–out’ capability of WWI. Without Canada’s hard earned lessons of Dieppe, British D Day planners may have listened to America’s misplaced bravado and the operation would likely have floundered. Rommel had this to say to Hitler of Australians when ordered to ‘smash the colonials in Tobruk’:“These are not colonials, these are Australians. Give me two divisions of Australians and I will conquer the world”Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, Afrika CorpsReferring to the ‘conquering the world’, it is popularly understood Rommel went on to say he would then require ‘one division of New Zealanders to hold it’.Ghurkas —It is said they are the world’s most feared soldier, partly because of their notoriety for severing human heads with the kukri knife. A Ghurka tactic is to infiltrate enemy positions by night, cut all the guards’ throats leaving one alive to tell the tale.Royal Artillery —Best in the world. The following views of Germans (having faced both Russia and Allied artillery) leave no doubt:In April ‘44 Russia’s spring offensive was broken by Germany’s powerful 9 and 10 SS Panzer Divisions who, fearing Channel invasion, withdrew to Normandy thereby exposing their line leading to Russian breakthrough. How did these elite German troops fare against the British soldier’s accumulation of experience through 5 years fighting?“…the fire power of a British division can hardly ever be compared to that of a Soviet armoured division… because the British support by aircraft and artillery was far superior to anything the Soviet could ever offer us…”Walter Harzar, Chief Staff Officer, 9 SS Panzer DivisionCaptured German tank crews believed British gunners were using ‘Gattling’ field guns —not an unreasonable supposition since the British had developed self-loading, fully–automatic, 6–Pounders with a furious ‘round per second’ rate of fire:“…down came a barrier defensive fire we ‘East Fronters’ had never known; the Russians never had as many guns as this and they did not use them this way; then came a thick smoke screen. Our attack folded at the foot of a hill before we had even got onto the slopes”Willi Fey, Tank Commander“…because of the terrible British bombardment this had been the worst day of the entire war”Lt H Holler (after 3 years in Russia)These assessments are the result of training, experience and design refinement —the world renowned 25 Pounder Field-gun was the most accurate mobile artillery piece of WW2. Russia’s terrifying truck mounted ‘Stalins Organ’ Katuscharocket launchers were cheap to produce, manoeuvrable, terrifying to see and even worse to hear. However, like ISIS truck–mounted gun-platforms, they were improvised, inaccurate and the all–female conscript crews were without professional live-fire training. Few nations invoke the terror of a Royal Artillery creeping ‘box barrage’ with a screaming line of 18 inch steel bayonets closely following.British land forces summary —Specialist forces aside, where the British were some of the best, Tommy was a good fighter —perhaps not the best, but certainly good. Most were bakers, postmen and shopkeepers believing it all (the mass exterminations of prisoners, scorched earth retreats and reprisal shooting of civilians) not the British way. Or, as Tommy might say, ‘it’s not our cup of tea’.Banzai suicide charges are not the British way either (although, the world’s last bayonet charge was indeed conducted by British soldiers in Afghanistan without loss —taking some 50 bewildered militants by complete surprise). It is not useful to gauge an army’s capability against suicidal delinquents at the wrong end of a 10 year national brainwashing programme —such armies preclude themselves from international alliances hindering strategic options. ‘Play nicely’ my mother always said.Although, to quote Churchill, “wars are not won by evacuations” —armies must retain the capacity ro withdraw as wars, on the same account, are lost by suicidal last stands (see ‘CAUTION’). Tommy, thanks to the mobility of his navy, gave the Germans a bloody nose in Narvik then successfully withdrew across the North Sea. They then did the same at Dunkirk withdrawing across the English Channel. Then in Greece across the Mediterranean. Then Crete the same. Then Dieppe. Then St Nazaire. Tommy was the most mobile infantryman of the war with Germany and, more often than not, chose the when and the where to skirmish. As a result Hitler felt obligated to reinforce his conquests —Norway required 250,000 troops to holds it.Britain has a policy —it matters not how many battles are lost only that the last is conclusively won. So, always keep probing. Everywhere.4. BRITISH PLANNINGNo nation planned combined military forces like Britain. Dowding’s revolutionary national air defence system was unique and is used today the world over, why do you think the language of aviation is English? Montgomery planned Op Overlord (‘D Day’) and it was history’s largest ever sea-bourne invasion and the only one to tow its own (Mulberry) harbour, Monty’s equal for the planned set-piece battle (El Alamein and D–Day) was Zhukov who lacked a single ship to ponder. All the while, no nation matched Britain’s global sea planning capability —Graf Spee sunk off Argentina, Gneisenau bombed and left to rot in Kiel, Tirpitz sunk in Norway, Scharnhorst sunk in the Arctic, Blucher sunk in the North Sea and Bismark damaged in the North Atlantic and finished in the Bay of Biscay —no stone was left unturned, no sea was safe and no German battleship was left afloat.German battleships were larger, faster, better armoured and more powerfully gunned than anything Britain fielded but Kriegsmarine doctrine was inexperienced, incorrect and largely for show. Centuries of successful British naval encounters showed smaller ships to be more agile and efficient in battle when well commanded. As with the RAF —vanity doesn’t run deep in the Royal Navy who built ships for purpose rather than propaganda. It was naive of 100 year new nation Germany, an amalgam of minor feudal principalities to take on the world’s veteran sea-dog.The Battle of the Atlantic was won in the same way as The Battle of Britain —through a highly organised defence (using British invented Radar, Sonar, ASDIC, RDF) and meticulous deployment of search planes and destroyers locating U Boats. This took diligence, planning and organisation at the highest level down to operational crews. It was perhaps, due to the size of the ocean and invisibility of U–Boats, an even greater organisational task than Dowding’s brainchild air defence. Few know because British invented depth-charges, aptly named Hedgehogs, aren’t as sexy as Spitfire.War Gaming —Dowding’s aerial defence aside, of all the British planners and tactitians, it is perhaps WATU (Western Approaches Tactical Unit) which was most decisive. WATU was Liverpool’s naval wargaming office playing out every possible U–Boat tactical scenario to design countermeasures. It was a scratch team consisting of a war crippled CO too immobile for active service and a dozen untrained civilian women with no knowledge of boats, seas or submarines, let alone warfare. Jean Laidlaw, aged 17, arrived for interview in school uniform and burst into tears upon hearing what she was be doing for the rest of the war. She went on to personally mastermind the tactical countermeasures (Raspberry and Stepaside) which Frigates and Sloops successfully employed to increase rates of U–Boat kills.US entry into The Battle of the Atlantic came close to losing the battle. Admiral King, head of the US Atlantic Fleet, an outspoken and vitriolic English hater, refused to adopt convoys and actively opposed using American B24 to plug the ‘Mid Atlantic Gap’. Historians asert his failure to implement effective policy enabled U–Boats to reverse their declining fortunes at the hands of the Royal Navy thus causing a marked and alarming resurgence referred to by U–Boat crews as ‘The Good Times’. As with America’s disastrous North Africa arrival with ground troops at Kesserine, the Germans were back in the war. Incredulously, King had spent the inter–war period wargaming against the British and was wholely unprepared to have to fight alongside them. One of the finest examples of a Yank troubled by his ancestry. A most peculiar disposition.Luckily Liverpool’s schoolgirls were more forthcoming with solutions than King. Graphs illustrating ‘tonnage sunk over time’ during the campaign show WATU effectiveness. U–Boat success declined when WATU distributed its first tactical countermeasure ‘Raspberry’, named so because Jean Laidlaw, the teenage girl now out of school uniform, when asked what her tactic should be called, cheekily stuck out her tongue, blew a raspberry then, said ‘Hitler’. King was promptly sidelined but many Allied lives had been lost.British Planning summary —The Battle of Britain, El Alamein and The Battle of the Atlanticwere British led and planned successes —land, sea and air. D–Day, also planned by the British, followed and Operation Overlord remains to this day history’s biggest sea-bourne invasion. The task to plan and lead the operation was given to the Royal Navy —its formation date of 897 AD (by King Alfred the Great to beat the Vikings) on the application form was deemed enough to pip US Navy’s application to the post.5. BRITISH INTELLIGENCE AND ESPIONAGEBletchley Park code-breaking and SOE (Special Operations Executive) spying were the best in the business. They, with the Polish, were also pretty much the only ones in the business.Bletchley Park —British code breaking capability shortened the war by a popularly accepted 4 years. Conversely the US information collecting machine, failing to heed Britain’s spy network’s month prior warning of imminent Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour, does not see the episode its greatest moment of ‘intel’.Germany’s 4th defeat —Bletchley provided Russia with the German battle plan for The Battle if Moscow, helping Russia to win its first battle. At the time Russia was also fielding 1,924 Hurricanesand 450 tanks Britain sent before the US had even started its aid. So it could be said Britain helped secure the first 4 German defeats.Germany’s 5th defeat —After success in Moscow, Russia was forewarned (through Bletchley again), of German troop build up at Kursk. A British spy, John Cairncross, leaked the information to Russia who subsequently achieved her first victory on open ground. Through British advanced warning, planning and preparation Zhukov’s defence broke the German armoured pincer. We might agree Britain had a hand in Germany’s first 5 defeatsDouble Agents —In the main (and almost without exception) Germany’s spy network Abeweir agents worked for Britain under the Double Crosssystem. They turned for money, political sympathies, disillusion, threat of execution and, in one case, vanity and fame. As a result, when the Allies landed in North Africa (Op Torch) they were believed to be heading for Norway, when the Allies landed in Sicily (Op Husky) they were believed to be heading for Greece and, when the Allies landed in Normandy (Op Overlord on D Day), they were believed to be a diversionary attack with the main force at Pas de Calais (Op Fortitude). In cricket, that’s a ‘hat-trick’ but again, as a nation of rounders players with each batsman receiving three chances lest he cries home, I guess the US doesn’t use that word either.Op Fortitude remains the largest deception in the history of warfare (fields of inflatable tanks, fake radio transmissions, pontoons, landing craft and entire fake airfields) and Mincemeat remains the most successful*. As a result of British deception, entire German divisions were diverted from the battlefield (20,000 troops were removed from Sicily prior to the Allies landings) saving lives and increasing operational success probability. Britain expected 10,000 killed in the first week in Sicily —only 1,100 were killed. The navy expected 300 ships sunk —only losing 12. The predicted 90 day campaign —lasted 38 days.“Op Mincemeat was the most successful deception operation of the war”John Keegan, The Second World WarSOE —was more tactical. Special Operations Executive ended German plans to create a nuclear device at Vemork, blew up power stations, halted submarine production at Bordeaux for a month, sent a German tank supply to the wrong destination using only forged documents and stopped Panzers reaching D Daybeaches without firing a shot (agents siphoned off axle oil from Das Reich SS Panzer Division rail transport cars replacing it with abrasive grease —all cars seized). However, often shots were fired —SOE assassinated Heydrich, blew up Gorgopotamos rail bridge (carrying vital supplies for Rommel's desert army). SOE so harassed the Axis thousands of troops were pulled from front lines to guard railways, storage depots, bridges, tunnels, docks, airfields and factories. The British merely relied upon pitchfork–toting pensioners (“Don’t panic Mr Mainwaring” and “they don’t like it up ‘em”).SOE Q Branch supplied submersible kayaks, camel dung road mines, single shot cigarette pistols, radio sets hidden in logs, coal lumps containing dynamite. Indeed the agent behind Op Mincemeat*, Captain Ian Flemming, went on to write the James Bond saga. Britain’s then head of intelligence, Captain Sir Mansfield Cumming, signed his documents ‘C’ and, ever since, MI6Chiefs have been known as ‘C’ and do the same. Hence ‘M’ and ‘Q Branch’.Colossus —However, it was Bletchley, the British Colossus world’s first computer, teams of amateur chess players, crossword enthusiasts, linguists and eccentrics who broke Enigma and Lorenzcyphers contributing to the ‘Golden Egg’ that was the intelligence gathered called ULTRA.“Bletchley Ultra intelligence shortened the war by 2 to 4 years, and without it the outcome of the war would have been uncertain” Hinsley, 1996U–Boat radio school, Flensburg, informed students the statistical chance of breaking their cypher was ‘one in a trillion’ —Britain, with the help of Poland, succeded with Colossus, a computer so large it filled a room. When Hollywood release movies featuring US subs capturing Enigma don’t you believe it —no such event occurred. Those that did follow:HMS Aubrieta depth charged U–Boat 110 forcing her to surface and HMS Bulldog, captained by Joe Baker–Cresseell, decided not to ram and sent a boarding party. Lemp, U–Boat 110’s captain and one of the highest scoring commanders, failed to scuttle his boat and an Enigma cypher, codebook and a map of the location of all German minefields was captured. Lemp drowned, some think purposefully, swimming from his U–Boat to HMS Bulldog, then alongside.“After being saved from the U Boat, Helmut Ecke was being sick on the deck of HMS Bulldog when a washroom door swung open. An Englishman was standing there shaving —he started to whistle ‘Deutchland, Deutshland uber alles’ to him”Andrew WIlliams, The Battle of the AtlanticBy all accounts Ecke found English humour in the thick of battle most entertaining. Yet not a single Hollywood scripted facile scene compares with the excitement of true events. I think the scriptwriters even managed to fit in an obligatory love trist, a la Titanic and Pearl Harbour. What is it with Americans when fiction is a necessity for reality and realism.Lastly, with reference to US espionage capability (because clearly Britain is not in the dock here), consider this: the successful British naval attack on the Taranto Italian fleet (sinking half of all ships in harbour using aircraft carrier launched torpedo planes) so impressed the Japanese, Yamamoto decided to emulate the tactic against USA at Pearl Harbour. Accordingly, Britain’s most senior Double Cross Abeweir spy, agent Popov(codenamed Tricycle for his love of threesomes), flew to USA in August 1941 for a meeting with J Edgar Hoover (then head of the FBI) with evidence of when, where, how and by whom USA would be attacked. In the meeting, the puritanical Hoover made it clear he disapproved of Popov’s louche lifestyle (the womanising James Bondcharacter is understood to have been based upon him) and, having never seen a microdot, was more interested in how the information was displayed than in its substance. Popov was curtly dismissed and, 2 weeks later, Pearl Harbour was attacked. Had the warning been heeded, the Japanese task force would have been decimated in ambush with WW2 ending sooner thus saving millions of lives. It will take many decades for USA to counter the understanding that, in military terms, ‘US intel’ might just have been an oxymoron.British Intelligence and Espionage summary —No other nation operated such an extensive or successful intelligence gathering operation as did Britain. America never tried and Hoover believed the best thing to do with spies was to shoot them which is an insight to America’s inability to think laterally or in the long term. Although it is commonly said America had no spies because, not knowing how to hold a knife a fork, they would be too easily caught in Europe.6. BRITISH POLITICAL CLOUTThankfully Britain had Sir Winston Leonard Spencer–Churchill who, unlike many foreign counter-parts, was a political heavyweight and an intelligent, considered and dedicated politician understanding military tactical and strategic requirements. No soldier wants a Hitler, Stalin, Mussolini, Tojo or Franco behind him (the only political megalomanic good for a soldier was Napoleon —possibly the world’s greatest military leader but Dictators seldom make good military minds, or visa versa, so Britain saved Europe from themselves and his jackboots too.Allowing Hitler, a bitter, un-travelled, nihilistic, corrupt, ego-centric megalomanic to define and control a nation’s military doctrine is simply staggering —for a street corner agitator, a foreign national on the periphery of society, with a criminal record and time spent in jail, to become the leader of a nation is quite peculiar. Although perhaps no stranger than a louche celebrity gameshow host becoming a president.The little Corporal, acting as Commander-in-Chief to an entire nation, was addicted to amphetamines, paranoid, socially droll and believed he could lead from a bunker. Hitler’sangst is explained by German WWI doctor Johan Jambor who suggests the chap was 'monorchic' (having only one testicle). Blassius Hanczuch, a friend of Jambor, said the doctor blamed himself for saving Hitler:“they fought in the Battle of the Somme. For several hours, Johan and his friends picked up injured soldiers. He remembers Hitler. They called him the ‘Screamer’. He was very noisy. His abdomen and legs were all in blood. Hitler was injured in the abdomen and lost one testicle”Unlike Hitler, Churchill had two courageous wrecking balls, which he bravely swung for strategic betterment —he sunk the French navy in harbour (Oran, as previously described) eliminating the risk of an entire national fleet falling to enemy hands. Within days the world knew Britain was in the fight and Roosevelt felt he had the people’s mandate to enact Lend Lease. Thus the beginning of the war’s end was put into motion with arms manufacturing being the birth of shop–keeper nation boom–time burger–bar America.A well connected and worldly statesman —Churchill cajoled nations through patient and relentless rallying, writing weekly to inform Roosevelt of his European cousins’ fight to save world freedom. He visited troops in the US, Yalta, Malta, Paris, Moscow, France, Gibraltar, Cairo and Casablanca —no other leader travelled as much and he regularly put himself at risk from enemy fighters and assassination. As a result the coalition which he drew together consisted of more than 30 nations.When London succumbed to Blitz Churchill stood on the rubble of flattened houses publicly making the V sign, a British victory symbol first coined in 1346 by Welsh longbow-men at Crecy —the French would cut off the two bowstring-drawing fingers of captured enemy archers to render them useless. The English and Welsh in turn taunted the French by flaunting their two fingers before battle and the ‘V sign’ was born. In 1944, the uniquely British gesture united a defiant nation.Churchill publicly addressed fellow Britons (and the world through the unique BBC World Service) with stirring addresses because officer class lead from the front. By contrast the scorned street corner agitator ranting Corporal, adamantly refusing to visit bombed German cities and, releasing diktats from deep within a bunker, was out of his depth.Due to his army officer experience fighting the Boer (partisan fighter and originator of asymmetric warfare), Churchill was an architect of clandestine operations and introduced the conservative military world to new military concepts. One being the tank, another the commando raider, another the ski–jump rocket powered Seacat fighterplane on merchant ships and another SOE. He also successfully kept Spain out of the Axis by threatening Franco and his then war-wrecked and fragile recovering economy with blockade. Franco’s fascist military machine wisely took a 6 year siesta despite Germany having helped put the regime in place.Churchill is known by some to have been a war-mongering bull-dog and, we're that the case, he was the man for the moment. However, his portrayal of the ‘miracle’ of Dunkirk in positive light was not blind British bravado but PR-adept positioning of a capable nation worthy of US investment to continue the fight. And what a salesman he was.British Political Clout summary —I have tried to think of another nation in the mid–twentieth century which, having practiced soft power so successfully and retained such good relations with its colonies, could request the official national military aid of some 30 nations, producing over 6 million troops from every corner of the globe, as did Britain. No such other nation exists.Overall summary —I am Uncle Sam’s greatest fan. Sincerely. He capably delivered the coup de grace in 3 world wars (including The Cold War) and this is an admirable achievement from a nation which, in the round, is a force for good. However, I advise this particular OP Yank to read a history book and put away the movies. If he did so he would see, in comparison to all her foes (and some allies), Britain was and always has been, deftly capable in war.So, when a Yank asks ‘if Britain did anything in the war’ or tells me ‘Uncle Sam taught Britain to fight’, I politely laugh and, with sardonic good humour, pretend I think he’s joking —knowing, being a Yank, its likely he doesn’t understand the irony of his own premise. After all, it was incompetence and naive isolationism which made USA ill–prepared for war…AT SEA —Japan’s Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbour had been forewarned by Britain but USA was too arrogant to listen (despite Hoover holding the proof in his own hands) whilst King’s dogged refusal to employ convoys and deploy B24s almost lost what was arguably the most important battle of WWII —The Battle of the Atlantic.ON LAND —‘green’ US forces entered WWII in North Afrika with one of the war’s most ignominious defeats at Kesserine thus putting wind in the sails of Rommel, then desperately on the run from defeat at El Alamein.IN THE AIR —many first unescorted USAF strategic daylight bombing missions suffered nearly 50% loss rate because America had arrogantly dismissed European fighters and mistaken its bomber for a Flying Fortress. USAF paid the price dearly.Uncle Sam required the experienced British to share their hard earned war-fighting knowledge and this they were more than happy to do —however, a provision should have been made that, in return, future generation Yank be tought his short history a little better.”–––––––––––––––––––––––––––Appendix:How the RAF wrote the book on modern jet fighter tactics and combat manoeuvres — for Top Gun.The underwhelming kill ratio of US flown F4 Phantoms in Vietnam (the new US Navy F4, costing nearly 10 times that of its Russian equivalent, failed to shoot down a single Mig between 1968 and 1970) was becoming a concern. Where kill ratios had been 10:1 in WWII and Korea they had dropped to 2:1 in Vietnam. Clearly Uncle Sam had a capability crisis. His solution? Call the British.Fighter pilot Lieutenant Dick Lord, Royal Navy, whilst on an exchange at US fighter school Miramar during the Vietnam War noticed US fighter pilot instruction went something like this (best read in a Yankee southern drawl):‘Alight kids, y’all fly like this ‘cus that’s how I flew in Vietnam and, if you don’t, they’re gonna bust your ass’. Then, in the next cubicle, he’d hear another pilot group being taught something other like this: ‘Alight kid, y’all fly like this ‘cus that’s how I flew in Vietnam and, if you don’t…’. US fighter pilot instruction was subjective, conflicting and confusing not to mention a little like a boy’s pissing contest.Dick Lord (and the many other RAF pilots at Miramar at the time) gave each other call signs but, unlike the ‘Vipers’ and ‘Mavericks’ they called each other ‘Spastic’, ‘Cholmondley’ and ‘Dog–breath’ doing their best to fit in. Dick Lord called himself ‘Brit 1’ because he loved the idea of his Yank wingman having to call himself ‘Brit 2’. The irony was no doubt lost and I digress.Dick Lord, in standard RAF manner following an instructor sortie, would scribble down headings, speeds, who did what, when, how and where errors were made. Then, whilst still fresh on the tarmac, would recreate the dogfight with coloured chalk on a blackboard. It took the subjectivity and bravado out of the debrief and allowed him to explain how and where he had gained advantage. He noticed his debriefings were become crowded.Dan McIntyre, Boss of the air–to–air section of VF–121 (Fighter Squadron 121 of the US Navy) also noticed Lord’s crowded debriefings and asked him to write a revised ACM (Aerial Combat Manoeuvres) syllabus and tour the West Coast naval bases in a series of lectures where Lord used graphs to illustrate the performance envelopes of different fighters and overlayed them in acetate thus illustrating where US fighters’ advantages (and disadvantages) lay.Much of Lord’s insight came from having flown F4 Phantom for many years in Britain but some if it came from a ‘Top Secret: US Eyes Only’ file written by USAF Major John Boyd. Lord admits to taking great pleasure in lecturing the Americanson something he wasn’t allowed to have read.Lord was recalled to Britain for duties more serious than teaching cowboys to fly but his fellow instructor Lieutenant Commander Dan Pederson (who had attended some of the first of Lord’s coloured chalk runway debriefs) became first CO of the NFWS (Navy Fighter Weapons School) soon dubbed ‘Top Gun’. The similarities between the syllabus he implemented and both Lord’s tactics and teaching methods were pronounced and Pederson was quick to acknowledge Lord.Whilst many were impressed with Top Gun, one of its original eight instructors, John Nash maintained ‘Top Gun’ was “nothing more than an extended RAG tactics syllabus course”. And of course Lord had written that syllabus.F4 Phantom manufacturer McDonald Douglas were so impressed they quoted Lord on the opening page of the F4 operating manual. His quote sits alongside just one other from Baron Von Richtofen (‘The Red Baron’), the world’s most famous fighter pilot.In 1970 an F4 Phantom launched from the deck of the US Constellation to shoot down a Mig–21 using a sidewinder missile. The pilots name was Lieutenant Jerry Beaulier, a graduate of the first class to ever pass through Top Gun. It was the first Mig the US Navy shot down in two years.