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By far the most successful (and yet somehow still not considered the greatest) Chinese dynasty would be that of the mighty Han Empire (206 BC-220 AD). The Han was the second Imperial Chinese polity to reign, having come to power roughly 2,200 years ago upon the disintegration of its predecessor, the totalitarian Qin Empire (221–206 BC).The Qin was the great unifier of Chinese civilization; the first to conquer all 7 rivalling kingdoms of the realm, and unite them all under a banner of national unity. And yet, it was their incompetence which eventually failed them in the end, and seemingly saw to it initially, that all their efforts at Chinese unification would all be in vain.But as fate would have it otherwise, the succeeding Han Dynasty, China’s first great empire preserved this Qin notion of “One China”, united not by blood nor by race, but under the guise instead of a single integrated culture. One people, under one banner, with one language and one ideology, this was the legacy of the Han Empire; China’s first “Golden Age”.Territories of the Han Empire at its peak in 100 AD with a land area of 6.5 million km^2:Historically considered both to be the Chinese contemporary and equivalent of the Roman Empire (27 BC-1453 AD), this was and still is an entirely accurate view. Like their Western counterparts, the reign of the Han ended up being so prosperous to such an extent, that all the future generations and dynasties of China which came afterwards, would seek to emulate the great prosperity of the Han; Great Father of Chinese Civilization, much like how Rome and Greece by extension were and are considered to be the Fathers of Western Civilization.Under the 426 long, years of prosperity and peace, China, unprecedented before in all the 2,500 years which had preceded it, grew to such a standard, that it soon was able to burst onto the world stage, with a “bang”, viciously introducing Chinese civilization into a world which had not realized it existed up until then. Expanding all along the Western corridors of Eurasia, great feats of international relevance were conducted en masse. Trade permitted, ties established, and the fields of Science and Technology flourished as never before.This was the legacy of Han China, Sino civilization’s first great polity, and one to which all future Chinese dynasties would look back upon with utmost pride. There would be no such thing as China today without the Han for sure to put it sharp and shortly, a fact to which all, man or woman can be most certain of. Indeed, it was primarily due to the efforts of the Han, that even the concept of “One China” perseveres to this very day in the minds of the Chinese peoples.It was for these reasons and more, that China’s main ethnic group, the “Han Chinese” peoples are so appropriately called as such to this day: all in order to honour the legacy and achievements of the eponymous empire, one which is well truly well deserved.Standard message from me here as usual, please don’t read on if you don’t like long answers.Here are the contents of this response for ease of navigation:Chapter I: “Of Humble Beginnings”: The Establishment of the Most Successful Dynasty of ChinaChapter II: “The Mantle of Responsibility”: The Greatest Legacy of the Han Empire to Chinese CivilizationChapter III: “Si Vis Pacem Para Bellum”: The Chinese Pacification of the Mighty Xiongnu EmpireChapter IV: “Adventures and Expeditions”: The Age of Vibrant InternationalismChapter V: “From Rags to Riches”: The Mighty Economy of the Chinese EmpireChapter VI: “National Intellectualism”: The Achievements of Han Civil SocietyFinal Summary (to tie up any “loose ends” and conclude the answer)Chapter I: “Of Humble Beginnings”: The Establishment of the Most Successful Dynasty of ChinaIn 221 BC, Ying Zheng the King of Qin unified China for the first time in its by then already ancient history. Adopting the title of “Shi Huangdi” (literally meaning “First Emperor”), Emperor Qin Shi Huang single handedly begun a new age in Chinese history.The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC) under Shi Huangdi, superimposed onto a map of the Warring States period (476–221 BC) Kingdoms from before Chinese unification:Prior to China’s unification under the Qin Dynasty, the land that was soon to become Qin China was a chaotic and barbaric domain devoid of any benevolence or morality. Order was non-existent as starving peasants resorted to crime to feed themselves, whilst the kings of the various “Warring States” were engaged in a brutal 255 year long civil war for control over all of China.The State of Qin, formerly the weakest of the various feuding kingdoms by fortunate coincidence came across a new and very appealing ideology known today as “Legalism”. It was first proposed by a wandering scholar by the name of Shang Yang who insisted to the then ruler of the Qin Kingdom; Duke Xiao, that the only way to progress was to recognise that human beings were more inclined to do wrong than right because they were motivated entirely by self interest.An artist’s impression of Shang Yang’s meeting with the Duke of Qin:Completely agreeing with Yang despite the widespread protests of the Qin Royal Court, the duke passed these controversial reforms, successfully ensuring the transition of the Qin Kingdom from a weak, neglected, feudalistic and highly corrupt kingdom, into a powerful and centralized superstate, led by a competent bureaucracy.It was a state in which the nobility, unlike in other contemporary kingdoms at the time could not challenge royal authority, due to the Legalistic reforms. Legalism greatly impacted the Qin Army as well, rewarding and punishing individuals based on their actions on the battlefield accordingly. Even being late to training would get you executed, yet on the other hand you could also be rewarded beyond your wildest dreams for extreme heroism.The Legalist reforms, combined with the substantial pay for Qin Commanders (attracting talent from other kingdoms also), intensified by Qin’s technological superiority and exacerbated by their ignoring of the common Warring States period code of honour due to Legalist beliefs, allowed the Qin to attain military superiority on the battlefield, and not just in theory. Wherever they went, the reputation of the Qin Army was known, respected and of course feared.An artist’s impression of the infamous Qin Army marching to victory:Led by the future first Emperor, they marched East towards the Chinese coast, conquering each Chinese kingdom one by one over a period 9 years without rest until at last, all of China was unified under the newly proclaimed Qin Empire.Despite the unification of China under a single political entity, peace as was the case during the 255 long years of the Warring States period, was still as elusive as ever. Qin Shi Huang was a very complex individual who was simultaneously a cruel and vain ruler, yet one of the most important Emperors of Imperial China.On one hand, he declared the School of Legalism as the only official legitimate ideology of the Qin Empire, and buried alive any scholar which suggested otherwise. He particularly hated the School of Confucianism, which contradicted the beliefs of Legalism and insisted that Humans were inherently good, and specifically persecuted the Confucianists in particular as a result.A portrait of the First Emperor of China:Also a man greatly unfond of the idea of knowledge and education, the Qin Emperor encouraged the burning of books only considering manuscripts focused on topics such as Medicine and Agriculture to be useful.The Terracotta Army:The Emperor was also a very narcissistic individual, who had no shame in using the Qin’s finances (even when it was still a kingdom) to fund his own personal endeavors, one of his many notable crusades included the ordering of his subjects to find him the “Elixir of Life”, so that he could live forever. When they failed to fulfil his desires, the Emperor still refused to die quietly.Instead, he ordered the creation of a personal tomb for himself, which was to be so grand and so expensive that it would benefit him even in the afterlife. As such, for a period of 40 years, 700 thousand labourers worked non-stop to create a tomb just for his benefit. A man so afraid of death to such an extent, he even demanded the creation of an entire replica army to accompany him to the afterlife.The famous Qin “Terracotta Army” (even in the afterlife the Emperor wanted his faithful army to defend him as they had whilst he was still alive, most notably, no two individual terracotta soldiers looked the same, each was completely different as if they had been modelled on real people):Qin Terracotta Charioteer (Chariots were used much more frequently in China before the Han Dynasty):On the other hand however, the Emperor also stressed the idea of unity and moved quickly to promote the idea of there only being one China, and one people all united under the banner of cultural singularity. His efforts to integrate the Qin Empire touched on all civilizational facets as such.Foremostly, was his decision to standardize the language to make it easier for his people to communicate with each other. In addition to the standardization of language, the Qin also built roads and canals through the unified states en masse, supported with the application also of a single currency, to further stress the idea of unity and solidarity.The famous Great Wall of China was also fully constructed during his rule, not only in order to defend the newly unified state against the presence of the aggressive neighboring nomadic Xiongnu Empire, but it also symbolically acknowledged that China was now one country, thus implying that the one wall existed to protect them all, and not just the individual areas of the former kingdoms.An artist’s impression of the construction of the Great Wall of Qin (Confucian scholars were often forced into labouring in its construction for being Confucianists, all who dared defied Shi Huangdi were quickly silenced):The Great Wall was the “final straw” for such a new and fragile country however. It was extremely expensive for one (the Ming renovation of it in the 1500s was estimated to have cost the equivalent of $360 billion in today’s currency to have carried out). The Qin Economy broke under the strain of constructing such an ambitious project, and once more the Chinese people suffered as had been the case under the previous Warring States period.Even after Shi Huangdi had passed, people asked each other and themselves: “has our life really gotten any better?” There was of course no civil war anymore like in the Warring States period which came before, and they were indeed unified and at peace now, but at what cost?The Qin were not authoritarian which would be normal and tolerable but worse, they were totalitarian. The dynasty had executed people for being late, for disagreeing with the Emperor, for being Confucianists and for simply loving to learn, all the while the people suffered as a result of highly expensive State projects such as the building of the Great Wall, and of the Emperor’s Terracotta Army.Exactly what was so much better about their lives now than was the case before?No, nothing had changed they thought. And indeed after merely 15 years under the rule of the Qin Empire, China was in a state of chaotic turbulence once more.An artist's’ impression of the Dazexiang Uprising (when Shi Huangdi died, the people immediately rebelled, and though it was ultimately unsuccessful, it eventually went on to inspire an entire national revolution all over China):The subjects of the Qin roared in defiance as they rose up against what they believed was a cruel government unworthy of their love and affections. Under the leadership of a few handful of individuals, and influenced by the Dazexiang Uprising which occurred mere months before, the Qin people rallied together determined to win their freedom by force if necessary.Out of of these many self-proclaimed revolutionary leaders, two stood out in particular; the first was a lowly peasant turnt patrol officer by the name of Liu Bang. The other was a powerful nobleman turnt warlord by the name of Xiang Yu, and though they had vastly different upbringings, the two men soon found that they had much in common indeed: both hated books, despised the study of history and abhorred learning, but most importantly of all, both were wildly ambitious.They decided to join forces, and plotted to bring about the fall of the Qin Empire together. Despite being allies however, there was a mutual concern which kept both awake at night for hours on end.For both Liu and Xiang, their dilemmas were real: if they failed to overthrow the Qin Dynasty, they would all be executed, the revolution would fail and the people would continue to suffer. Yet if they succeeded, what would then happen afterwards? If the two revolutionary leaders no longer had anyone to fight, what would happen next? More importantly, what would happen to China?And who would become the next Emperor? The two agreed and believed it to be a given that someone should, for neither wanted a disunified China, both knowing full well from personal experience the widespread suffering which would follow once more, with no Emperor ruling over a centralized, and unified state.It was a self-fulfilling prophecy however, as the more they thought about it: the more of a reality their concerns became. Thus by the time they had overthrown the Qin Empire in 206 BC, the two former friends were now at odds with each other. On a dramatic night worthy of a Shakespearian tragedy, the two men and their supporters held an elaborate banquet known today as the “Feast at Hong Gate”, at which both had made plans to execute the other.An artist’s impression of the tragic events at the banquet:With both now refusing to back down, a new civil war begun just as Liu and Xiang had feared. It was a war which would not be long however, as the former peasant emerged victorious over his more lordly counterpart in just 4 years, thus beginning the reign of the most successful dynasty in Chinese History, one which ensured that China would always try to stay as a single unified state, rather than one divided into many kingdoms permanently.After hundreds of years of death and destruction, the Han Dynasty would bring about a much welcomed period of relative peace, stability and prosperity, establishing China as one of the more important political entities of the world, for the first time in its history.This was the true beginning of Chinese civilization, a time when China was finally beginning to actually be able to impact and shape international affairs, and spread its influence far beyond its traditional heartland, and into the north, west and south.The territories of the newly established Han Empire in 200 BC:Chapter II: “The Mantle of Responsibility”: The Greatest Legacy of the Han Empire to Chinese CivilizationWhen Liu Bang seized control over all of China in 202 BC, he was aware of the dire circumstances which had consumed the entire country.Dissatisfaction was at an all time high, and though China was still in one piece under his rule, he understood that it wouldn’t stay that way for long if he didn’t immediately act to quell dissent. Initially, he thought that if he treated the Han people cruelly enough like how Shi Huangdi treated the Qin people, he would be able to break their spirit and force them to submit to him, thus bringing peace to all of China once and for all.But such was not to be the case for long. A couple of years into the Emperor’s reign, he was intercepted by a Han Official by the name of Lu Gu, who disagreed with the way in which the Emperor was ruling. As a keen student of Confucianism, he despised the one sided totalitarianism which Liu was using to rule over China.Using logic and reason, Lu presented his dissatisfaction to the Emperor Gaozu.The Emperor famously responded in return:“I do all my conquering from the back of my horse, what use have I for books and poetry?”To which Lu replied:“Once my lord is done with the conquering, does he also intend to do all his ruling from the back of his horse?”A statue of Liu Bang, Emperor Gaozu of Han:The Emperor was shocked, admitting that his humble subject had finally defeated him, he subsequently requested that Lu compose for him a book, of historical examples outlining why the Qin had lost the support of China, and how the Emperor himself could not only gain but also retain the support of the people forever.As a result, Lu personally wrote a 12-volume book for the Emperor just as he had requested, reading them all aloud to him when each one was completed.Lu insisted that the reason the Qin had fallen, was because they were too totalitarian, and lacked legitimacy. They showed no mercy to their enemies, mistreated and betrayed their own allies and adopted Legalism, a system which believed that all Humans were inherently evil, and motivated only by self-interest.Instead, he insisted that the Emperor should reject the Qin Philosophy of Legalism, and instead replace it with a new Imperial ideology by the name of Confucianism.Confucianism was the polar opposite of Legalism. Instead of stressing rule by law, and the inherent evilness of mankind, it taught that all Humans were inherently good and could be improved with a little effort, and that rule by law was not effective, and instead made clear the benefits that would arise from ruling by moral virtue instead.The Emperor was impressed, and did all that the government official Lu had suggested to him. He implemented and personally supported and sponsored the Philosophy of Confucianism at an academic level, and was determined to rule China with benevolence from then on, thus increasing the legitimacy of the Han Government, and winning the people over who would then submit to the Liu Family out of love rather than fear.Thus, ever since then and still to this day, Confucianism had remained a core part of Chinese culture, without which, it would be severely impacted in only the most negative of ways.A statue of Confucius, the founder of Confucianism (the philosophy which stressed the key belief of ruling legitimacy via benevolence, a belief which was wholly adopted by Emperor Gaozu of Han):Gaozu kept his promise to Lu Gu, and ruled benevolently from that moment onwards.He reduced the land tax on Agriculture to 1/15 portions of annual crop yields. Then he moved to disband the veteran armies which had helped him seize power, and allowed them to return home, exempting them from taxes for 6 years, providing food for each individual and his family for an entire year.And at last, he abolished the most extreme aspects of Legalism, including its most severe and punishing facets inherited by the Han Legal System. Whereas the Qin was defined by an abundance of extreme laws with equally extreme punishments (which seemed to only exist to punish rather than protect), under the Han, Gaozu abolished the vast majority of these laws, and greatly reduced the severity of most Qin inherited punishments.Under the rule of the Emperor Gaozu, all of China truly prospered at last, as a sustainable form of governance was implemented under the wise guidance of Confucianism.And as China got richer and richer, and as time passed further and further, at last the Han Empire was able to finally realise the ultimate dream of their predecessors: the creation and retainment of the concept of one China, and one people unified under one culture.This was merely one of the many reasons why the Han were the most successful dynasty of China. Although it’s true that they may not have been the one to unify China like the Qin, they were at least the one who gave China the means to prosper, for a long enough amount of time such that from that moment onwards, all future Chinese dynasties would forever follow the Han Model of Governance, and seek to re-unify the country, no matter the cost, material or otherwise.Chapter III: “Si Vis Pacem Para Bellum”: The Chinese Pacification of the Mighty Xiongnu EmpireThough the Han Empire had stabilized internally, it now also faced an imminent external existential crisis. For in the areas beyond the Qin Great Wall, a Turkic peoples called the Xiongnu were preparing to launch an imminent invasion against the Han Empire.The Xiongnu had not always been a threat to China however. During the rule of the previous Qin Dynasty, as the Chinese expanded outwards from its traditional heartlands and to the north, the nomadic peoples initially divided into several hundred tribes, banded together to form a powerful Confederation, one which was extremely sinophobic in nature, as they viewed the Qin expansion as one which was encroaching on territory which was rightfully theirs.Despite intensely disliking the Chinese however, the nomads knew they could not invade whilst First Emperor of China was still in power, for they understood the threat and capabilities of the Qin to bring them to the edge of extinction with his infamous Qin Army, if he so desired.An artist’s impression of the mighty Xiongnu people, native to Mongolia:However, when the Qin was replaced with the Han Dynasty, they knew that their opportunity to subjugate China had at last arrived.When Han Soldiers under the command of Emperor Gaozu launched raids against nomadic merchants trading along the Han-Xiongnu border, the Khaganate used this as an excuse to justify their war against Han China, and launched an assault against the Chinese Empire in what is modern day Shanxi Province (Northern China) in 200 BC, after bypassing the Great Wall of China.At the Battle of Baideng, a force of 400 thousand Xiongnu defeated the smaller Han Imperial Army of 320 thousand Chinese, severely lowering the morale of China.An artist’s impression of the Xiongnu assault against the Han Great Wall, which they bypassed before invading what was modern day Shanxi Province:After all the Emperor’s efforts to bring about peace and stability to a country which had had enough of war, suffering and death (first during the Warring States period, and then during the Qin) it now seemed that all his efforts had been in vain. The Xiongnu would never let them rest in peace, not as long as they were alive.Recognising that China was not yet strong enough to confront the Xiongnu militarily, as it had just only begun to recover from a brutal civil war, Gaozu thought that the only way to spare the Han people from complete and utter annihilation was to strike a deal with the Xiongnu.By concluding an agreement with the Nomad Empire, Gaozu was hoping to buy enough time for the Han Empire to grow under the extensive periods of peace, such that even if it took 100 or even 1,000 years, the Han would eventually be able to challenge the Xiongnu on their own land, and defeat them at last.His strategy was simple, reflecting the famous Chinese cultural trait of long term orientation: suffer and be humiliated for today, in order to have a better tomorrow.This was exactly what happened, and merely 2 years later in 198 BC, Gaozu sent the Han Ambassador to the Xiongnu, requesting indirect peace attained through a “Heqin” Agreement, in which the Han and Xiongnu were to be equal partners in a royal marriage alliance, an agreement which held true only in theory.An artist’s impression of the famous Wang Zhaojun (1 of the 4 “Great Beauties” of Imperial China) being married off to the Xiongnu Chieftain Huhanye, as part of the Heqin agreement :In practice however, it established the Chinese Empire as a country submissive to Xiongnu superiority. Every year, the Han Imperial Court would have to send large amounts of tribute items such as Silk based clothing, exotic foods available only in China, and wine to the Xiongnu each and every year. For the next 65 years, this would be the defining relationship between the Han and Xiongnu: as one where China was the submitting party.An artist’s impression of the Han submission to the Xiongnu in 198 BC, with the Han Ambassador on the left representing the Chinese, and his counterpart on the right representing the Steppe:For 65 years the Chinese people suffered, and with no end in sight the Han citizenry were beginning to lose hope. Unfortunately for the Xiongnu however, they did not have the privilege of hindsight like we do right now, for if they did then they would not have treated China so badly, for one of the greatest Emperors in China’s history was about to bring to them, a very rude awakening indeed.Ascending to the throne under the ruling name; “Wu of Han”, a favoured son of the ruling Liu family thus came to rule over the Han Empire. Emperor Wu like the first Han Emperor (Gaozu) also did not think very highly of the Xiongnu, but unlike Gaozu, although he respected Confucianism as the official Han State Ideology, he resorted to recycling the Qin Philosophy of Legalism to create a strong state once more, especially regarding the military.The difference this time however, was that unlike Shi Huangdi of Qin, Emperor Wu of Han resorted to using a “watered down” version of Legalism, which he then fused with Confucian teachings to create a temporary solution for strengthening the State, as he dealt with the Xiongnu Empire. Thus, backed once more with an ideology which highly emphasised discipline and efficiency, Wu went on to examine the situation between the Han and Xiongnu.A Portrait of Emperor Wu of Han:In 135 BC, he assembled a special meeting with his “Mandarin” government officials. Upon asking as to what they should do regarding the Xiongnu, who had been breaking the then 63 year old peace treaty, the cowardly officials told him to honour the agreement and ignore the frequent Xiongnu raids against the innocent Han Merchants on the Han-Xiongnu border.Clearly annoyed, Emperor Wu chose to tolerate the cowardice of his officials for the rest of the year. For years during the period of relative peace between the Han and Xiongnu, he (and his predecessors) had been slowly building the Han Economy and Military up, in order to prepare it for war just as Gaozu the first Han Emperor had planned. Thus, he was greatly disappointed when he was denied the chance to finally free the Han from the chains of oppression.However, as luck would have it, by that time the following year, the Xiongnu raids had become more frequent and intense to such an extent that the Emperor assembled the Court once again, asking for a solution to the issue in question.Having had enough of the weakness of his Confucian influenced officials (cowardly at least from a Legalist point of view), and tired of seeing China as a second rate slave nation, the Emperor reasoned that to end the tyranny of the Xiongnu, they would have to attempt an assassination on the “Chuanyu” himself (the Ruler of the Xiongnu).When the assassination attempt failed, the Xiongnu were furious and threatened to invade China and spare no one unlike their first invasion 66 years earlier, back in 200 BC.A map of the Xiongnu and Han Empires in 126 BC, as is evident, the Xiongnu were not just a random peoples, they were an extremely serious threat to Han China:Seeing that they could no longer prevent an all out war with the Xiongnu Khanate, the Han Emperor prepared China for the coming storm. Instead of waiting for what was an imminent Xiongnu invasion of the Empire of Han, Wu decided to strike first and strike hard.In 133 BC, he begun what was to become the 224 year long conflict known as the Han-Xiongnu War (one which would eventually prove to have huge consequences for the fate of both empires) by launching a surprise invasion on the Xiongnu Empire, at last after many years, Wudi was finally able to begin to make true the first Han Emperor’s wish: for the Han to one day not only invade the Xiongnu, but to eventually defeat them on their own home turf.Unlike the first Han Emperor however, Wu did not hate the study of history and was quick to learn from his (and Gaozu’s) mistakes, the first of which occurred at the Battle of Mayi in 133 BC, where a force of 300,000 Han Soldiers failed to ambush a Xiongnu Army 3 times smaller in numbers.Though neither side had contracted a significant amount of casualties, Han Wudi knew he had to learn from his mistakes and act and adapt accordingly, by “knowing his enemy as well as he knew himself”, as suggested by the famous Warring States period strategist, Sun Tzu with whom he was well acquainted with. To do this, the Emperor turned to history for solutions.Looking back on history, Emperor Wu studied the suggestions of Han Strategist Chao Cuo, who had first suggested to “Wen” (then the ruling Han Emperor) that in the event that China were ever to be at war with the Xiongnu once again, he should abandon the traditional Han warring strategy, of an infantry-centric army. Under Chao’s proposed reforms, he instead suggested the use of a cavalry-centric army, to negate the nomadic advantage on the open fields.The Xiongnu had a great comparative advantage on the vast open fields of Mongolia, of which there were plenty also in Northern China. As an Equine peoples, the Xiongnu were famous for being able to fight on horseback with ease, using bow and arrow, something which the Han found difficult to fend against:Unsatisfied with this revelation, Emperor Wu further studied Chao’s personal memorandum titled “Guard the Frontiers and Protect the Borders” (169 BC), in which the strategist had laid out a detailed comparison of the Han and Xiongnu Militaries, with complex instructions on how to defeat the mighty Khaghanate.Assessing the Xiongnu, Chao had insisted that the nomads had a comparative advantage wherever the terrain was rough, due to their superior abundance of quality horses, greater horseback archery capabilities, and an unearthly and inhuman ability to withstand only the harshest climates in existence.To defeat them, Chao had suggested that wherever it was possible, the Han should fight the Xiongnu on more level plains instead. Here, the Xiongnu Cavalry would stand no chance against the Han Shock Cavalry and Charioteers, who could easily rout their enemies, on terrain which was more familiar to them.Chao also noted that the Xiongnu were also defenseless against a co-ordinated onslaughts of arrows (especially when launching long-ranged projectiles in unison at one concentrated area) due to their inferior leather armor and wooden shields. He also observed that as a people who fought primarily on horseback, if the Han could hypothetically force the Xiongnu to dismount, then the Chinese Infantry could easily decimate their nomadic opponents with ease.An artist’s impression of the Han Infantry guarding the Chinese Great Wall:Thus he advised, that to negate the Xiongnu advantages on rough terrain, the Han should also if available use the tactic of “using barbarians to fight barbarians”, by hiring nomadic mercenaries in the military whenever possible, and even using them as training instructors for the Han Cavalry, to teach the Han how to fight like the Xiongnu. This was exactly what occurred of course.Adhering to the advice of the past, Emperor Wu moved swiftly to reform the Han Army in a short amount of time, and either adopted or noted all of what Chao Cuo had mentioned. At last, the Han Empire was ready to face the Xiongnu head on as an equal.However, he even took it a step further, and also decided to negate the Xiongnu’s advantage of better quality horses, by discontinuing the use of native “China Proper” horses, and specifically seeked out the use of the Central Asian “Ferghana Horse”, one of the Han’s greatest military assets:The Ferghana Horse was a superior breed of Equine which faithfully allowed the Han to achieve dominance in the vast punishing open fields of Central and Northern Asia. It was much bigger and stronger than any species of horse that the Han had used up until then, and its stamina allowed the Chinese Military to venture far from the center of the Han Empire.Armed with a well trained, well equipped and well prepared Han Imperial Military, the Xiongnu cowered in fear as defeat after defeat was handed to the Steppe Nomads. The Han Cavalry, now clearly amongst the best in the world spearheaded Chinese attempts to punish the Xiongnu for invading and humiliating China for years on end.And for a period of 224 years, the Han rose up in defiance against their mighty Xiongnu masters, inflicting heavy casualties onto the nomads, wherever they went.The Han domination of the Xiongnu was finally cemented once and for all at the Battle of Mobei in 119 BC, when the Han managed to completely decimate the entire Xiongnu army of 80,000 cavalry and 100,000 infantry. They did this by sending an overwhelming force of 100,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry straight into the heartland of the Mongolian plains, ensuring Han superiority over the Steppe for the next several centuries.An artist’s impression of the famous Han Cavalry in the process of subjugating the Xiongnu Empire:Thus in this way, though the Han were not able to completely subjugate the Xiongnu Empire, they fought them for such an extended amount of time, and to such a vigorous standard, that by the end of the wars in 91 AD, the Xiongnu were well and truly spent, and would never be able to seriously affect China from then on ever again.And in this way, the Han, formerly subservient to the Xiongnu managed to the “flip the tables”, and instead now ruled supreme over their former masters.In ridding China of its greatest external threat at the time, the Han were able to live on and prosper, having “paid their dues”. The success of the Han Dynasty of preventing China from being subjugated under a hostile, and superior foreign power, has made it in my mind the most successful Chinese dynasty for yet another reason.For if the Xiongnu had successfully conquered the Chinese Empire, the chances of China ever re-unifying would not be as high as in our timeline, where the Han held the country together for long enough that no matter how many times it fell apart, and was divided due to civil war, it would always in the end come back together again, influenced by the Han Model.Another artist’s impression of a much dreaded Han Cavalry charge during the Han-Xiongnu War:Chapter IV: “Adventures and Expeditions”: The Age of Vibrant InternationalismThe Han had not always been so lucky however. In the time before Emperor Wu finally decided to invade the Xiongnu Empire head on, in order to end the Xiongnu threat once and for all, China was running out of ideas on how to deal with the barbarian threat to their immediate north.Realising in 138 BC (5 years before the Han invasion of the North), that the Chinese Empire was not yet strong enough to deal with the Xiongnu threat at this point in time, Emperor Wu prepared emergency counter-measures in an effort to outmanoeuvre their Xiongnu masters, in anticipation that the worst case scenario would occur upon a Han invasion of the Khaganate.To this extent, he convinced the Imperial Han Court that in order to secure the prosperity of the Han Empire once a war with the Xiongnu was imminent, and in full swing, the Chinese should seek to form external alliances with other foreigns empires and kingdoms, which supposedly existed according to popular rumours, alluding to the existence of several thriving non-Chinese civilizations, to the west of the Han Empire.The lands west of China however had not been extensively explored up until then. At the time, it was thought that the vast punishing deserts of the west, and the abundance of mountainous terrain in addition, and also the lack of arable land meant that no kingdom or empire could possibly exist in the midst of such an inhospitable environment.The remains of a “rammed-earth” Han watchtower in Western China today (considering that the area, climate and terrain to the west of China was mainly composed of either scorching and dry deserts or mountains, it should then not be surprising to anyone as to why the Han thought it was a near impossibility for any non-Chinese civilizations to have thrived):Thus, how then could a kingdom or empire of non-Chinese peoples flourish to such an extent as to develop some form of civilization, comparable in complexity to China’s own highly ordered, and centralized society? It was highly improbable the Han Emperors thought, thus there was no need to go about exploring in the westerly direction.Unlike his predecessors however, Emperor Wu could not afford to be in such a luxurious position of denial. Ever since he had ascended the throne, the Xiongnu attacks (breaching the agreed upon peace treaty of 198 BC), were becoming more common and fierce each and every year, putting pressure on the Han Empire, who were now quickly running out of ideas.Recognising that his options were thinning by the day, Wu decided to chase the mere rumours and in 138 BC, asked for volunteers to make the pivotal journey to the west. In response a military officer by the name of Zhang Qian, who asserted himself as a self-proclaimed expert on the Xiongnu, stepped forward and volunteered to travel to the area recognised today as Central Asia, in an attempt to find allies for the Han Empire, to assist them against the Xiongnu.Setting off with an retinue of 100 men, Zhang was ordered by Emperor Wu to find the rumoured Kingdom of Yuezhi, which was said to have been founded by a nomadic peoples, who had once been expelled from their home by the Xiongnu invaders.Thus, from a strategic point of view, Wu encouraged Zhang to make contact with Yuezhi, and form a mutually benefiting military relationship, which would allow them to flank the Xiongnu on two sides: from the west by Yuezhi, and from the east by Han, severely weakening the Xiongnu.An artist’s impression of Zhang Qian on his perilous journey to the Kingdom of Yuezhi (to get there, he had to traverse through only the most punishing of deserts with only limited supplies and reinforcements, as they were now in uncharted territory. It was a very perilous journey indeed, being full of threats and also holding the very real risk of death):Such a perilous journey could of course never be free of dangers. On his way to the Kingdom of Yuezhi, the Xiongnu ambushed Zhang’s expedition and captured the ambassador, who decimated most of the 100 men in the expedition, before subsequently proceeding to enslave him for an entire decade.During this time, unable to successfully escape from the clutches of the barbarians, he married a Xiongnu wife and started a family instead, assimilating into Xiongnu culture in the meantime.Indirectly, this served to win over the trust of the Xiongnu leader. Taking advantage of the Xiongnu Chieftain’s trust in him, Zhang finally managed to escape along with his family and remaining retinue, passing through the northern edge of the Tarim Basin (modern day Xinjiang province), making his way to the Kingdom of Yuezhi as was originally planned.Along the way, he also discovered the Kingdom of Dayuan (Ferghana), which would of course prove useful to the Han Empire years later when thousands upon thousands of horses from this region were imported to China en masse, in order to strengthen the Han Cavalry.Upon reaching Yuezhi however, he was disappointed to learn that the inhabitants were no longer a nomadic peoples, but had now instead transformed into an Agricultural civilization, courtesy of the great fertility of the lands of this particular part of Central Asia. Thus, upon attempting to forge an alliance with the Yuezhi Kingdom, the King declined his offer insisting that they were now a peaceful peoples who had little interest in war or revenge, even against the Xiongnu.A stone palette depiction of the King of Yuezhi, and his subjects:Respecting the wishes of the kingdom, Zhang Qian did not pursue the matter any further. Instead, he settled down in Yuezhi for an entire year, documenting their cultures, lifestyles and economy, whilst also doing the same for the neighbouring Kingdom of Daxia (Bactria), which had been hidden on China’s periphery up until then.With nothing left to do, he begun the long trip home. Unfortunately for Zhang however, despite taking the extra long way home through the southern edge of the Tarim Basin this time round, the Xiongnu captured him yet again, after further decimating the vast majority of what men he had left with him. For the second time in a row also, they spared his life because they valued his sense of duty and composure in the face of death.When the Xiongnu leader finally perished after 2 more years, Zhang Qian once again managed to escape in the midst of the ensuing chaos. From the original mission of a hundred men, only Zhang Qian and a soldier called Ganfu managed to return to the Han Empire. At last, in the year 125 BC, Zhang Qian returned triumphantly to Emperor Wu of Han.An artist’s impression of the victorious Han Explorer Zhang Qian (mounted, and in red), outside the Han Capital of Chang’an, returning home after 13 years of living aboard:Reporting to Wu, Zhang informed the Emperor of all he had learnt. During his time overseas, he received detailed information about the existence of not just one, but hundreds of kingdoms even further west than he had travelled.There was the Kingdom of Dangju (Sogdiana), the Kingdom of Shendu (an Indus Valley kingdom in Northern India), and there even existed the famous Anxi (Parthian) and Tiaozhi (Seleucid) Empires.The Countries described in Zhang Qian's report to Han Wudi. The nations he managed to visit up to and including the 1 year he stayed in the Yuezhi Kingdom are highlighted in blue:Emperor Wu, clearly pleased with what he interpreted as steadfast dedication to the Han Empire from Zhang Qian, promoted him to “Palace Counselor”, before subsequently sending him back out again to further investigate the mysterious Western regions, instructing him to personally visit the furthest western empires as much as he could.Thus, Zhang once again set out to explore the world yet again, and in 119 BC merely 6 years later managed to establish trade between the Han and an Indo-European, semi-nomadic peoples known as the “Wusun”. The unintended consequence of this key event eventually led to trade between the Han and Parthian Empires.To secure a favourable relationship between the Han and Parthians, and also in order to protect the growing wealth of China, the Emperor understood what he had to do. In 113 BC, he commanded Zhang to not only make personal contact with the Mesopotamians in the west, but to also set up an embassy to establish formal relations with a world which China was only beginning to become familiar with.Upon reaching Parthia, he was impressed with the nation which lay before him, comparing it to its immediate neighbour; the Seleucid Empire. Zhang saw Seleucia as a place “ruled by many petty chiefs,” which was very much inferior to the Parthian Empire in which he was currently staying.An artist’s impression of the Zhang delegation to the Parthian Empire:Leaving on good terms, a Chinese Embassy in Parthia was finally established, allowing the Han to safeguard their own economic interests. Thus, as time passed, trade between the two countries naturally increased en masse as a consequence.The establishment of trade with the Parthians, and the ensuing increase that was resultant, had an unintended “Domino Effect” on the entire Eurasian Continent, which saw the first beginnings of transcontinental trade between the East and West. Goods such as Silk which were exclusive only to China, were in very high demand all over the world, thus giving the Han an incentive to expand trade beyond China.In time, as the Han started to trade with the other advanced political entities of Eurasia, embassies were established all over the continent not only in Parthia, but also in India, Bactria, Ferghana, and Seleucia. As a result of the international trade resultant thus, the Chinese Economy prospered and bloomed, allowing the Chinese people to benefit fully.In addition, as trade increased over time, and as more and more bilateral relationships were being established between the various factions of Eurasia, the cartographers of the various continental kingdoms and empires were beginning to take note.It seemed apparent to them, that a transcontinental trading network had begun to form as a result of the trade between China, Parthia and the rest of Eurasia. They were correct, because of the efforts of the Han Explorer Zhang Qian, the famous historical Silk Road existed for the first time in the History of Man, allowing the first system of Globalization to occur:Bringing prosperity to all, it facilitated the flow of not just wealth via exotic goods, but also allowed the West and East to exchange ideas. Goods exclusive to China like Silk were traded to the western end of the continent, meanwhile goods exclusive to other countries such as Roman Glassware soon found their way into the Han Empire.It was through the Silk Road that the Indian Philosophy of Buddhism was first introduced to China also in 65 BC, although it wouldn’t be for for another 550 years during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), where Buddhism would play a more prominent role in shaping Chinese culture.During the Han however, many important Buddhist canons were translated into Chinese during the 2nd century AD, including the Sutra of 42 Chapters, Perfection of Wisdom, Shurangama Sutra, and Pratyutpanna Sutra. China’s first Buddhist Temple, the “White Horse Temple” was constructed outside the walls of the city of Luoyang.All due to the efforts of Zhang Qian, the Han managed to come onto the world stage with a bang, rather than merely gradually ascending to fame. Chinese civilization after 3 thousand years of natural geographical isolation, had finally been introduced into the world, where it would go on to impact the international community in many various ways from then on.A statue of Zhang Qian (even today, Zhang Qian is recognised by Modern China as a national hero, though often overlooked compared to more recent individuals such as Dr. Sun Yat Sen or Mao Zedong):One of these many impacts, was the beginnings of the Sinocentric Han Tributary System, which believed the Han Empire to be at the center of the civilized world.Influenced by their own experiences in the time when China was paying an annual tribute to the Xiongnu Empire, as a result, the belief of Han superiority soon rose to prominence as the Chinese begun to believe themselves to be the “Middle Kingdom” (which is also uncoincidentally the literal name for China today in the Chinese written language: “中国”).Thus, it was believed that China was the preeminent power of the entire world with no equal in sight.Although other civilizations through history had also believed themselves to be the only civilized peoples, the Han took it a step further by mandating that actions speak louder than words. They thus required that all countries in the known world were to submit to them, by gifting them each and every year to the end of time, to show that they recognised the status and importance of Han China, as the sole ruling power of the world.In this way, first due to the travels of Zhang Qian, then the establishment of the Silk Road, then the creation of the Han Tributary System, the Han introduced to the world a brief taste of Chinese civilization, making China greater than it had ever been previously. In doing so, the Han set the standard for the succeeding Chinese dynasties, making the Han the most successful empire of Imperial China.Chapter V: “From Rags to Riches”: The Mighty Economy of the Chinese EmpireThe Silk Road was probably one of the greatest assets of the Han Empire, it was the major source of China’s great wealth for the rest of the dynasty. Because of the great abundance of goods produced by the Han Economy, goods which were not available anywhere else in the world, this allowed China to maintain an extreme positive trading balance over the rest of the entire world.This one sided Han advantage was most evident in the case of the Han-Roman trade. The defining characteristic of this economic relationship saw not only the flow of Chinese goods to the West, but also the flow of Roman raw materials to the East.The consequences of this one sided relationship led to a growing scarcity of precious metals in the Roman Empire, which in turn lead to the repeated debasement of Roman currency in the 2nd Century AD, ensuring the effective cessation of trade with China, in order to maintain the external stability of the Roman Economy.An artist’s impression of a thriving cosmopolitan Han city resultant from trade along the Silk Road:But it was not just in the realm of Foreign Trade, in which the Han Economy was prospering.Ever since the time of the Qin Dynasty, a special emphasis was placed on China’s role as an Agricultural society, one which relied on a stable annual harvest in which to run smoothly.Thus, Agricultural Production was further prioritised during the Han Dynasty, as not only a way in which they could quickly rebuild the Chinese Economy in the earliest days of China under the Liu family, but also as a permanent way to prosper. Given that Agricultural output was also the basis for State Tax Revenue, increasing Agricultural Production was considered to be the top priority for the Han, especially during the first century that the Han Empire existed.To this extent, Gaozu, the first Han Emperor upon recognising the importance of Agriculture to the Han Empire, moved swiftly to incentivize the people to produce more efficiently.As a solution, he mandated the lowering of State taxes leveraged onto small landowners, which also applied to the Peasants and Farmers of China, in order to encourage them to farm harder. Simultaneously, land was taken away from the Aristocracy by force, and redistributed to the Peasantry, motivating them to work harder as they saw that all their efforts would now directly benefit them, rather than the the nobility who often exploited them.Under Emperor Wu many years later, the farming process was further improved upon when he introduced to the Peasantry a new farming method by the name of “Daitianfa” (“代田法”- the “Replacement Field” Method), in which the fields were divided into multiple long narrow trenches, making it easy for the various seeds to be placed into those trenches.In addition, the soil that fell from the mountain tops on which the trenches were placed, supported the stalks of the various new plants. As a result, this method also made it easier to water. Supported by the new Han invention of the “Multi-Tube Seed Drill” and cast Iron tools, intensive farming emerged in Han China.The Han invention of the Multi-Tube Seed Drill:As a result, China was able to lead the world in grain yields both per unit of land and per capita, where it was able to at its peak produce 16 billion kilograms of grain annually, which was 280 kg per person.By comparison, at this point in time intensive farming had not yet emerged in the contemporary Roman Empire. As a result, the Han Economy greatly prospered, as the Han Government had endless amounts of tax revenue in order to fund public services (which greatly helped in the Han-Xiongnu War).Emperor Wu, who was concerned that the Han were “putting all their eggs into one basket”, wanted a separate source of revenue for the Han Government, in case Agricultural Production was low in times of great famines. To this extent, he nationalized the Salt and Iron Industries thus allowing those in debt, to work for the Government in order to pay off their debt, whilst also being socially and economically productive.As a result of the riches brought about due to the existence of the Silk Road, from the Agricultural reforms of Emperors Gaozu and Wu, and also due to the Nationalization of the Salt and Iron Industries, the Economy of the Han Empire skyrocketed.As a consequence, this brought about a period of great prosperity to all of China, the effects of which served to allow China to simultaneously sponsor Zhang Qian’s expeditions to Central Asia, and the Han-Xiongnu War, whilst also ensuring the prosperity of Han Citizens.The Economy of the Han became so prosperous in fact, that at the heights of its power, China accounted for 25% of the world’s wealth and recorded a population per the Imperial Census in 2 AD of 57,671,400 individuals (1/3 of the world’s population).Furthermore, untold millions of coins had to be casted each and every year as a consequence, reaching a peak of 220 million coins per year from 118 BC to 5 AD.Coins of the Han Dynasty issued during the reign of Emperor Wudi of Han:As a result of the vast Han Economy, this allowed the Chinese to transform their Capital of Chang’an into the second largest city in the world, a city that was 4 times as large as the Roman Capital in terms of area, with a population of 400 thousand people- the largest in the world after Rome (who had 1 million people).A description from the Chinese State owned newspaper Xinhua, follows on the glory of Chang’an:“The 12-gate, walled city had eight avenues, each of which were 45 to 55 meters wide and lined with trees.Its wall was 12 meters high, 25,700 meters long and surrounded by an eight-meter-wide moat. To run around it would be the equivalent of completing a half marathon.”By developing a very prosperous economy, the Han brought a much needed metaphoric breath of fresh to China, which desperately required a period of prosperity after the abomination that was the Warring States period, and the Qin Empire. This thus makes the Han in my mind the most successful Chinese dynasty for another reason yet again.Chapter VI: “National Intellectualism”: The Achievements of Han Civil SocietyBecause of the great and lengthy period of prosperity which occurred under the Han Empire, both at an individual and collective level, China was able to turn its attention to more productive activities, rather than just war with the Xiongnu.Encouraged by the free flow of ideas, which were allowed to find a strong foothold in the Han Empire due to the existence of the Silk Road, a great period of experimentation occurred under the wise ruling of the Han Dynasty.Han experiments in the realm of Technology thus saw the inventions of the following notable items of interest (apart from the Multi-Tube Seed Drill and Cast Iron Tools which have already been covered in the previous chapter):Paper (which was vastly more practical to write on than small columns of Bamboo strips):The Loom (which facilitated the invention of Silk, indirectly contributing to the creation of the world renowned Silk Road):The Seismoscope (which was used to measure the magnitude of Earthquakes, a metal ball would drop into a frog’s mouth also, to indicate the direction in which an Earthquake was occurring):The Stirrup (it was attached to each side of a horse's saddle, in the form of a loop with a flat base to support the rider's foot, allowing the fierce Han Cavalry to fight yet even more effectively on horseback):The Wheelbarrow (which allowed one to carry the heaviest of loads, loads which an individual would not normally be able to. It did this by evenly distributing the weight of a object between the wheel and the operator):The Repeating Crossbow (was a revolutionary weapon on the battlefield as it allowed one to fire several projectiles consecutively with little effort or training required to properly operate it):The Water Powered Armillary Sphere (a model of the Celestial Globe constructed from rings and hoops representing the equator, the tropics, and other celestial circles, and came with the ability to revolve on its axis):A similar phenomenon proved true in the realms of Mathematics under the Han Empire also. Apart from independently discovering the existence of square roots, cube roots, the Pythagorean Theorem, the Gaussian Elimination and the close (yet slightly clumsy) approximation of Pi as 10^1/2 (3.14159), the Han also invented and introduced to the world the concept of negative numerals.Scientifically, Han Astronomers updated the old Chinese Calendar and re-calculated the tropical year approximating it to 365. 385/1539 days, whilst asserting that the duration of the lunar month was 29. 43/81 days, the new Calendar was of course adopted by Emperor Wu first from the moment of its inception.Meanwhile, the inventor of the Seismometer; the Astronomer Zhang Heng, also recognised that a Solar Eclipse occurred when the Moon and Sun crossed paths to block sunlight from reaching the Earth:Similarly, other Chinese Astronomers throughout the 400 years of the Han Dynasty’s duration, created and maintained a plethora of star maps, whilst also keeping detailed records of Comets that appeared in the night sky. The most notable Shooting Star they observed was the famous “Halley’s Comet”, which lit up the Stratosphere above Han China in 12 BC.Despite the existence of all of which has already been mentioned however, some of the more notable achievements of Han Civil Society lay not in Technology, Science or Mathematics, but actually occurred in the realm of Han Cultural achievements.For starters, the Han Dynasty, was actually a very revolutionary and unprecedented period in Chinese Art and Architecture. During the Han, the Chinese improved upon the traditional architectures of pre-Imperial China, and expanded it into a form with which we are mostly familiar with today.For reference, here is the architecture of the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BC) era Palace, at this point in time slightly over 3.5 thousand years ago, even Palatial Complexes were very basic under a not so prosperous China at the time:The prosperous Han changed all that however, and took Chinese Architecture to an all new level.Though the pre-Imperial dynasties of China had constructed their buildings mostly out of timber, the Han changed that. During the course of the Han Empire, the Chinese learnt to construct multi-story buildings built not only out of wood, but sometimes even from brick, stone and “rammed-earth” materials, to support their superstructures.The Han expanded Chinese Architecture to include multi-story buildings as this miniature pottery Han era replica so depicts:Unlike the previous pre-Imperial dynasties of China, they also constructed some of their architectures out of stone rather than just wood:And also unlike the previous dynasties, Han Architecture involved constructing and experimenting with rammed-earth materials as the Han section of the Great Wall of China so clearly depicts below:The greatest improvement in Han Architecture was evident with the Emperor’s Palaces however, which were improved to make them larger, taller and more sophisticatedly detailed on the exterior, where multi-story roofs and buildings can be observed:Author’s note: it must be stressed however that these particular images below, are of Han period reconstructions for the sole purpose of filming, so they may not be wholly reflective of genuine Han Architecture.However, that would be extremely unlikely as I have already taken the courtesy of doing “background checks” for you, and I assure you that they are very faithful reproductions indeed. So relax.Another replica of Han Architecture at Yangguan Pass in Gansu Province:During this “Golden Age” for Chinese Architecture, the Han also managed to construct the largest Palatial Complex by area, in the History of Mankind.The Weiyang Palace was a testament to Han Imperium and might.It was described as being 1,200 acres or 4.8 km^2, making it 11 times the size of Vatican City, or 6.7 times larger than the existing Forbidden City in Beijing or approximately 72 times the area of the Versailles Palace in France.Having been built 2,217 years ago at the request of the first Han Emperor Gaozu, it should be safe thus to assume the power, grandeur, ingenuity and wealth of the Han Empire.A computer generated imagined image of the Weiyang (Endless) Palace:Apart from being a revolutionary period for Architecture however, the Han Dynasty was also a time of unprecedented evolution for Chinese Art. Due to the inflows of foreign influences originating from along the Silk Road, this impacted Chinese artistic styles in many various ways.Examples of this include the “Gansu Flying Horse”, a dedication to the most prized military asset of the Han Imperial Army, which was sourced from overseas in the Kingdom of Ferghana along the Silk Road:The Han period of Imperial China in terms of Art, was also most remembered for the simple, yet abundant availability of lacquerware and ceramics, the area in which the Han developed to a high quality standard the most. These were items produced only by the most skilled artisans, as such, only the most wealthy of the Aristocracy could afford to purchase such luxurious items (lacquerware tray and ceramic jar pictured below):Han Ceramics even extended to focus on replicating entire buildings, which they did, producing vast multitudes of ceramic works including miniature replicas of the houses of the nobility (which has proven useful to contemporary Historians, as there are rarely any architectures left over from the Han period from which we can study today):Statues were of course also in full bloom, pictured below as an example, is a bronze statuette of the Qilin (Chimera), a creature which was believed by the Chinese to signal good luck, as their sighting by those lucky enough, was thought to signal the coming of an illustrious ruler:Thus, even in the realm of Art and Architecture, the Han set the standard for all dynasties to come.But yet again, despite all the advances in Art and Architecture, it was actually the consequences arising from the adoption and promotion of the State Ideology of Confucianism, by Emperor Wu, which had the greatest impact on the Han Dynasty of China, truly impacting the future of China, and shaping it all the way up until the end of the Imperial period merely 105 years ago.Confucianism taught that hard work was the key to success in a world with unlimited desires, limited time, limited money and limited resources. Everyone wanted to be great, to be strong and to be wealthy, and yet, it was not possible for everyone to do so, otherwise this would render those positions of power quite redundant.Acting on the advice of Confucius, in time, the beginnings of a Meritocratic Examination System was created under the Han Empire, for the purpose of using it to recruit the next generation of government officials.Though the process would not be entirely formalized until the Tang Dynasty several hundred years later, it was a process which begun with the Han. Using the exams as a filter to separate the sincere from the insincere, the Han asserted that only those who worked and studied for long and hard enough, could pass the exams and go onto to assist the Emperor in ruling the country.A depiction of Han Government Officials:Following on from the example of the Qin Empire, the Han promoted the Mandarin to the highest position in Han society (in alignment with Confucian values), and forced any candidates enrolling (who was hoping to become a Mandarin) to compete against each other in standardized examinations.It was hoped that in doing so, only the best, most sincere and most dedicated individuals would be able to hold it together for long enough, to eventually become an adviser to the Emperor himself.After the appropriate candidates were accepted into the Han Government, they were organized such that the Mandarins themselves were further split into two separate groups to better specialise in a certain field. The two factions were focused on dealing with either the Civilian or Military Administrative facets of the Han Empire:The first faction was dressed in red and wore a ministerial headgear equipped with two feathers, one on each side. This was the group composed of the Military Ministers who administered the Han Imperial Army. The Military faction often had personal battlefield experience and sat on the right side of the Emperor in the Imperial Palace’s main hall, existing to advise him on martial matters.Directly parallel to the Military faction, and seated on the left side of the Emperor during the times when Court was in session, were the Civil Ministers. They wore black and donned a ministerial headpiece with no feathers to signal their Civilian Affairs status, their primary responsibility of course included the running of the more peaceful facets of Imperial Administration.This thus ensured the existence of a strong political backbone, which was able to run the Han Empire efficiently as a result. New to the concept of a centralized power, the Han Emperors needed all the help they could get, thus the advice from the armies upon armies of such a learned men as that of the Mandarin Government Officials, was of course extremely welcomed.Although many millions of people criticise the usage of standardized testing even to this day, the fact remains that there are very few practical and effective alternatives to decide who is first, and who is last. Thus, in creating the Examination System, the Han invented one of the greatest and most relevant gifts to the entire world even in the 21st Century, yet another reason as to why the Han are most successful Chinese dynasty.Final Summary (to tie up any “loose ends” and conclude the answer)Thus the Han Empire was the most successful Chinese dynasty ever. They may not have been as glorious as the succeeding Cosmopolitan Tang Dynasty, nor as inventive and wealthy as the Pre-Industrialized society of the Song, nor were they an Economic Powerhouse like Ming, but that’s because the Han existed 2,000 years ago.Considering their limitations of being a naturally isolated country due to geography, the burden of being forced to keep China together in one piece after the tyranny that was Qin rule, and the very real threat of the Xiongnu, who would have otherwise completely wiped Chinese civilization off the face of the Earth, the Han did well.They were an all rounder who brought Chinese civilization to the world through Zhang Qian’s journeys westwards based solely on rumours. This unintentionally created the Silk Road, the first system of Globalization thus ensuring the prosperity of the Han for the rest of their rule.From the Silk Road, they imported from Central Asia the Ferghana Horse, which they used to bring their powerful nomadic northern neighbour to heel, after 65 years of domination and humiliation by their hands, thus saving China in the process.Furthermore, the adoption of Confucianism rather than Legalism, didn’t only contribute to Chinese culture today in an irreplaceable way, but contributed to the Han invention of the Meritocratic Examination System, which would benefit China for the next 2,000 years.Thus, it is completely reasonable (to me at least) that the Han Dynasty is the most successful Chinese dynasty of all time. It now remains to be seen whether the current ruling dynasty; the People’s Republic of China (PRC), can surpass their achievements, and set a new world record in the books of Chinese civilization.Sources Utilised Throughout My Answer (also for further reading):LegalismShihuangdi | emperor of Qin dynastyQin dynasty | China [221-207 BC]February 2013: Liu Bang, from Peasant Rebel to EmperorLu Jia 陸賈 (www.chinaknowledge.de)Wudi | emperor of Han dynastyWudi Emperor of the Han Dynasty (156- 87 BC), Story of Han Dynasty EmperorHan–Xiongnu War - WikipediaChao Cuo 晁錯 (www.chinaknowledge.de)Heavenly Horses of ChinaBattle of Mobei - WikipediaZhang Qian (Chang Ch’ien)Zhang QianZhang Qian - WikipediaTop 10 Explorers Of The Ancient World - ListverseSilk RoadImperial Chinese tributary system - Wikipedia3PerspMaps.htmlEconomyChang'an: four times the size of RomeScience and technology of the Han dynasty - WikipediaWeiyang Palace - WikipediaHan Dynasty Art - Ancient China - Quatr.ushttp://www.arthistory.net/han-dynasty-art/

First of all this answer is not from an expert but from a person who himself cleared the prelims consecutively in the past many many years.When I was preparing for my first prelims I used to be very afraid when I saw someone reading a different book for the same topic that I was preparing. Those were the very testing times as you require self-confidence as much as knowledge of the subject matter.Below I my am sharing my own plan of action, for Prelims only.You can search our telegram channel with the name Prelims Specific Notes For IAS.Here we update the summaries of the Hindu and PIB daily.Current AffairsIdeally you should cover relevant information from one major newspaper like The Hindu plus Press Information Bureau and Yojana of about one and half years before the date of your exam to increase your chances of attempting more questions from current affairs.Below I am giving my own analysis of how to cover the above things.I don’t know why one should learn the CURRENT AFFAIRS after a gap of one and half months of their being in the news from the so called Current Affairs magzines!!One should prepare the current affairs on daily basis so that you can keep them in memory as well. If you learn a few daily then it will more possibility that you would retain them easily.Besides it is not how detailed notes are available in the market but in how easy language they have been covered and more importantly only that part has been covered which is relevant for the exam only.And one more thing, if there is a neat division of current affairs for Prelims and Mains as both require different sets of mindset at the time of reading it would be a boon!!Below I am giving my own version as to how one can/should prepare current affairs for prelims on the basis of my own experience of clearing the exam again and again.Current Affairs for Prelims:The Hindu Notes 2nd July 2019CONTEMP OF COURTContext: The Supreme Court issued a contempt notice to West Bengal for keeping BJP youth wing leader Priyanka Sharma behind bars overnight despite its order on May 14 to release her immediately on bail.(Pg 1, The Hindu)FactsheetContempt of CourtBoth the Supreme Court and the High Courts have the power to punish for contempt of court, either with simple imprisonment or with fine or both.The term ‘Contempt of Court’ has not been defined by the Constitution.However, it has been defined by the Contempt of Court Act of 1971.The Contempt of Court can be ‘civil’ or ‘criminal’.Civil Contempt: It is the willful disobedience of any judgement, order, writ or other process of a court or willful breach of an undertaking given to a court.Criminal Contempt: It is the publication of any matter or doing an act which:Scandalises or lowers the authority of a court; orPrejudices or interferes with the due course of a judicial proceeding; orInterferes or obstructs the administration of justice in any other manner.However, the following are ‘not’ considered ‘Contempt of Court’:Innocent publication and distribution of some matter;Fair and accurate report of judicial proceedings;Fair and reasonable criticism of judicial acts; andComment on the administrative side of the judiciary.IRAN NUCLEAR DEALContext: Iran acknowledged that it had broken the limit set on its stockpile of low-enriched uranium by the 2015 nuclear deal, marking its first major departure from the unraveling agreement a year after the U.S. unilaterally withdrew from the accord.(Pg 1, The Hindu)FactsheetIran nuclear dealAlso called Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action.It was signed in 2015 between Iran and the P5+1 group of world powers - the US, UK, France, China, Russia and Germany.Why this Nuclear deal?It came after years of tension over Iran's alleged efforts to develop a nuclear weapon.Iran insisted that its nuclear programme was entirely peaceful, but the international community did not believe that.What was agreed?Under the accord, Iran agreed to limit its sensitive nuclear activities and allow in international inspectors in return for the lifting of crippling economic sanctions.Under the nuclear deal, Iran agreed to have less than 300 kilograms of uranium enriched to a maximum of 3.67% far below the 90% needed to produce weapons for 15 years.Why did U.S. Pull out of the Deal?U.S. recently pulled out of the Iran Nuclear Deal and reimposed sanctions on Iran's energy, ship building, shipping, and banking sectors, which U.S. considers "the core areas" of its economy.U.S. hopes to compel Iran to negotiate a "new deal" that would cover not only its nuclear activities, but also its ballistic missile programme and what U.S. officials call its "malign behaviour" across the Middle East to destablise the region.The sanctions have led to a sharp downturn in Iran's economy, pushing the value of its currency to record lows, quadrupling its annual inflation rate, driving away foreign investors, and triggering protests.In keeping with its strategy of ‘maximum pressure’, the U.S. designated the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) a foreign terrorist organisation, a move rejected by the U.K. and European allies. It is the first time that U.S. has named the military of another country ‘terrorist’.Value AdditionEnriched uranium is not only used to make reactor fuel, but also nuclear weapons."Weapons-grade" uranium is 90% enriched.Uranium and plutonium can be removed from the spent fuel, and reused. The plutonium can also be used to make weapons.Low-enriched uranium, which has a 3%-4% concentration of U-235, can be used to produce fuel for nuclear power plants.Radioisotopes produced during the process of enrichment are used in medicine, agriculture, industry and science.PROTESTS IN HONG KONGContext: Hundreds of demonstrators stormed into Hong Kong's legislature after smashing their way in as the crisis that has gripped the semi-autonomous Chinese territory for weeks rapidly intensified.Protests have raged in Hong Kong against a controversial extradition bill, which would allow suspects to be sent to mainland China for trial.(Pg 1, The Hindu)FactsheetHong Kong, a former British colony, was handed back to China in 1997 following a 1984 agreement between China and Britain.China agreed to govern Hong Kong under the principle of "one country, two systems", where the city would enjoy "a high degree of autonomy, except in foreign and defence affairs" for 50 years.As a result, Hong Kong has its own legal system, and rights including freedom of assembly and free speech are protected.Its leader, the chief executive, is currently elected by a 1,200-member election committee. A majority of the representatives are viewed as pro-Beijing.Hong Kong's mini-constitution, the Basic Law, says that "the ultimate aim" is to elect the chief executive "by universal suffrage upon nomination by a broadly representative nominating committee in accordance with democratic procedures".SWATANTRA SAINIK SAMMAN YOJANA (SSSY)Context: The Union Cabinet has approved the continuation of Swatantra Sainik Samman Yojana (SSSY) during 2017-2020 beyond the 12th Five Year Plan which ended on 31/03/2017.(Pg 2, The Hindu)FactsheetSwatantra Sainik Samman Yojana (SSSY)The key objective of Swatantra Sainik Samman Pension Scheme is to provide pension to freedom fighters & their eligible dependents in India.The SSSY implemented by the Central Government of India.Eligibility Criteria for Samman PensionThe following categories of freedom fighters are eligible for the Samman Pension.Dependents of martyrs are eligible for Samman Pension. A martyr is a person who was killed due to participation in the freedom struggle of India.A person who had suffered minimum 6-month imprisonment of participation in freedom struggle is eligible to get pension. Eligibility criteria for women & SC/ST are 3 months for women.If a person’s participation in freedom struggle remained underground for more than six months is eligible for Samman pension.A person whose property was damaged or sold due to participation in the freedom struggle is eligible to get this pension.If a person became permanently incapacitated during firing or lathi charge in Freedom struggle, he/she is eligible for this pension.By participating in freedom struggle if a person lost his Government job he/she is eligible.Any person was awarded the punishment of 10 strokes of caning/flogging/whipping due to his participation in freedom struggle. He/she is eligible to get Samman pension.Person not eligible for Samman PensionIf the property of a person was restored, he is not eligible for Samman Pension.Persons who were reinstated in Government service before the expiry of two years from their dismissal or removal from service and were in receipt of benefits or pay and allowances are not eligible for the pension.Eligible Dependents for Samman PensionSamman pension is provided to Freedom fighter family include (if the freedom fighter is not alive) mother, father, widower/widow if he/she has not since remarried, unmarried daughters.Only one person in the family is eligible for getting Samman pension.Sequence of eligibilityIn the event of availability of more than one dependent in the family, the sequence of eligibility will be as follows.Widow/widowerUnmarried daughtersMotherFatherVECTOR-BORNE DISEASESContext: Rise in the cases of Vector-borne diseases.(Pg 3, The Hindu)FactsheetVectors are living organisms that can transmit infectious diseases between humans or from animals to humans.Vectors and Vector-borne diseases MosquitoesAedesChikungunyaDengue feverLymphatic filariasisRift Valley feverYellow feverZikaAnophelesMalariaLymphatic filariasisCulexJapanese encephalitisLymphatic filariasisWest Nile feverSandfliesLeishmaniasisSandfly fever (phelebotomus fever)TicksCrimean-Congo haemorrhagic feverLyme diseaseRelapsing fever (borreliosis)Rickettsial diseases (spotted fever and Q fever)Tick-borne encephalitisTularaemiaTriatomine bugsChagas disease (American trypanosomiasis)Tsetse fliesSleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis)FleasPlague (transmitted by fleas from rats to humans)RickettsiosisBlack fliesOnchocerciasis (river blindness)Aquatic snailsSchistosomiasis (bilharziasis)LiceTyphus and louse-borne relapsing feverLOCUSTS OUTBREAKContext: An outbreak of desert locusts in the villages of Rajasthan's Barmer district, adjoining the India-Pakistan border, has posed a threat to the crops.(Pg 5, The Hindu)FactsheetThe tropical grasshoppers emerged in January this year from Sudan and Eritrea on Africa's Red Sea Coast and travelled through Saudi Arabia and Iran to enter Pakistan, where they invaded the cotton-producing belt of Sindh.The swarms of locusts are now entering the Thar desert, threatening the crops in western Rajasthan.FLY ASH IN INDIAContext: NGT sought report on fly ash management. (Pg 5, The Hindu)FactsheetFly ash is a fine powder that is a by-product of burning pulverized coal in electric generation power plants.Fly ash is a pozzolan, a substance containing aluminous and siliceous material that forms cement in the presence of water.When mixed with lime and water, fly ash forms a compound similar to Portland cement.When used in concrete mixes, fly ash improves the strength and segregation of the concrete and makes it easier to pump.Fly ash is also recognized as an environmentally friendly material because it is a by-product and has low embodied energy, the measure of how much energy is consumed in producing and shipping a building material.Fly ash requires less water than Portland cement and is easier to use in cold weather.Fly Ash Regulations in IndiaIt is mandatory for power plants to give fly ash free of cost to users within 300-kilometre-radius.It is mandatory for cement industries, within radius of 300 kilometers of a coal or lignite based thermal power plant, to use fly ash for manufacture of the cement as per the specifications of Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).The cost of transportation of fly ash is to be borne collectively by the thermal power plant and the industry concerned.Every construction agency engaged in construction of roads within a radius of 300 kilometers from a coal or lignite based thermal power plant would be bound to use fly ash in accordance with the guidelines or specifications issued by the Indian Road Congress.Following are among the efforts made to make optimum utilization of fly ash as an environmentally sustainable and economically viable product:GST rates on fly ash and its products have been reduced to 5%.To facilitate 100% ash utilization by all coal based thermal power plants, a web portal for monitoring of fly ash generation and utilization data of Thermal Power Plants and a mobile based application titled “ASHTRACK” has been launched by the Ministry of Power.Fly ash can help the agriculture in the following ways:1. Fly-ash as pesticide2. Saving of chemical fertilizers3. Fly-ash for improving crop growth and yield4. Use of fly-ash in composting5. Managing soil pH6. Improving water-holding capacityMore on Fly AshFly-ash has been classified as a Green List waste under the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).It is not considered as a waste under Basel Convention.One of the reasons of low fly-ash utilization in India is the unavailability of appropriate cost-effective technologies.POLAVARAM PROJECTContext: Odisha CM urges PM to stop Polavaram Project. "The submergence of tribal villages resulting in mass displacement of primitive tribals, flooding of fertile agricultural lands and submergence of large extent of forest area would be irreversible consequences,” he added.(Pg 6, The Hindu)FactsheetPolavaram ProjectPolavaram is a multi-purpose irrigation project located on river Godavari in Andhra Pradesh.Polavaram project dam being built on River Godavari can help divert and utilise Godavari water to Krishna and other rivers.Polavaram will be the biggest dam dedicated to nation after Sardar Sarovar dam on Narmada river in Gujarat.The project has been declared a National Project.What is a National project?In 2008 (XI Plan), the government approved a scheme of national projects, under which it identified 16 major water resource development and irrigation projects.These projects were previously under the Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme.However, the progress of these projects had declined due to various factors.These include land acquisition, inter-state coordination, financial constraints, and issues relating to rehabilitation and re-settlement of the affected population.Such projects are provided financial assistance by the Government of India in the form of Central grant which will be 90% of the estimated cost of such projects for their completion in a time bound manner.Criteria For Selection Of National ProjectsThe criteria for selection of National Project will be as under:(a) International projects where usage of water in India is required by a treaty or where planning and early completion of the project is necessary in the interest of the country.(b) Inter-State projects which are dragging on due to non-resolution of Inter-State issues relating to sharing of costs, rehabilitation, aspects of power production etc., including river interlinking projects.(c) Intra-State projects with additional potential of more than 2,00,000 hectare (ha) and with no dispute regarding sharing of water and where hydrology is establishedThe projects proposed for inclusion as National Projects should fulfil all the eligibility criteria required for funding under Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP), including the investment clearance of the Planning Commission/NITI Aayog.Only major irrigation/multi-purpose projects shall be eligible for inclusion as National Projects.The progress of work of National Project is monitored by Central Water Commission (CWC).A High Powered Steering Committee headed by Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation also reviews the implementation of National Projects.The 16 National Projects are:Kulsi Dam Project (Assam)Polavaram Project (Andhra Pradesh)Noa-Dihing Dam Project (Arunachal Pradesh)Upper Siang Project(Arunachal Pradesh)Renuka Dam Project(Himachal Pradesh)Gyspa HE Project (Himachal Pradesh)Kishau Multipurpose Project (Himachal Pradesh/ Uttarakhand)Ujh Multipurpose project (Jammu & Kashmir)Bursar HE Project(Jammu & Kashmir)Gosikhurd Irrigation Project (Maharashtra)Ken Betwa Link Project Phase-I (Madhya Pradesh & Uttar Pradesh)Shahpurkandi Dam Project (Punjab)2nd Ravi Vyas Link Project (Punjab)SaryuNaharPariyojna(Uttar Pradesh)Lakhwar Multipurpose Project (Uttarakhand)Teesta Barrage Project (West Bengal)SC ON EWS QUOTAContext: SC to hear pleas for Constitution Bench on EWS quota.(Pg 12, The Hindu)FactsheetThe economic reservation violated the 50% reservation ceiling limit fixed by a nine-judge Bench in the Indra Sawhney case.Further, the 1992 judgment had barred reservation solely on economic criterion.In a 6:3 majority verdict, the apex court, in Indra Sawhney, had held that “a backward class cannot be determined only and exclusively with reference to economic criterion... It may be a consideration or basis along with and in addition to social backwardness, but it can never be the sole criterion”.The Constitution (103rd Amendment) Act of 2019 has provided 10% reservation in government jobs and educational institutions for the “economically backward” in the unreserved category.The Act amends Articles 15 and 16 of the Constitution by adding clauses empowering the government to provide reservation on the basis of economic backwardness.This 10% economic reservation is over and above the 50% reservation cap.JAL SHAKTI ABHIYANContext: Jal Shakti Abhiyan has been launched by the Ministry of Jal Shakti.(Pg 12, The Hindu)FactsheetIt is a campaign for water conservation and water security.The campaign will run through citizen participation during the monsoon season, from 1st July, 2019 to 15th September, 2019.An additional Phase 2 will be run from 1st October, 2019 to 30th November, 2019 for States receiving the North East retreating monsoons.The focus of the campaign will be on water stressed districts and blocks.It is a collaborative effort of various Ministries of the Government of India and State Governments, being coordinated by the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation.It aims to ensure five important water conservation interventions. These will bewater conservation and rainwater harvesting,renovation of traditional and other water bodies/tanks,reuse bore well recharge structures,watershed development andintensive afforestation.There is no additional funding or specific targets for the campaign to achieve.ARMED FORCES (SPECIAL POWERS) ACT (AFSPA)Context: AFSPA in Nagaland extended.(Pg 12, The Hindu)FactsheetAs far as the other north-Indian States are concerned, the Act is effective in the whole of Assam, Manipur (excluding seven Assembly constituencies of Imphal) but restricted to eight police stations in Arunachal Pradesh.Tripura, Meghalaya and Mizoram are free from this Act.However, Jammu and Kashmir is still under this Act.Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA)Disturbed Area:The government (either the state or centre) considers those areas to be ‘disturbed’ “by reason of differences or disputes between members of different religious, racial, language or regional groups or castes or communities.”Who can declare a region to be ‘disturbed’?the Governor of that State orthe administrator of that Union Territory orthe Central Government.The whole or a part of a State or Union territory can be declared a disturbed area.Once declared ‘disturbed’, the region has to maintain status quo for a minimum of three months.What about the state government’s role?The state governments can suggest whether the Act is required to be enforced or not. But their opinion can still be overruled by the governor or the centre.Is the Act uniform in nature?No, the Act may contain different sections as applicable to the situation in each state.Is Tripura then the first state to completely do away with AFSPA?No. It was Punjab.Special Powers to Armed Forces:The AFSPA gives power to the Army and Central forces deployed in “disturbed areas” to:kill anyone acting in contravention of law,arrest and search any premises without a warrant andprovide cover to forces from prosecution and legal suits without the Centre’s sanction.PURCHASING MANAGERS’ INDEXContext: Manufacturing PMI dips.(Pg 15, The Hindu)FactsheetPurchasing Managers’ Index‘Purchasing Managers’ index’ is considered as an indicator of the economic health and investor sentiments about the manufacturing sector (there is services PMI as well).The PMI is constructed separately for manufacturing and services sector. But the manufacturing sector holds more importance.In a PMI data, a reading above 50 indicates economic expansion, while a reading below 50 points shows contraction of economic activities.For India, the PMI Data is published by Japanese firm Nikkei but compiled and constructed by Markit Economics.The variables used to construct India’s PMI are: Output, New Orders, Employment, Input Costs, Output Prices, Backlogs of Work, Export Orders, Quantity of Purchases, Suppliers’ Delivery Times, Stocks of Purchases and Stocks of Finished Goods.How PMI is different from IIPIn contrast to volume based production indicator like the IIP, the PMI senses dynamic trends because of the variables it use for the construction of the index.For example, new orders under PMI show growth oriented positive trends and not just volume of past production that can be traced in an ordinary Index of Industrial Production.Hence, the PMI is more dynamic compared to a standard industrial production index.CORE SECTORContext: Core sector growth slows to 5.1%.(Pg 15, The Hindu)FactsheetIndex of Eight Core Industries (base: 2011-12).The Eight Core Industries comprise 40.27 % of the weight of items included in the Index of Industrial Production (IIP).The data relating to core industries is released by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.The eight core industries are:Petroleum Refinery Products (weight: 28.04%)Electricity (weight: 19.85%)Steel (weight: 17.92 %)Coal production (weight: 10.33 %)Crude Oil (weight: 8.98 %)Natural Gas (weight: 6.88 %)Cement (weight: 5.37%)Fertilizer (weight: 2.63 %)THE INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION (IWC)Context: Japan resumed whale hunting after withdrawing from the International Whaling Commission (IWC).(Pg 22, The Hindu)FactsheetThe IWC is the global body charged with the conservation of whales and the management of whaling.The IWC currently has 89 member governments from countries all over the world.The Commission's role has expanded since its establishment in 1946.In addition to regulation of whaling, today's IWC works to address a wide range of conservation issues including bycatch and entanglement, ocean noise, pollution and debris, collision between whales and ships, and sustainable whale watching.News in BriefSupplementary DemandA supplementary demand is an additional grant to meet government expenditure, outside the annual budget. (Pg 7, The Hindu)Citizens’ Carbon Footprint AppMaharashtra government will now track citizens’ carbon footprint through an app and reward those who achieve an emission neutral status. (Pg 7, The Hindu)WTO Self-Help GuidelinesRecently, the World Health Organization has released self-help guidelines for sexual and reproductive healthPre-exposure prophylaxis, or PrEP, is a way for people who do not have HIV but who are at substantial risk of getting it to prevent HIV infection by taking a pill every day.It's estimated that it takes at least seven days for PrEP to reach high levels of protection in the body.India is yet to come up with guidelines for PrEP use and include it in the national HIV prevention programme. (Pg 10, The Hindu)PISAThe Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a worldwide study that measures and compares student ability in reading, mathematics, science and global competence, with financial literacy an option. Accordingly, it ranks educational systems of countries. (Pg 10, The Hindu)Wish you all the best!!

There was this friend of mine who was in this exact same state of dillemma 2 years ago. Her name is Chloe. Chloe had just finished college and then decided to go into entrepreneurship, she had this great passion for food and sitting in a boring office all day just wasn't what she wanted to spend all her time doing. So like you, she started debating on what to start out with—a food truck business or a food manufacturing business? We talked about it for some time and we eventually decided it would be most profitable and cost effective if she went for a food truck instead. Not long after 18 months, she was able to move from just a single truck to over 17 stores in different locations in the city, she had gotten over 25 new food trucks scattered all across the various parts of the city and also ru(more)