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Questions about the pineal gland or so-called “third eye” in humans come up so often in Quora that I’m attempting here to consolidate my previous answers into one general-purpose overview. I’ve put in section heads to help navigate to whatever point may be most relevant to what anyone asks. If your interest is mainly in calcification, “opening” the pineal gland, or the “third-eye” interpretation, you can scroll directly to headers on those and skip the introductory biology.I. What Is the Pineal Gland?The pineal gland is a very small gland, 5 to 8 mm long, in the endocrine system of most vertebrate animals from fish to primates, including humans. It’s named for its resemblance to a pine nut (not a pine cone, as so often misstated). It’s also called the epiphysis cerebri, perhaps a useful search term if you ever go looking for further information on it. In fish, amphibians, and reptiles, the pineal gland is located near the brain surface just under the cranium, but in mammals, growth of the cerebral hemispheres has resulted in it being buried deep in the brain (Figure 1).Figure 1. Human Pineal Gland (at arrow). Compared to Mediterranean Pine Nuts (Pignolias).[1] Brain photo from Quizlet via Google Images (no good URL)..II. What Does the Pineal Gland Do?The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin, which is concerned with circadian and seasonal rhythms of physiology and animal behavior. The pineal synthesizes melatonin from the neurotransmitter serotonin. Daily melatonin secretion peaks about 3 to 5 hours after one falls asleep, and its level fluctuates seasonally. In animals with seasonal breeding, it regulates the gonads and onset of breeding behaviors, and it’s involved in seasonal migrations of many species. Some physiologists think the human pineal gland plays a role in the onset of puberty, but the evidence for this is inconclusive. Pineal tumors are sometimes associated with precocial (premature) puberty in young boys,[2] but it’s unclear whether they are the direct cause or whether that results from damage to adjacent brain tissues.In humans, melatonin receptors are widespread throughout the body, including the insulin-producing islet cells of the pancreas. A defect in melatonin receptors reduces the body’s sensitivity to insulin and is associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Melatonin has also been implicated in mood disorders such as jet lag, seasonal affective disorder (SAD), and premenstrual syndrome (PMS). However, there is also evidence against its role in any of these, so the jury is still out on that question. Nevertheless, many people claim melatonin to be effective for them in relieving jet lag or aiding sleep. (I have used it myself for sleep.).III. What Is the Structure and Composition of the Pineal Gland?Under the microscope (Figure 2), the pineal gland isn’t a very remarkable or exciting-looking organ, even to those of us who do find excitement in the histology of most organs. Almost every organ looks far more interesting than this under the microscope. The pineal consists mostly of tiny melatonin-secreting cells called pinealocytes, intermingled with supportive cells, neurons, and neuron-like cells.Figure 2. Histology of the Human Pineal Gland. Low and high magnifications.[3]A more interesting feature seen in many tissue sections, however, is accretions called corpora arenacea[4] (singular, corpus arenaceum), also called acervuli (Figure 3). Corpora arenacea translates as “sand bodies” and even some biological authorities refer to these granules as “brain sand,” but that’s only a figure of speech. It leads some people to ask me why the brain contains quartz,[5] like beach sand. Quartz, however, is silicon dioxide (SiO2). Corpora arenacea, on the other hand, are composed of calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, magnesium phosphate, and ammonium phosphate. Acervuli translates as “little heaps” and is a term also used in botany.Their functional significance, if any, is unknown. With age, they accumulate in the pineal gland and some other brain tissues such as the choroid plexuses. They’re often visible on brain CT scans (Figure 4) by one’s twenties or thirties and thus serve as a radiologic landmark for the location of the pineal. This is what is meant by pineal gland calcification; more on that later.Figure 3. A Pineal Corpus Arenaceum[6] (L) compared to silica (quartz) beach sand[7] (R). Other than being hard granules, there is no resemblance physically or chemically. Beach sand made of pulverized coral and mollusc shells, however, is more chemically similar (calcium carbonates and phosphates) to corpora arenacea.Figure 4. Calcified Pineal Gland (arrow). CT scan of a 63-year-old man. The pineal here is about 7 mm dia.[8] This is sometimes helpful as a radiologic landmark for brain surgery on surrounding tissues..IV. Is the Pineal Gland a Photoreceptor?Humans and other mammals don’t have photoreceptor cells in the pineal gland, but many other vertebrates do. In some fish and most amphibians and reptiles, the pineal is associated with a parietal eye (or colloquially, “third eye” or “pineal eye”) (Figure 5), which contains photoreceptor cells and responds directly to light. There is commonly a thin, transparent area of cranium or a translucent reptilian scale over the parietal eye to give these receptors direct access to sunlight, and in some cases, the pineal gland even protrudes through the skull.Figure 5. Parietal “Third” Eye. L: The bullfrog, Rana catesbiana.[9] R: A lizard, the tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus.[10]The pineal photoreceptor cells of these vertebrates are strikingly similar in some ways to the receptor cells of a retina (rods and cones), especially in their elaborate parallel layers of membrane loaded with visual pigment (Figure 6).Figure 6. Receptor Cells in the Parietal Eye of the Lamprey, Petromyzon.[11] The outer segment (OS in figure B) contains closely spaced membrane layers loaded with visual pigment, like the outer segment of human rods and cones. It is the dense, dark cap on the cell in figure C.In humans and other mammals, however, there is no parietal eye and the pineal gland has no such cells. The skull is too thick and the cerebral hemispheres too massive to allow any light to reach the mammalian pineal gland. A Quora question once asked of me cited an article, “Photoreceptors in pineal gland and brain,” and asked, “Why do people claim that the pineal gland doesn’t have photoreceptors, when research clearly shows otherwise?”[12] Another, citing the same article, asked, “Why would we have photo (color) receptors inside of the pineal gland?”[13]What these questioners overlooked, however, is that those researchers, Okano and Fukada (2000),[14] were studying conelike receptor cells in the pineal glands of more primitive vertebrates (amphibians and reptiles), not humans or any other mammals. Okano and Fukada wrote, “Extracranial pineal organs of submammalians are cone-dominated photoreceptors sensitive to different wavelengths of light” (my added emphasis). They clearly imply that mammals such as ourselves have no such pineal cone cells or color-sensitive pigments. A few lines later, they state “the mammalian pineal is considered by most of the authors as a light-insensitive organ.”[15] In my literature search, the only references I could find to direct pineal sensitivity to light in the endothermic vertebrates pertained to birds..V. Does the Pineal Gland Indirectly Receive Any Information on Environmental Light?Yes, apparently it receives information from the eyes by an indirect route. In the retina, there’s a row of neurons called ganglion cells whose axons form the optic nerve. Most of these synapse in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus with neurons that continue to the visual cortex of the brain at the back of the head, where we become conscious of seeing something.Figure 7. Histology of the human retina.[16]However, some of the ganglion cells contain their own photosensory pigment, melanopsin, different from the rhodopsin of rods and photopsin of cones. The signals from these ganglion cells travel not to the visual cortex but to brainstem centers that control pupil diameter and to pathways to the pineal gland. These fibers end in an area of the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which is involved in our circadian biological clock. A second neuron descends from here down the brainstem and spinal cord, exits the spinal cord in the upper thoracic region, then travels up a chain of sympathetic ganglia to one called the superior cervical ganglion. From here, fibers re-enter the cranial cavity and go back to the pineal gland. The pineal gland thus gets information about the daily cycle of light to darkness, L:D ratio, in our environment. Animal brains use this information about seasonal changes in day length for purposes ranging from fattening up for the winter to migrating to warmer climates. The functional significance of this pathway in humans is unknown..VI. Why Is It Called “The Third Eye”?—Pineal Philosophy and MysticismThe pineal gland was known even as far back as ancient Hellenic physicians and anatomists such as Galen (129–c. 200 CE). It’s not clear who named it, but Galen already knew of it and said it was named for its resemblance to the Mediterranean pine nut (see figure 1).[17] Being so small and deeply embedded in the brain, the pineal gland is one of its most inaccessible objects of study and historically lent itself to more philosophical speculation than empirical science. It’s solitary nature and central location led philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) to consider it the seat of the human soul. He thought that nerves carried sensations to the pineal gland, causing it to vibrate a little bit, and these vibrations were what we perceive as ideas, thoughts, and memories (M. Catani & S. Sandrone, Brain Renaissance, Oxford Univ. Press, 2015).The idea of a third eye comes from the ancient mystic traditions of India and China—from Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, and Zen. These traditions regarded it as an invisible spiritual eye, the gateway to higher consciousness, the sixth chakra of Hinduism. They believed it to be located in the forehead between the two visible eyes—which is nowhere near the pineal gland at the rear of the brain. The third eye notion was popularized in the West by the New Age philosophy emerging in the 1970s with renewed interest in Eastern spiritualism.[18] Religious icons depicting the third eye sometimes bear noticeable resemblance to the parietal eye of nonmammalian, nonavian vertebrates (compare Figure 8A to Figure 5).Figure 8. The Third Eye in Iconography. A: Bust of Shiva from late 9th to early 10th century Cambodia; from the collection of the Musée Guimet in Paris.[19] B: Third eye of Shiva.[20] C: Third eye in New Age poster art.[21]The Russian theosophist Madame Blavatsky (1831–1891) proposed that the mystical third eye of antiquity was in fact the pineal gland known to science.[22] In recent times, spawning a lot of questions in Quora and elsewhere, many self-styled mystics, gurus, spiritual leaders, and writers have commercialized and promoted the notions of “awakening” or “opening” the third eye. Apparently this is profitable, as people will fall for anything (just ask P.T. Barnum). Many seem to be conflating this imaginary eye with the anatomical pineal eye demonstrated in diverse nonmammalian animals, or offering scientific knowledge of the parietal eye as supposed “proof” of what the mystics have said for centuries. They falsely assume that since the pineal gland of other animals is light-sensitive, the human pineal gland is too.Figure 9. Some Popular Books on the Pineal “Third Eye.”.VII. How Can I Open or Activate My Pineal Gland?This is a very common Quora question.[23][24] The answer is, you can’t open it. There’s nothing to open (see figure 2). The idea of opening the pineal gland, supposedly to achieve more spiritual awareness, stems from the unsupported idea of the pineal being an eye. One might obtain spiritual awareness or enlightenment through various meditation techniques from Kundalini Yoga to Transcendental Meditation, and I mean no criticism here of that goal or those methods, but it has nothing to do with the pineal gland. The idea of opening the pineal gland might be construed only metaphorically, but if meant literally—a physical opening that one might observe in pineal autopsies of people who died “enlightened”—I would have to dismiss that as pseudoscientific mumbo-jumbo. If such a hypothesis can’t be tested and supported by empirical evidence, then it’s of no value as objective knowledge.The notion of “activating” the pineal gland apparently originate with Rick Strassman’s book, DMT: The Spirit Molecule (2000)[25] claiming that the pineal gland secretes N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). DMT has been used as a recreational drug since the 1960s for psychotropic effects that some users describe as out-of-body or psychedelic experiences[26] or “getting in touch with external realities.”[27] Strassman relates DMT to alien abduction experiences and speculates that it “facilitates the soul's movement in and out of the body.” I find such fancies of little value, no more worth pursuing than Uri Geller or Eric Von Däniken.DMT occurs in trace amounts in the pineal glands of rats, but it’s not clear that the pineal gland is the source of it; it occurs in other brain regions as well (such as the visual cortex) and it’s present in the same amounts with or without the pineal gland (as found in pinealectomized rats). The mRNA that codes for a DMT-synthesizing enzyme, INMT, occurs in the human pineal gland but also in many other tissues throughout the body, and has other functions beside producing DMT.[28] DMT itself has not been detected in the human pineal gland or brain. The pineal gland produces about 30 micrograms of melatonin per day, and would have to quickly produce 25 milligrams of DMT (a thousand times as much in a small fraction of the time, since it breaks down quickly) to reach the threshold for any psychedelic experience.[29][30] This is implausible, to say the least..VIII. Can I Regulate My Pineal Gland?The only way I’ve heard of to artificially regulate the pineal (modify its function) is phototherapy. Bright light suppresses melatonin secretion and has been found to improve sleep and relieve depression in people who don’t get enough natural sunlight. Night-shift workers, for example, often don’t get enough natural light because they’re awake and working during the night, and sleeping by day while the sun is shining. Sleep disturbance and mood disorders can sometimes be relieved by a brief period (as little as 30 minutes) of bright light per day.I couldn’t readily find good information about options, but I see some companies selling “light boxes” for this (lying down with your head in a box with bright lights); I don’t know if this is effective or just a quack capitalization on popular belief. I’ve heard of some companies (factories, hospitals, etc.) that have night-shift workers offering phototherapy rooms—a small room with bright fluorescent lights all along the walls—where employees can go for a half-hour or so of phototherapy before they go home, said to improve sleep and mood through its action on the pineal. However, failure to find significant results in placebo-controlled trials, combined with concerns about overriding harmful effects, has led to the closing of light-therapy clinics in Sweden.[31].IX. How Can I Decalcify My Pineal Gland?The pineal gland becomes progressively calcified with age, accumulating corpora arenacea even in childhood. These form even in birds but not in any of the other vertebrate groups from fish to reptiles.[32]Other questions have arisen on my feed about whether this is has any effect on pineal or brain function, whether it is harmful, whether fluoride in drinking water affects it, and whether it can be reversed or there is any reason to reverse it.Fluoride does seem to contribute to pineal calcification, as discussed in a study of merganser ducks by Kalisinska et al. (2014)[33] with implications for the mammalian and human pineal. These authors speak in paragraph 4 of neurotoxic effects of fluoride in the brains of mammals like ourselves. In the sparse literature available to date, the reported effects on mammalian brains seem to center on oxidative stress and apoptosis (death by “programmed suicide”) of neurons. Half a dozen of Kalisinska’s references point to putative connections with deficits in learning and memory.As to whether pineal calcification can be reversed or there’s any need or reason to do so, I find little information except for unsubstantiated fad diets and dietary supplement ideas, such as doing it with daily doses of apple cider vinegar—sheer nonsense. The idea is supposedly that malic acid in the vinegar will dissolve the calcium granules in the pineal gland. Vinegar certainly will dissolve calcium salts—anything from antacid tablets to blackboard chalk to animal bones—but a little vinegar taken orally won’t affect body pH and will never get anywhere near the pineal gland. If, hypothetically, it did have the ability to dissolve “brain sand,” it would also have the undesirable effect of softening one’s bones (osteomalacia), and would be bad advice.Many other web sites on the subject have agendas like selling special water filters, blue-blocking eyeglasses, detox regimens, and snake-oil remedies like “Activator X” (yes, a real trade name of one of these). This search leads down a murky rabbit hole of pseudoscience and quackery on which I don’t care to waste any more time and nobody should waste their money.I did find one credible, peer-reviewed article on pineal calcification with a section on hypothetical and empirical pineal rejuvenation. On the empirical side, though, this involved studies in which young pineal glands were transplanted into the eyes (!) of older rats and showed some rejuvenating effect, or in which cells were injected into the pineal glands of chicks (which, unlike the human pineal, are close to the brain surface and easy to access). On the hypothetical side, there is some speculation on whether there are any plausible ways to rejuvenate aging human pineal glands by cell injection or perfusion techniques,[34] but obviously this is no do-it-yourself job..CodaI hope this answers most questions people have about the pineal gland. If new questions, facts, or corrections arise, I’ll edit and update this to whatever extent I feel they may warrant.Footnotes[1] Mediterranean Pine Nuts (Pignolias) | Pine Nuts | Nuts.com[2] Precocious Puberty Due to Human Chorionic Gonadotropin-Secreting Pineal Tumor - PubMed[3] Pineal gland - Wikipedia[4] Corpora arenacea - Wikipedia[5] Why does the pineal gland have quartz in it?[6] Description[7] Microbus Microscope Educational Website[8] Diagnostic accuracy of susceptibility-weighted magnetic resonance imaging for the evaluation of pineal gland calcification[9] Parietal eye - Wikipedia[10] Sphenodon punctatus - Monaco Nature Encyclopedia[11] Figure 10. [Lamprey pineal photoreceptors. A, Schematic...].[12] Why do people claim that the pineal gland doesn’t have photoreceptors, when research clearly shows otherwise?[13] Why would we have photo (color) receptors inside of the pineal gland?[14] [17] Photoreceptors in pineal gland and brain: Cloning, localization, and overexpression[15] (PDF) Nonvisual photoreceptors of the deep brain, pineal organs and retina[16] Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function[17] Descartes and the Pineal Gland[18] New Age - Wikipedia[19] Third eye - Wikipedia[20] Third Eye GIF - Find & Share on GIPHY[21] What is the Third Eye and How can it be opened? What are the benefits?[22] The Secret Doctrine[23] People often talk about the pineal gland. How can a person open the pineal gland? What are the benefits?[24] Is it really possible to open/activate your pineal gland? Or is it a gimmick?[25] DMT: The Spirit Molecule[26] What Is DMT? Everything You Need to Know[27] N,N-Dimethyltryptamine - Wikipedia[28] Biosynthesis and Extracellular Concentrations of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) in Mammalian Brain[29] No reason to believe the pineal gland alters consciousness by secreting DMT, psychedelic researcher says[30] N,N-dimethyltryptamine and the pineal gland: Separating fact from myth - David E Nichols, 2018[31] Light therapy - Wikipedia[32] Comparative Histology of Pineal Calcification - PubMed[33] Fluoride concentrations in the pineal gland, brain and bone of goosander (Mergus merganser) and its prey in Odra River estuary in Poland[34] Pineal Calcification, Melatonin Production, Aging, Associated Health Consequences and Rejuvenation of the Pineal Gland

Lemon, Chili and Needle hangingIf you observe some houses still hanging the Lemon, Chili and Needle, says it will save our house from badluck, buri najar, kanna drushta... so on.but the fact is, in Ancient India, there were no resources for commutation so they use to walk from city to city, also they need to cross some dense forest area some times in day and some times in night as well.if you check some more about benefits Lemon and Chilli's you will find Lemon keeps your body cool and will not allow you to dehydrate so whenever people walking near by and some sun strokes or something like this, they used Lemon to cure it, this is just an example there are many benefits.Let's come to Chilli, Chilli is nothing but one kind of poison (very mild), whenever and whoever get fits (strokes) they use to smell chili to cure the people and another best example is if snake bites or any poisons insect bites, then people use to try to eat chili, if it taste hot then it's okay if it didn't taste it like normal chili then poison's insect bite comes positive.Needle, In India people use to walk by bare legs no chappals or shoes, so there may be a chance of thorns on the road, so they use needle to take out the thorns from foot.Baudhāyana SulbasūtraPythagorean theoremIt is also referred to as Baudhayana theorem. The most notable of the rules (the Sulbasūtra-s do not contain any proofs for the rules which they describe, since they are sūtra-s, formulae, concise) in the Baudhāyana Sulba Sūtra says:दीर्घचतुरश्रस्याक्ष्णया रज्जु: पार्श्र्वमानी तिर्यग् मानी च यत् पृथग् भूते कुरूतस्तदुभयं करोति ॥dīrghachatursrasyākṣaṇayā rajjuḥ pārśvamānī, tiryagmānī,cha yatpṛthagbhūte kurutastadubhayāṅ karoti.A rope stretched along the length of the diagonal produces an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together.[6]The lines are to be referring to a rectangle, although some interpretations consider this to refer to a square. In either case, it states that the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the sides. If restricted to right-angled isosceles triangles, however, it would constitute a less general claim, but the text seems to be quite open to unequal sides.If this refers to a rectangle, it is the earliest recorded statement of the Pythagorean theorem.Baudhāyana also provides a non-axiomatic demonstration using a rope measure of the reduced form of the Pythagorean theorem for an isosceles right triangle:The cord which is stretched across a square produces an area double the size of the original square.Sequences of Pythagorean triples used in cryptography as random sequences and for the generation of keys have been dubbed "Baudhayana sequences" in a 2014 paper.[7]Circling the squareAnother problem tackled by Baudhāyana is that of finding a circle whose area is the same as that of a square (the reverse of squaring the circle). His sūtra i.58 gives this construction:Draw half its diagonal about the centre towards the East-West line; then describe a circle together with a third part of that which lies outside the square.Explanation:Draw the half-diagonal of the square, which is larger than the half-side by .Then draw a circle with radius , or , which equals .Now , so the area .Square root of 2Baudhāyana i.61-2 (elaborated in Āpastamba Sulbasūtra i.6) gives the length of the diagonal of a square in terms of its sides, which is equivalent to a formula for the square root of 2:samasya dvikaraṇī. pramāṇaṃ tṛtīyena vardhayettac caturthenātmacatustriṃśonena saviśeṣaḥThe diagonal [lit. "doubler"] of a square. The measure is to be increased by a third and by a fourth decreased by the 34th. That is its diagonal approximately.[citation needed]That is,which is correct to five decimals.[8]Other theorems include: diagonals of rectangle bisect each other, diagonals of rhombus bisect at right angles, area of a square formed by joining the middle points of a square is half of original, the midpoints of a rectangle joined forms a rhombus whose area is half the rectangle, etc.Note the emphasis on rectangles and squares; this arises from the need to specify yajña bhūmikās—i.e. the altar on which a rituals were conducted, including fire offerings (yajña).Voltaire, the famous French writer and philosopher, stated that “Pythagoras went to the Ganges to learn geometry.” Abraham Seidenberg, author of the authoritative “History of Mathematics,” credits the Sulba Sutras as inspiring all mathematics of the ancient world from Babylonia to Egypt to Greece. As Voltaire & Seidenberg have stated, many highly significant mathematical concepts have come from the Vedic culture, such as:• The theorem bearing the name of the Greek mathematician Pythagorus is found in the Shatapatha Brahmanaas well as the Sulba Sutra, the Indian mathematical treatise, written centuries before Pythagorus was born.• The Decimal system, based on powers of ten, where the remainder is carried over to the next column, is first mentioned in the Taittiriya Samhita of the Black Yajurveda.• The Introduction of zero as both a numerical value and a place marker.• The Concept of infinity.• The Binary number system, essential for computers, was used in Vedic verse meters.• A hashing technique, similar to that used by modern search algorithms, such as that of Google, was used in South Indian musicology. From the name of a raga one can determine the notes of the raga from this Kathapayadi system.1. Were the ancients more advanced?Mythological stories are normally treated as a literature material or sometimes a science fiction. But there is a huge possibility that mythological stories in any religion may not merely be a legend or a piece of literature. In this blog, I would discuss some unbelievable correlation between some Hindu mythological stories and well established scientific facts. Take a look…2. Strange Narrations in MahabharataThere are certain narrations in Mahabharata that defies any rational explanations. Some examples are explanations about flying vehicles (Vimanas), Arjuna's travels in a flying chariot across the Himalayas, his visit of the Deva territories (ancient alien base-camp in Tibet?), his battle with the Nivata Kavachas (men in space-suits?), Salwa's attack of the city of Dwaraka in a flying city named Saubha, the triple space-cities of Asuras that revolved around Earth in three circular orbits that was destroyed by Siva using a single projectile weapon, and many more…3. Nuclear weaponsA few excerpts from the Mahabharata have caused doubts in the minds of historians, indicating the possibility of nuclear weapons being used in the Mahabharata war or post-war. This fire of suspicion has further been fuelled by the recent discoveries of green glass and many radioactive samples in certain excavations, in India, which apparently were associated with the Mahabharata war. Green glass is said to form when sand melts at very high temperatures prevalent in Nuclear Explosions.4. Nuclear weaponsIn the Mahabharata the total death toll amounts to around 1.6 billion in a matter of 18 days. How could this be possible unless and otherwise there is an involvement of weapons of mass destruction. Modern archeological surveys have slowly started to provide us valuable clues of the war. The vast amount of devastation found at the site of Mohenjo Daro corresponds exactly to Nagasaki.5. An example of cloningIn Srimad Bhagavatam, it has been mentioned that when His Excellency Nimi was dead, the seers by process of Mantha, (perhaps, human cloning in modern idioms) created a new baby from his dead body. The baby was called Janaka, as it was out of (mantha) cloning of his father. It was called Videha, as it was born out of a non-sexual process. As the baby was born out of a process of mantha it was called Mithila and his kingdom was also named as Mithila.6. An example of cloningIn another episode when Sita and Rama’s son “Lava” was lost, Valmiki produced "Kusha" from grass, which is analogous to cloning. Apparently again, the cloning he did was far more advanced than the cloning techniques of today. “Raktabij” is another similar citing, where every drop of his blood on earth produced his “Adult clone”.7. The birth of KauravasThe science of cloning was well known and practised during the Mahabharatha times. As per Dr. B.G. Matapurkar, the Kauravas "were products of technology that modern science has not even developed yet". He said that according to the description in Mahabharatha, the Kauravas were created by splitting the single embryo into 100 parts and growing each part in a separate container. In other words, "they not only knew about test-tube babies and embryo splitting but also had the technology to grow human foetuses outside human body."8. Romans used nanotechnologyThe Lycurgus Cup is a 1,600-year-old jade green Roman chalice that changes colour depending on the direction of the light upon it. It baffled scientists as they could not work out why the cup appeared jade green when lit from the front but blood red when lit from behind. The mystery was solved in 1990, when researchers discovered that the Roman artisans were nanotechnology pioneers: they had impregnated the glass with particles of silver and gold, ground down until they were as small as 50 nanometres in diameter.9. Embryo transfer and the birth of BalramaEmbryo transfer is done today as In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) or Zygote IntraFallopian Transfer (ZIFT) and in both processes embryo is developed outside the womb and then placed inside. When Kansa had killed six foetuses of Devaki and she got pregnant for the seventh time, transfer of foetus was arranged by Vishnu. He ordered Yogamaya to take out the foetus of Devaki and place it in the womb of Rohini, another wife of Vasudeva who then resided in the house of Nanda in Gokul.10. Abhimanyu, A warrior in the wombIn Mahabharatha, when Subhadra was pregnant, Arjun told her the secret of entering the chakravyuh. When he was explaining the exit procedure, Subhadra fell asleep. Hence Abhimanyu learned the entrance procedure while he was in Subhadra's womb but did not learn the exit strategy. There was a time when people criticized this concept. But modern science says that it is very much possible. In his book "Right Brain Education in Infancy" Dr. Makoto Shichida, says, the right brain is active during gestation.11. Ram Setu was built by Lord RamaRamasethu is an engineering masterpiece. From scientific point of view, the technology once existed to make stones float on water and the architect like Nal and Neel were two architects advanced in building a bridge from India to sri lanka within 5 days with the help of dedicated work force of million Vanaras. Even in Valmiki Ramayana, there is a concept of civil engineering in building this bridge. This bridge was not constructed just by throwing stone with lord name but there were many engineering methods.12. Organ transplantsWe know that there are two types of replacement of body parts: First there are parts like hands, arms, and legs, which are not vital organs. Then there are the transplants of vital organs. The one instance where one can conceive of a combination of the two is transplanting the entire head, which is both an external appendage and the storehouse of the most important organ in the body, namely the brain. Thus, head replacement would be the most sophisticated organ transplant one can imagine.13. Organ transplantsWe find an instance of this in the story of Ganesha. There are several accounts of how Ganesha received his head. According to one, Shani was among the guests at Ganesha's birth. When Shani looked directly at the child, the baby's head turned to ash. Parvati began to wail. When this happened, Vishnu, flew off in search of a substitute head. He found on the bank of a river a sleeping elephant. He severed the beast's head and affixed it on to the body of Ganesha.14. Live TelecastAs Dhritarashtra was blind but wanted to know what was happening at the battlefield, Krishna gifted Sanjay with "Dibya Drishti", so that he could see a “Live Telecast” of “Kurukshetra” and describe that to Dhritarashtra. “Dibya drishti” is analogous to modern television set in the sense that Krishna could not give it directly to Dhristarastra but needed Sanjay.15. Live TelecastImagine a central computer system with wireless links that can accept voice commands or thoughts, then you can understand how cameras in the heaven, as in satellites of these days, would point to the locations which Dhritarashtra asked Sanjay to describe about. Therefore, “Dibya drishti” in modern description is a television set with a wireless link to the satellite and an access right to the system to control the cameras. The access permission was granted by the System Administrator, Krishna.16. Time TravelIf we look into ancient texts we can find a number of references to time travelling. In Hindu mythology, there is the story of King Raivata Kakudmi who travels to meet the creator Brahma. Even if this trip didn’t last long, when Kakudmi returned back to Earth, 108 yugas had passed on Earth, and it is thought that each yuga represents about 4 million years. The explanation Brahma gave to Kakudmi is that time runs differently in different planes of existence.17. Time TravelSimilarly, we have references in the Quran about the cave of Al-Kahf. The story refers to a group of young Christian people, who in 250 AD tried to escape persecution and retreated, under God’s guidance, to a cave where God put them to sleep. They woke up 309 years later. This story coincides with the Christian story of the seven sleepers, with a few differences.18. Tele-visionSanjaya received the faculty of distant vision especially for performing the task of reporting what was going on in the battlefield. Conceptually, it was as if he was watching the unraveling of the scenes on a television screen. It was more than that: He was endowed with full knowledge of history and geography which enabled him to recount to the king in details of the topography of the entire country, and narrate everything that was going on in Kurukshetra.19. Life-principle from the stars: Akash GangaIn Hindu lore there is an interesting account of how the sacred river Ganga which has its origins in the Himalayan range, actually arose. In Ramayana it is stated that the river "rose from the skies and finally came down to earth in the form of a terrestrial stream that has the power to rid us of worldly sins." In this vision, the river's pristine presence in the universe may still be seen as the Milky which is known as Akash Ganga or the Celestial Ganga.20. Life-principle from the stars: Akash GangaWe note that this is perhaps the first instance in history where one put forward the idea of a material something reaching us from the stellar world. The extra-terrestrial origin of meteors was not discovered until the eighteenth century. And it was only in the twentieth century that we became aware of the ceaseless shower of cosmic rays which reach us from the sun primarily, but also from beyond our solar system.21. Sexual orgasmIn a conversation between Yudhishtra and Bhisma, Yudhishthira said, “O king to tell me truly which of the two viz., man or woman derives the greater pleasure from an act of union with each other. Kindly resolve my doubt in this respect.” Bhishma while replying his questions explains a story where a king transformed into women later given an option to again opt for whichever sex he/she likes opts to remain as women with the following explanation for it.22. Sexual orgasmThe lady said, 'I desire to remain a woman, In acts of congress, the pleasure that women enjoy is always much greater than what is enjoyed by men. It is for this reason, O Sakra! that I desire to continue a woman” This is very much acknowledged by modern sexologists.23. Aircrafts of those timesGoing into the history of the Indian sub-continent and the ancient science that prevailed, the hypothesis of "vimanas existed" comes close to true. The Vaimaanika shasthra of Maharishi Bharadhwaja gives description of aircrafts that are much more advanced than our present generational aircrafts. According to the Dronaparva, Vimanas are described as shaped like a sphere and can move along at great speed on a mighty wind generated by mercury. Section XLIII of Vana Parva describes about Arjuna's arival at the city of Indra 'Amaravati' wherein vimanas are mentioned.24. Distance of Earth from SunTwo lines of “Hanuman Chalisa" computes the distance of earth from sun with great simplicity and that too quite accurately - जुग सहस्त्र योजन पर भानु, लील्यो ताहि मधुर फल जानू (Juug Sahastra Yojan Par Bhanu, Lilyo taahi madhur fal jaanun). This means that Sun (Bhanu) is at a distance of Juug Sahastra Yojans (जुग सहस्त्र योजन- Distance Unit in Hindi).25. Distance of Earth from SunAccording to conversion practices that are in use as per Hindu Vedic Literature - 1Juug= 12000; Sahastra= 1000; 1Yojan=8 Miles. Thus 12000 X 1000 X 8 = 96,000,000 miles. 1 miles= 1.6 kms. This means 153,600,000 Km. In the 17th century two scientists Giovanni and Richer have calculated the distance of sun from earth accurately and real close (at 140 million kilometers) to now officially declared figures.26. TeleportationConsider the story of Usha and Chitralekha, which appears in "Srimad Bhagavatam." The beautiful Princess Usha, single and longing for love, had the experience of a handsome youth in her dream one night. The dream was interrupted, and she woke up and exclaimed, "Oh, beloved one, where are you?" She confided the dream to her close friend Chitralekha. Chitralekha said she would find who the young man was and get him to her. But how was she to recognize him?27. TeleportationChitralekha began to draw a series of faces, and asked Usha if any of them resembled the man of her dream. Usha came upon a drawing which was of Aniruddha, a grandson of Lord Krishna. That night, Chitralekha transported herself to Dwaraka where she found Aniruddha. Two aspects of today's world are implicit in this story. First there is the idea that one can identify an unknown person through sketches, a matter that is routinely done in criminal investigations. Then, of course, there is the notion of teleportation.28. Successful Brain SurgeryScientists have discovered the world’s oldest known case of a successful human brain surgery after unearthing a 4300 year old skull from the site of an ancient Civilization site. This discovery was done by the scientists from the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) who found evidence pointing this to be the oldest known case of Trephination in the world meant to treat a skull injury. Trephination is the process of drilling holes in the damaged skull to remove shattered bits of bone from a fractured skull.29. Where did all that technology vanish?The natural question that comes up is that if this were so, where did all that technology vanish? My guess would be that the Mahabharat War was Nuclear in nature and the use of all those divine Astras (aka Nuclear weapons) led to the decimation of not only a large portion of the world population but also the technology and civilizational progress that mankind had achieved till then. Imagine if such a war breaks out today, what would be the condition of humanity in the decades to come?I would like to take this opportunity to mention the most misunderstood myth or truth about Hindu gods, as 33 Core, it’s not 33 Core it’s 33 types.33 Koti Devata ~ The Concept Of 33 Koti Devata( From Veda)The Vedas refer to not 33 crore Devatas but 33 types (Koti in Sanskrit) of Devatas. They are explained in Shatpath Brahman and many other scriptures very clearly."Yasya Trayastrinshad Devaa Ange Sarve Samaahitaa, Skamma Tam Bruhi Katamah Swideva Sah”.(Atharva Veda)Which means: with God’s influence, these thirty-three (supporting devta) sustain the world.In Brhadaranyaka Upanishad while discussing Brahman, Yajnavalkya is asked how many gods are there. He says that there are three hundred and three and three thousand and three gods. When the question is repeated? He says, thirty three. When the question is again repeated he says, six. Finally, after several repetitions he says ONE. (Chapter I, hymn 9, verse 1)The number 33 comes from the number of Vedic gods explained by Yajnavalkya in Brhadaranyaka Upanishad – the eight Vasus, the eleven Rudras, the twelve Adityas, Indra and Prajapati. (Chapter I, hymn 9, verse 2)They are: 8-Vasu, 11-Rudra, and 12-Aaditya, 1-Indra and 1-Prajaapati.8. Vasus are ~ Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether, Moon, Sun, and Star. They are called Vasus, because they are abode of all that lives, moves or exists. (also mentioned in Mahabharat, 1/66/18)11. Rudras ~ The ten Pranas (Praana, Apaana, Vyaana, Samaana, Udaana, Naag, Kurma, Krikal, Devadutta and Dhananjaya) i.e. nervauric forces which live in the human body. The eleventh is the human soul. These are called ‘Rudras’ because when they desert the body, it becomes dead and the relations of the deceased, consequently, begin to weep.Rudra means one who makes a person to weep. { also mentioned in Harivansha 13/51-52})12. Adityaas ---the twelve months of a year called Adityaas, they cause the lapse of the term of existence of each object or being. (also mentioned in Mahabharat)1. Indra which is also known as the (all-pervading) electricity, as it is productive of great force.1. Prajaapati , also called the “Yajna” because it benefits mankind by the purification of air, water, rain and vegetables and because it aids the development of various arts, and in it the honor is accorded to the learned and the wise.The master of these 33 Devatas is the Mahadeva or Ishwar who alone is to be worshipped as per 14th Kanda of Shatpath Brahman.1. Indian Scriptures have answers that modern science needs?During the growth of the ancient civilizations, ancient technology was the result of incredible advances in engineering in ancient times. These advances in the history of technology stimulated societies to adopt new ways of living and governance. However, many ancient inventions were forgotten, lost to the pages of history, only to be re-invented millennia later. Here are the best examples of ancient technology and inventions that demonstrate the ingenuity of our ancient ancestors. So, get ready to be awed...2. Saints or scientists?The land of India is known to be the land of saints and Gods. It is filled with various types of unexplainable things. In ancient times, various saints after doing years of hard meditation, their work and with their patience found the secrets hidden in the Vedas 1,000 years ago. These inventions later came to be known as modern science. Some of the saints came out with such amazing inventions that shocked the kings of those times as well. Click on to know…3. The Indian Sage who developed Atomic Theory 2,600 years agoJohn Dalton (1766 – 1844), an English chemist and physicist, is the man credited today with the development of atomic theory. However, a theory of atoms was actually formulated 2,500 years before Dalton by an Indian sage and philosopher, known as Acharya Kanad. Acharya Kanad was born in 600 BC in Prabhas Kshetra (near Dwaraka) in Gujarat, India. His real name was Kashyap. It was Kanada who originated the idea that anu (atom) was an indestructible particle of matter.4. The Indian Sage who developed Atomic Theory 2,600 years agoAn interesting story states that this theory occurred to him while he was walking with food in his hand. As he nibbled at the food in his hand, throwing away the small particles, it occurred to him that he could not divide the food into further parts and thus the idea of a matter which cannot be divided further came into existence. He called that indivisible matter anu, i.e. molecule, which was misinterpreted as atom. He also stated that anu can have two states - Absolute rest and a State of motion.5. Newton’s Law, 1200 Years before Newton“Objects fall on the earth due to a force of attraction by the earth. Therefore, the earth, planets, constellations, moon and sun are held in orbit due to this attraction.” The meaning of these lines is parallel to that of Newton’s Law of Gravity. But these lines are not said by the European scientist. They are said by an Indian - in Surya Siddhanta, dated 400-500 AD, the ancient Hindu astronomer Bhaskaracharya states these lines. Approximately 1200 years later (1687 AD), Sir Isaac Newton rediscovered this phenomenon and called it the Law of Gravity.6. Acharya Charak: Father of medicineAcharya Charak has been crowned as the Father of Medicine. His renowned work, the "Charak Samhita," is considered as an encyclopedia of Ayurveda. His principles, diagnoses, and cures retain their potency and truth even after a couple of millennium. When the science of anatomy was confused with different theories in Europe, Acharya Charak revealed through his innate genius and inquires the facts on human anatomy, embryology, pharmacology, blood circulation and diseases like diabetes, tuberculosis, heart disease, etc.7. Charak SamhitaIn the "Charak Samhita" he has described the medicinal qualities and functions of 100,000 herbal plants. He has emphasized the influence of diet and activity on mind and body. He has proved the correlation of spirituality and physical health contributed greatly to diagnostic and curative sciences. He has also prescribed and ethical charter for medical practitioners two centuries prior to the Oath. Through his genius and intuition, Acharya Charak forever remains etched in the annals of history as one of the greatest and noblest of rishi-scientists.8. Sage BharadwajIn 1875, the Vymaanika-Shaastra, a fourth century BC text written by Maharshi Bhardwaj, was discovered in a temple in India. The book dealt with the operation of ancient vimanas and included information on steering, precautions for long flights, protection of the airships from storms and lightning, and how to switch the drive to solar energy, or some other “free energy” source. Vimanas were said to take off vertically or dirigible. Bharadwaj the Wise refers to no less than 70 authorities and 10 experts of air travel in antiquity.9. Rishi KanvaThe science of wind has been explained by Sage Kanva in Rigveda sections 8/41/6 in Jagati meter of God wind. Sage Kashyapa has described the features and properties of this substance in Rigveda 9/64/26 in the hymns of God Pavamana Soma in meter Gayatri. Kanva was a great Rishi, a descendent of Sage Angirasa. He looked after Shakuntala when she was abandoned by her mother and father (rishi vishwamitra). Bharat, the son of Shakuntala was also brought up by him.10. Sage Kapil Muni: Author of the Sankhya DarshanKapil muni was born equipped with rare intellect, dispassion and spiritual powers. He authored Sankhya Darshan that defined the term "Dhyaan or Meditation" as “the state of mind when remains without any subjectivity / objectivity i.e. without any thought (when the mind is away from worldly objects), is called the "Dhyaan or Meditation”. He teaches that there is an unbroken continuity from the lowest inorganic to the highest organic forms. The source of world according to him is Prakriti (fundamental nature).11. Kapil Muni: Finding how the Universe was createdAccording to Kapil Muni, there are twenty-five principles responsible for the manifestation of the Creation (Samasara), out of which Purusha and Prakriti are eternal and independent of each other. Kapila is not concerned to deny the reality of personal God or Maheshwara. Yet his assertion is that, no arguments can irrefutably establish God's reality. Therefore, in his model of creation the Purusha (Spirit) and Prakrity (matter) are held solely responsible for creation, without acknowledging an Almighty and intelligent Creator, the God.12. Patanjali: The father of YogaThe Science of Yoga is one of several unique contributions of India to the world. It seeks to discover and realize the ultimate Reality through yogic practices. Acharya Patanjali, prescribed the control of prana (life breath) as the means to control the body, mind and soul. This subsequently rewards one with good health and inner happiness. His 84 yogic postures effectively enhance the efficiency of the respiratory, circulatory, nervous, digestive and endocrine systems and many other organs of the body.13. AryabhattHe was a master Astronomer and Mathematician, born in 476 CE in Kusumpur (Bihar). In 499 CE, he wrote a text on astronomy and an unparallel treatise on mathematics called "Aryabhatiyam" He formulated the process of calculating the motion of planets and the time of eclipses. Aryabhatt was the first to proclaim that the earth is round, it rotates on its axis, orbits the sun and is suspended in space - 1,000 years before Copernicus published his heliocentric theory.14. SushrutaBorn to sage Vishwamitra, Sushruta is the father of surgery. 2600 years ago, he and health scientists of his time conducted complicated surgeries like cesareans, cataract, artificial limbs, Rhinoplasty (restoration of a damaged nose), 12 types of fractures, 6 types of dislocations, urinary stones and even plastic surgery and brain surgery. Usage of anesthesia was well known in ancient India. He is the author of the book "Sushruta Samhita", in which he describes over 300 surgical procedures and 125 surgical instruments.15. BhaskaracharyaHe calculated the time taken by the earth to orbit the sun hundreds of years before the astronomer Smart; Time taken by earth to orbit the sun: (5th century) 365.258756484 days. Born in the obscure village of Vijjadit (Jalgaon) in Maharastra, Bhaskaracharya's mathematical works called "Lilavati" and "Bijaganita" are considered to be unparalleled. In his treatise "Siddhant Shiromani" he writes on planetary positions, eclipses, cosmography, mathematical techniques and astronomical equipment. In the "Surya Siddhant" he makes a note on the force of gravity.16. VarahamihiraVarahamihir's book "panch siddhant", noted that the moon and planets are lustrous not because of their own light but due to sunlight. In the "Bruhad Samhita" and "Bruhad Jatak", he has revealed his discoveries in the domains of geography, constellation, science, botany and animal science. In his treatise on botanical science, Varahamihir presents cures for various diseases afflicting plants and trees.17. The galaxy is oval, Earth is sphericalYajur Vedic verse: "Brahmaanda vyapta deha bhasitha himaruja..." describing Shiva as the one who is spread out in Brahmaanda. Anda means an egg depicting the shape of the galaxy. It was the middle east Europians and Greeks who wrongly believed that earth was flat. But Indians, since long have always known that it was spherical. In many scriptures, the word Bhoogala is used, Gola meaning round.18. Existence of Atomic and Sub atomic particlesThe world accounts discovery of atoms and sub atomic particles to Western scientists who coined these words and theories only in the early 17th century. An excerpt from Lalitha Sahasranama, told by Hayagreeva to Agasthya muni, dating back to the distant ages of the past,describes the Goddess as the super consciousness/Brahman that pervades even the sub atomic particles within matter. "Paranjyotih parandhamah paramanuh paratpara". The word "anuvu" means atom. Paramanu is sub-atomic particle, finer than the finest of atom, meaning electrons and the others.19. Ancient times and nuclear weaponsRadiation still so intense, the area is highly dangerous! A heavy layer of radioactive ash in Rajasthan, India, covers a three-square mile area, ten miles west of Jodhpur. For some time it has been established that there is a very high rate of birth defects and cancer in the area under construction. Scientists have unearthed an ancient city where evidence shows an atomic blast dating back thousands of years, from 8,000 to 12,000 years, destroying everything most of the buildings and probably a half-million people.20. Ancient times and nuclear weaponsThe Mahabharata clearly describes a catastrophic blast that rocked the continent. "A single projectile charged with all the power in the Universe...An incandescent column of smoke and flame as bright as 10,000 suns, rose in all its splendor...it was an unknown weapon, an iron thunderbolt, a gigantic messenger of death which reduced to ashes an entire race.” Historian Kisari Mohan Ganguli says that Indian sacred writings are full of such descriptions.21. Ancient ultrasound machines?Using a variety of complicated instruments, gynecologists have gradually come to know how the embryo grows during the period of pregnancy. But the Shrimad Bhagavatam, 3rd canto, 30th chapter, gives a vivid description of the growth of the embryo in the mother's womb. If we compare the information given therein with the information given in a standard textbook such as the embryology section of Gray's Anatomy, there are striking similarities in the information obtained from the two sources.22. Ancient science knows more than modern science?The Vedas claim that there are living entities everywhere - even in fire. Modern science, however, presumed that no life could exist in fire. This presumption is in fact the basis for the process of sterilization. But recent advancements in the field of medicine have shown that microbes called 'fire bacteria' survive even in fire.23. The incredible powers of the ancient Siddhars!Siddhars are a type of saint in India who are said to have had many powers and achieved a ‘god-like’ state through specific secret practices that were known only to them. These powers spanned from controlling time and space, to transforming the body, manipulating matter at the molecular level and achieving immortality. The Siddhars were followers of the God Shiva and according to different texts there were 18 of them. Their teachings and findings were written in the form of poems in the Tamil language.24. Who were Siddhars?There is a debate as to who was the first Siddhar. Some legends talk about Sri Pathanjali, who was considered to be an incarnation of Adiseshan, the celestial five-headed snake associated with God Vishnu. But the prevailing tradition refers to Agasthya (or Agasthyar) as the first Siddhar, one of the seven sages (or Saptarshis) as mentioned in the Vedic texts, and he was the son of the god Brahma of the Hindu creation story.25. Siddhars or scientists?Agathiyar is considered to be the author of a lot of the first Siddhar literature and he was supposed to have lived in the 7th century BC. About 96 books are attributed to him and that includes writings in alchemy, medicine and spirituality. Apart from the legends that exist, the beginnings of the Siddhars’ are lost in time.26. Ashta Siddhis of SiddharsThe powers that the Siddhars possessed were separated in categories. The main category included 8 powers called ashta siddhis: To become tiny as the atom within the atom (Anima); To become big in unshakeable proportions (Mahima); To become as light as vapour in levitation (Laghima); To become as heavy as the mountain (Garima); To enter into other bodies in transmigration (Prapti); To be in all things, omni-pervasive (Prakamya); To be lord of all creation in omnipotence (Isatvam); To be everywhere in omnipresence (Vasitvam)27. Ten Siddhis of SiddharsThere are ten secondary siddhis as described in Bhagavata Purana that include the following: Being undisturbed by hunger, thirst, and other bodily appetites; Hearing things far away; Seeing things far away; Moving the body wherever thought goes (teleportation/astral projection); Assuming any form desired; Entering the bodies of others; Dying when one desires; Witnessing and participating in the past times of the gods; Perfect accomplishment of one's determination; Orders or commands being unimpeded28. Ancient science and SiddharsA famous Siddhar was Tirumular, who was a Tamil mystic and writer of 6th century AD and was also one of the 18 Siddhars according to the Tamil Siddha tradition. His main work is named “Tirumantiram”, a 3,000 verse text, which is the foundation of the Southern Shaiva Siddharta School of philosophy. Another Siddhar, Bhogar (Bhoganathar), who lived between the 3rd and 5th century AD is said to have discovered the elixir of immortality – one his main works is the Pharmacognosy.29. The mystery remains…!Due to the closely-guarded nature of the Siddhar records, the original knowledge of this enigmatic group of saints has remained shrouded in secrecy. The question remains whether their powers were real and, if so, how they managed to attain them. Manipulating space, time and matter would require knowledge far beyond what we have today.source : Shocking scientific inventions by ancient Hindu saints!Our India is great.Thanks for all upvotes.

This answer is a collaboration between Athena Walker and Dr. Natalie Engelbrecht, BA MSc ND RP. As such it is divided between two posts. The first half is presented in Athena Walker’s post with a link to Natalie Engelbrecht and the second half is presented in Natalie Engelbrecht’s post with a link to Athena Walker’s. Please start with Athena Walker’s post. Both posts were a collaboration, with neither being written solely by either individual.Part 1 of 2: Athena Walker's answer to What is the latest research on brain structure, chemistry, physiology and genetics as well as emerging theories regarding psychopathy?What is the latest research on brain structure, chemistry, physiology and genetics as well as emerging theories regarding psychopathy? Part 2 of 2Changes to Specific Areas of the Brain that Relate to PsychopathyAmygdalaLocation: Studies have revealed that the amygdala is not a homogeneous structure and can be differentiated into approximately 13 nuclei. Although the functional specificity of the nuclei in the human amygdala remains unclear, considerable evidence from animal studies suggests that several nuclei of the amygdala are involved in the processing of emotion. For example seminal research demonstrated that monkeys with damaged amygdalas have been shown to lack fear cue processing, and attempt to pick up live cobras.Function: Significant correlations were found between reduced amygdala volumes and increased total and facet psychopathy scores, with correlations strongest for the affective and interpersonal facets of psychopathy.Psychopath Phenology: Individuals with psychopathy showed significant bilateral volume reductions in the amygdala compared with controls (left, 17.1%; right, 18.9%). Surface deformations were localized in regions in the approximate vicinity of the basolateral, lateral, cortical, and central nuclei of the amygdala.This article introduces a novel hypothesis regarding amygdala function in psychopathy. The first part of this article introduces the concept of psychopathy and describes the main cognitive and affective impairments demonstrated by this population; that is, a deficit in fear-recognition, lower conditioned fear responses and poor performance in passive avoidance, and response-reversal learning tasks. Evidence for amygdala dysfunction in psychopathy is considered with regard to these deficits; however, the idea of unified amygdala function is untenable. A model of differential amygdala activation in which the basolateral amygdala (BLA) is underactive while the activity of the central amygdala (CeA) is of average to above average levels is proposed to provide a more accurate and up-to-date account for the specific cognitive and emotional deficits found in psychopathy. In addition, the model provides a mechanism by which attentional-based models and emotion-based models of psychopathy can coexist. Data to support the differential amygdala activation model are provided from studies from both human and animal research. Supporting evidence concerning some of the neurochemicals implicated in psychopathy is then reviewed. Implications of the model and areas of future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).A model of differential amygdala activation in psychopathy.InsulaLocation: Located deep in the cerebral cortex.Function: Processing of disgust cues is not believed to rely upon amygdala; rather the relevant circuitry is thought to be the anterior insular cortex. The insula exhibits higher activity when neurotypicals make decisions and difficult personal moral dilemmas that they consider as repugnant acts.Psychopath Phenology: Hypofunctioning in psychopathy.Nucleus AccumbensLocation: In the basal forebrain rostral to the preoptic area of the hypothalamus.Function: Plays a central role in the reward circuit. Its operation is based chiefly on two essential neurotransmitters: dopamine (promotes desire), and serotonin (satiety and inhibition).Psychopath Phenology: The volume of the nucleus accumbens was 13% smaller in psychopathy. The atypical morphology consisted of predominant anterior hypotrophy bilaterally.Orbitofrontal CortexLocation: The part of the prefrontal cortex that is positioned directly over the orbits or eye sockets. It is located at the base of the frontal lobe.Function: Social interactions, inhibition of impulsive behavior, ethics, morality, reward and punishment, regret, and projection of future outcomes based on implied expectations of planned near term actions. Involved in the regulation of many social functions, which include ethics and morality.Psychopath Phenology: Lower activity in psychopathy.Note: The terms Orbitofrontal Cortex and Prefrontal Cortex in research are sometimes used interchangeably, and at other times, ‘ventromedial prefrontal cortex’ is used to describe a broad area in the lower (ventral) central (medial) region of the prefrontal cortex, of which the medial orbitofrontal cortex constitutes the lowermost part.Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (Lower)Location: The frontal lobe, located at the front of the brain, is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex.Function: The frontal lobe contains most of the dopamine-sensitive neurons in the cerebral cortex. The dopamine system is associated with reward, short term memory, planning and motivation. The function of the frontal lobe involves the ability to project future consequences resulting from current actions, the choice between good and bad actions (or better and best) (also known as conscience), the override and suppression of socially unacceptable responses, and the determination of similarities and differences between things or events. The vmPFC is critical in regulating emotion, threats, decision-making and social behavior. Furthermore, the vmPFC also plays an important part in integrating longer non-task-based memories stored across the brain. These are often memories associated with emotions derived from input from the brain’s limbic system. The frontal lobe modifies those emotions to generally fit socially acceptable norms. It is known as the ethics and morality section of the brain.Psychopath Phenology: Notice that the normal scan shows much more activity (yellow and red) in the lower frontal lobe than Fallon’s (mostly blue).ConclusionBrain structural and functional changes in psychopathy suggest that psychopathic individuals have a different way of seeing the world. Further research suggests they may use alternative strategies—such as cognitive empathy and rationality—more than neurotypicals use to make moral judgments. Much of the current research presents psychopathy brain alterations as pathological. Words like “healthy people” (meaning neurotypicals), “brain damage” and “brain dysfunction” serve to bias readers and researchers to view psychopathy as a dysfunction. As psychopathy is inherited and not caused by environmental triggers such as abuse, the word variant may be a better alternative, and lead to less bias.Brain Chemistry Difference of Psychopathy.High resolution PET and fMRI scans suggest that alterations in the function of the brain’s reward system may contribute to psychopathy.Research indicates that dopamine genes leading to alterations in an increased amount of dopamine released in comparison with neurotypicals brains is associated with psychopathy. In fact research indicated that psychopaths release four times more dopamine in the nucleus accumbens than neurotypicals.Dopamine plays important roles in executive functions, motor control, motivation, arousal, reinforcement, and reward. Studies found that increases in dopamine resulted in a trait aggression and impulsive-antisocial psychopathic traits. Further, an increase in dopamine reduces a hyper-altruistic tendency, altering it to prefer harming others over harming oneself.Research of the gene 5-HIAA also indicates lower levels of serotonin occur in psychopathy. Studies demonstrated that a decrease in serotonin resulted in a decrease in harm aversion for both self and others.Psychopathy also demonstrates higher methylation of oxytocin resulting in lower oxytocin levels. Lower circulating oxytocin results in decreased in interpersonal empathy. Although known for increasing bonding and trust, recent studies found that people who were given oxytocin had more envy and gloating during a game of chance. It appears that oxytocin increases both negative and positive emotions. Thus researchers are unclear as of yet whether the effect on increasing oxytocin will be to make a psychopath more social, as well as enhancing anger and aggression.Genes:IntroductionFourteen years ago (2003) the human genome was fully sequenced (in the year 2000 a rough draft was first identified). With this momentous discovery, the genetic basis of some of the most common disorders have begun to be revealed. One area of such research has been the genetics associated with psychopathy. Twin studies do support that psychopathy is strongly heritable. However no single SNP has shown a large or even moderate effect size for psychopathy. The idea of nature/ nurture is outdated. Instead it seems the effect of genes for psychopathy appears to be both polymorphic (tendencies are conferred by multiple genes of small effect size that probabilistically increase the risk for poor behavioural outcome), as well as epistatic (where one gene interacts with another gene at a different location) and epigenetic (environmental buffers that can be used to moderate the effects of risk genes).There are no good genes or bad genes, but there are alleles that are associated with violence and also a lack of empathy. For example antisocial behaviour (AB) is strongly heritable for callous-unemotional traits in children. AB+/ CU+ children show low emotional reactivity to punishment and distress, as well as poor ability to empathize with others. On the other hand non-callous AB (AB+/CU–) children show mainly environmental influences for their antisocial behaviour. They are emotionally reactive to threat, and are created via environmental risk influences (such as harsh parenting) epigenetically driving the expression of antisocial behaviour for this group. However, certain genes create a significant risk for violence when activated via appropriate epigenetic factors. Studies demonstrate that it is unlikely that genes directly code for violence; rather, allelic variations are responsible for individual differences in neurocognitive functioning that, in turn, may determine differential predisposition to violent behavior. Of the genes associated with psychopathy, MAOA-L is the most well-known and was among the first evidence that the variant MAOA-L interacts with childhood maltreatment to modulate antisocial tendencies (Caspi et al, 2002). “Specifically, severely maltreated participants carrying the low-activity allele of the MAOA gene displayed the highest scores in disposition toward violence and antisocial personality disorder scores, and demonstrated the greatest proportions of adolescent conduct disorder and convictions due to violent behavior.” (Buades-Rotger & Gallardo-Pujol, 2014). Recent research suggests that genetic vulnerability to violence conferred by the low-activity allele of MAOA-L variant may only become evident in the presence of environmental triggers of maltreatment. In favorable conditions, genetic predisposition alone may be of little consequence for behavior.Gene & Their Associated SNPs (alphabetical order)5-HTTLPR (serotonin transporter gene)SNP: rs25531 (G;G) The long allele of the serotonin transporter gene is a potential risk factor for psychopathy. It is associated with less pain sensitivity.ARL6IP6 (ADP-ribosylation-like factor 6 interacting protein 6 )Associated with autistic psychopathy (form of autism spectrum disorder that is less severe than other forms, characterized by difficulty with social interaction and communication and by repetitive behavior or restricted interests) in childhood.SNP rs11682518DRD2 and DRD4Positively correlated with a continuously coded psychopathic personality traits scale.HTR1B (Serotonin 1B Receptor Gene)Serotonin 1B Receptor Gene (HTR1B)Methylation as a Risk Factor for Callous-Unemotional Traits in Antisocial Boys. One neurochemical system that has been implicated both theoretically and empirically in CU traits and psychopathy is the serotonin system. For example, recent research identified an association between SNPs in the genes encoding serotonin receptor 2A (HTR2A) and serotonin receptor 1B (HTR1B) as well as CU traits in children with antisocial behaviour problems.HTR1B is of particular interest because it has been found to be linked with behaviors and characteristics commonly associated with CU traits. Most notable are the animal studies which have demonstrated that mice without the serotonin 1B receptor gene show significantly elevated levels of aggression and lower levels of anxiety; both of which are typically associated with psychopathy. Studies in humans have also found an association between HTR1B and impulsive aggression, suggesting that serotonin 1B receptors may be involved in the control of aggression and impulsivity in humans.SNP rs11568817 (T;T)Associated with traits linked with ‘psychopathy’ including alcohol dependence, self-reported anger and hostility in young men, and autism spectrum disorder which is characterized by deficits in empathy that overlap those found in people with high CU traits. However, as psychopaths have been shown to be immune to dependence on addictive substances, it is unclear whether this gene is present in psychopathy, or if it may be a genetic marker for ASPD, which does have significant issues with substance dependence.HTR2A (serotonin receptor 2A)Provoked aggression associated with primary psychopathy traits. Hostility, Anger and Physical Aggression—but not verbal aggression—were associated with this gene, but only for provoked incidents.SNP rs7322347 (T;T)MAOA-L (Monoamine oxidase A)“MAO-A has been named the ‘warrior gene’, and also more unfavourably the ‘psycho gene’. The gene is a variation of a gene on the X chromosome and therefore inherited from your mother. Females have two X chromosomes and males have an X and a Y chromosome. Mothers always pass an X chromosome on to their children. While if a father passes on his X chromosome (leading to a pair of X chromosomes and a female offspring) or his Y chromosome (leading to one X and one Y chromosomes and a male offspring).This variation occurs in the X chromosome gene that produces monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), an enzyme in the brain that breaks down the neurotransmitters such as noradrenaline, adrenaline, serotonin, and dopamine.People with the low-activity MAO-A gene (2R, 3R) are overall more prone to violence, impulsiveness and aggression. Specifically, when people with the MAOA-L feel very provoked or socially isolated their aggression will come out. Again, from an evolutionary perspective, this makes sense; a warrior needs to respond to threat, rather than act in a chaotic manner. Research demonstrates that low-activity MAO-A people are more likely to take revenge for someone who does something to leave them in a bad situation; however they do not act on small misdeeds.Those with MAOA-L also showed hyperresponsiveness of the amygdala during tasks such as copying facial expressions. This accounts for an increased ability in this group to recognize emotions and also mimic them (the psychopathic mask).”Natalie Engelbrecht's answer to What are the effects of having MAOA?What are the effects of having MAO-A? Scientists believe it leads to impulsive behavior (such as as hypersexuality), sleep disorders, mood swings, and violent tendencies.SNP: rs909525: Warrior; M: C= 3 allele; F: CC= 3 alleleSNP: rs12551906(G;G)SNP: rs10865864 (G;G)SNP: rs151997 (T;T)OXTR (oxytocin receptor gene)Polymorphisms in the oxytocin receptor gene are associated with the development of psychopathy. Evidence suggests that epigenetic changes in the OXT receptor gene (OXTR) are associated with lower circulating OXT and social–cognitive difficulties. Oxytocin promotes emotional and cognitive aspects of empathy; however increasing oxytocin can have the effect of increasing aggression.SNP: rs53576 (A;A) Associated with lack of empathy.SNP: rs2254298 (A;A) Smaller amygdala volume, both right and left sides.SNP: rs1042778(T;T) Polymorphisms in the oxytocin receptor gene are associated with the development of psychopathy.SNP: rs237887 (A;A) Lower emotional empathy.SNP: rs4686302 (T;T) Lower emotional empathy.Other Top Potential SNPs: rs124111132; rs7531603; rs2514788; rs4383690; rs6846114; rs2376016; rs2311846; rs11088618; rs41516949; rs7640807; rs1490666; rs293844; rs4241597; 6446569; rs1441990; rs1893815; rs11637779; rs10859716; rs1785633; rs4479686; rs10050093; rs12647756; rs1345959; rs13064369; rs8059321; rs6560704In conclusionEmerging research in psychopathy has begun to focus on psychopathy as a normal variant of neurotypical personality and brain function. Genetic brain scans and brain chemistry are all lending to this turn in the tides form psychopathy as a mental illness to psychopathy as a unique personality.SummaryPsychopathy is a distinct personality variation. In psychology, psychopathy is referred to as a personality disorder, often associated with criminal behaviour, however researchers are now arguing that psychopathy is a neurological variation.Researchers in the area of psychopathy have stated that psychopathy does not equal ASPD, but that ASPD is a behavior that may co-occur in some with psychopathy.The preferred method of assessment is no longer the PCL-R, but instead is now the PPI-R. It is intended to measure the psychopathic personality traits on a spectrum, without assuming particular links to antisocial or criminal behaviors. The test has been standardized to a non-prison population.Emerging research in genetics shows that MAOA-L has a significant role in psychopathy, however psychopathy is polygenetic, and it is the interplay of the genes and the effects of the environment that creates the person.Brain scan images demonstrate a smaller amygdala, a lower activity PFC, and a down-regulated pathway between the two in psychopathy, along with other brain changes.Areas such as the insula and nucleus accumbens are also different in psychopathy. An increased amount of dopamine is released in psychopathy in comparison with neurotypicals. Serotonin levels and oxytocin levels are lower in psychopathy.References:Buades-Rotger, M., & Gallardo-Pujol, D. (2014). The role of the monoamine oxidase A gene in moderating the response to adversity and associated antisocial behavior: a review. Psychology research and behavior management, 7, 185.Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., ... & Poulton, R. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297(5582), 851–854Dutton, K., & McNab, A. (2014). The Good Psychopath's Guide to Success. Random House.Viding, E., Hanscombe, K. B., Curtis, C. J., Davis, O. S., Meaburn, E. L., & Plomin, R. (2010). In search of genes associated with risk for psychopathic tendencies in children: a two‐stage genome‐wide association study of pooled DNA. 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By themselves neither will result in psychopathy.”Could you elaborate on this? What would one without the other do?Martin SilvertantEpigenetics has the potential to explain various biological phenomena that have heretofore defied complete explication. Ultimately, the environment presents these various factors to the individual that influence the epigenome, and the unique epigenetic and genetic profile of each individual also modulates the specific response to these factors. During the course of human life, we are exposed to an environment that abounds with a potent and dynamic milieu capable of triggering chemical changes that activate or silence genes. There is constant interaction between the external and internal environments that is required for normal development and health maintenance as well as for influencing disease load and resistance. For example, exposure to pharmaceutical and toxic chemicals, diet, stress, exercise, and other environmental factors are capable of eliciting positive or negative epigenetic modifications with lasting effects on development, metabolism and health. These can impact the body so profoundly as to permanently alter the epigenetic profile of an individual. We also present a comprehensive new hypothesis of how these diverse environmental factors cause both direct and indirect epigenetic changes and how this knowledge can ultimately be used to improve personalized medicine.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4207041/Answer: Athena Walker & Natalie EngelbrechtEpigenetics is revolutionizing how scientists think about genetics. Epigenetics refers to external changes to DNA that turn genes “on” or “off” without altering the DNA sequence. Gene expression—the manifestation of genetic potential—is modified in epigenetic processes, even though the gene itself stays intact.The research indicates:gene + brain changes =psychopathygene + 0 brain changes = NT who has increased resilience to stress (monoamine oxidase A (MAOA)-COMT interaction that affects endocrine responses to a psychological challenge)https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2833107/#R580 + brain changes = pseudopsychopathy; brain changes due to early (teen) drug abuse, trauma, etc.Question 4. from: Martin Silvertant“As psychopathy is inherited and not caused by environmental triggers such as abuse, the word variant may be a better alternative, and lead to less bias.”I agree dysfunctional is not a proper term to describe psychopathy, although it seems that should depend on whether the individual is leading a dysfunctional life. Perhaps you would rather assign that term to ASPD than psychopathy in that case. However, in Athena’s answer you spoke of disorder not being a proper term, and I’m not sure I can agree with that. It depends on how you contextualize it. A disorder seems to be defined as a “disruption of the systematic functioning or neat arrangement of” the brain, so when compared to a neurotypical I reckon psychopathy can be defined as a disorder, though that term may not be meaningful to the individual. On the other hand, I wonder if the psychopath’s feelings on this matter are relevant, as by definition they would not experience their pathology as a disorder. For me as an autistic individual it’s different, because I struggle where Athena would not. Not struggle in the same sense, in any case, my autism is likely inherited as well. Should autism then be considered a variant? I don’t quite follow this line of reasoning. I understand you want to prevent bias, but I fail to see how calling it a variant is making a difference, or describing it more accurately. Variant, disorder, dysfunction—it’s a deviation from neurotypical functioning, either way.Martin SilvertantAnswer: Athena Walker & Natalie EngelbrechtThe answer to Q&A #3 (located on Athena’s post, answers this question. It has been copied here for ease).The issue with conflation rests not here in the paper, but in the very dilemma that psychopathy faces currently as to what it is, and how it should be considered. So long as the argument can be made that the majority of the people with this variant should be defined by the minority that have antisocial traits as a core feature of their personality, the conflation cannot and will not disappear.The word at its root, psychopathy is not an informative word for the neurological condition, and yet it is the one that we are constrained by. The word originates from Greek psycho- , meaning and spirit, soul, mind; and -pathy again Greek, where it meant “suffering,” “feeling” ( antipathy; sympathy); in compound words of modern formation, often used with the meaning “morbid affection,” “disease”. So the very word means mind disease. The issue of course other than it’s very definition being related back to a disorder, it that there is no differentiation between those that are identified for their actions that are antisocial, and those that will never see the inside of a courtroom.What’s to be done about this? At the moment there is little that can be done without a consensus that the word is inadequate to describe something that is a neurological formation without the assumed standardized criminal features. I think it is appropriate that the word psychopathy stay along with the notion of the brain formation that includes the antisocial manifestations and another, more accurate term be found to address what is being called pro-social psychopathy presently. It cannot be ignored that the majority of the understanding directed at psychopathy is from the side that views it as a disorder, a malfunction, and something that at it’s core is a toxic entity. The newest voice is the smallest, and easily shouted down currently in terms of it being taken seriously. Anything other than disorder, disruption or variant, it’s a conflation, that at its inception is a beleaguered castle. New terminology stands against the ramparts of the old mentality, while the accepted understandings assault new information. Not for being wrong, but for the crime of disagreement.If we look throughout history, we see many people prosecuted for what the masses disagree with. For example Pope Paul V ordered Galileo,to abandon the opinion that heliocentrism (the planets revolve around the sun) was physically true. Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition. He remained under house arrest for the rest of his life.Helicobacter pylori, or H. Pylori is the cause of ulcers. This is known medical science that seems to go without question. This was not always the case. Back in the late seventies when this was a thought in two doctors’ minds, and they pressed forward to have it be accepted into general medical understanding when they hit an absolute stone wall. Their theory called preposterous and the paper that they wrote with their findings was rejected. It took many years, and one of the two doctors to do the unthinkable, make himself the human guinea pig ingesting a drink infested with the bacteria, and having an ulcer as the result. In time with dogged determination their theory was proven to the rest of the world. In 2005 Barry Marshall and Robin Warren won the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine delivering a permanent blow to the established assumptions regarding the human body.Operations without anesthetic:, Letter by an Dr. George Wilson , Edinburgh doctor in the 1850’s to the prominent advocate of anaesthesia, the famous obstetrician, Dr Simpson.Pain was not just an unavoidable side effect of surgery. Most surgeons operating in a pre-anaesthetic era believed it was a vital stimulant necessary for keeping the patient alive. This is why opiates and alcohol were used sparingly, and typically administered shortly before (not during) a procedure, as the loss of consciousness was considered to be extremely dangerous.George Wilson—a Professor of Chemistry at Edinburgh University—underwent a foot amputation in 1842. He remembered ‘the fingering of the sawed bone; the sponge pressed on the flap; the tying of the blood-vessels; the stitching of the skin; and the bloody dismembered limb lying on the floor’.“I have recently read, with mingled sadness and surprise, the declarations of some surgeons that anesthetics are needless luxuries, and that unendurable agony is the best of tonics. Those surgeons I think can scarcely have been patients of Those surgeons, I think, can scarcely have been patients of their brother surgeons, and jest at scars only because they have never felt a wound; but if they remain enemies of anesthetics after what you have written, I despair of convincing them of their utility.” (p 210)“Of the agony it occasioned, I will say nothing. Suffering so great as I underwent cannot be expressed in words, and thus fortunately cannot be recalled. The particular pangs are now forgotten; but the black whirlwind of emotion the horror of the black whirlwind of emotion, the horror of great darkness, and the sense of desertion by God and man, bordering close upon despair, which swept through my mind and overwhelmed my heart, I can never forget, however gladly I would do so I would do so.” (p 211)“For a long time they haunted me, and even now For a long time they haunted me, and even now they are easily resuscitated they are easily resuscitated; and though they ; and though they cannot bring back the suffering attending the cannot bring back the suffering attending the events which gave them a place in my memory, they can occasion a suffering of their own, and be the cause of a disquiet which favours neither the cause of a disquiet which favours neither mental or bodily health mental or bodily health... (p 214) ... (p 214)The static mindset of many in the medical and psychological communities can be the largest barrier in the advancement of knowledge. How this status quo is allowed to go on is something difficult to grasp. Like a great Orobus consuming itself, it is a chain that needs breaking so new ground can be broken. For the moment however we have a stalemate that has been reached.Standing in their concrete shoes, many on the psychological side refuse to give an inch. Redefining, reeducating, and rebranding the brain formation as a variant, instead of either a disorder or a disruption would make a good deal of headway in the more moderate community that is unaware that there is even a war happening. Those that are steadfast and stubborn will be cleared away in time, and hopefully more level headed and logical replacements, with cross field interests take their place to provide a clearer ground for understanding. First however, the bloated corpse of ASPD needs to be cleared off the battlefield before a step towards a truce can be made.Athena Walker & Natalie EngelbrechtQuestion 6. from: Martin Silvertant“Associated with autistic psychopathy”My goodness. Why would you use such a long-depreciated term that risks being conflated with psychopathy? Is there a reason why you’re not calling it Asperger’s syndrome or high-functioning autism?Martin SilvertantAnswer: Athena Walker & Natalie EngelbrechtThe term autistic psychopathy was formerly used to mean Asperger’s, however in the literature it now literally means ASPD + Autism. We will likely remove that gene from the final paper as it is referring to ASPD, not psychopathy.Question 8. from: Martin Silvertant“Even Kevin Dutton who dared to find positive aspects of psychopathy and lectures on it is called a maverick. He is a tenured psychology research professor at Oxford University, one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Despite this he is not only ignored, but often attempts to dismiss his work over understanding is the norm.”So when you say “the preferred method of assessment is no longer the PCL-R”, you mean according to Dutton and Blair, right? If so, I would say you are probably mischaracterizing the field. I understand this is where the assessment criteria should be headed, but to my knowledge it’s not (yet) the preferred method of assessment.Martin SilvertantAnswer: Athena Walker & Natalie EngelbrechtThe preferred method for diagnosing what is known as Psychopathy. The PCL-R works well for Psychopathy with ASPD. The PCL-R is never used outside prison walls. It is an assessment meant for use only on the criminal population and is far-leaning to antisocial traits over psychopathic traits. It has garnered a great deal of criticism for this, and its sister test, the PCL-SV is not honed much better for a non-criminal population.