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What are three weird tips about traveling in the US?Motel quality along highways can vary widely, as can prices, but you don’t need to spend a lot for a room at a higher “marquee” hotel. While places like La Quinta, Super8 and Red Roof Inn aren’t exactly the Ritz, they are solidly reliable and a good value overall.The United States is a country of great diversity. When traveling, take advantage of restaurants in cities that have large ethnic areas. Miami is known for the Haitian and Cuban food, Los Angeles for Mexican, Washington, D.C. for Ethiopian, and New York for pretty much anything. Try something you normally wouldn’t get back home.It used to be that if you wanted to get a beer you’d have to get mass produced swill like Coors, Busch or Bud at most bars. That’s changed in the last few years as the craft beer explosion has happened, and many larger cities now have craft beer pubs and tasting rooms. Try their local specialty for a treat.Freeway lanes can end pretty suddenly on three or four lane highways, forcing you to merge right or left with little warning. If there is a center travel lane on your side of the freeway, use it except for exiting or passing to avoid this.European countries love roundabouts, Americans not so much, we just don’t know how to use them. Aside from some areas of the country where there are large numbers of European visitors or residents you usually won’t see them. Instead, look for 4-way stop intersections. To use these the first car to the stop goes first, then the second, etc. unless there are cars at opposing side at the same time, in which case they go ahead together, unless one is turning right in which case the car going straight has the right of way. Got that?Ignore the billboards on the side of the highway. Most will be for just a few types of businesses: hotels, porn shops, tourist traps or lawyers advertising their services to accident victims. Read these while driving and you need your own lawyer for the accident you’ll get into.While you can use a credit card for most things in the U.S., including buying a Coke at a vending machine, ALWAYS travel with a few dollars worth of quarters in your car. You never know when you’ll need them for a road toll, parking meter or even for a washing machine at a laundromat. See the picture below? This is a toll plaza close to where I live in Florida. If you have a SunPass, which pays the tolls automatically for you, you’re in good shape. If you don’t have a SunPass, you better have some coins on you. See my point?Another thing about credit cards - sometimes you need to enter a ZIP code as part of the security precautions required at machines such as gas pumps. Obviously foreign visitors won’t have a zip code. If you face this just enter 99999, this will work for most machines. For Canadians, enter the three numeric characters from your Canadian postal code followed by two zeroes. For example, if your postal code is B2J 4C8, you enter “24800”. (Thanks to Denis O’Sullivan for this Canadian tip!)When booking a hotel, be sure to ask what the TOTAL price will be, not just the room rate. Remember that every hotel will add tax to the amount, plus most will add a tourist tax. These can significantly raise the total you are expecting to pay. Plus, look out for additional add-on fees such as “resort fees” at larger hotels, especially in popular tourist areas such as Orlando and Las Vegas. These are supposedly added to cover usage of such things as WiFi access, pool fees, in-room beverages, phone use, etc. At my recent stay to a major Las Vegas hotel it ran an extra $40 a day, plus an extra $20 a day to park. If you don’t use any of these “services”, dispute it with hotel management as some will reduce or eliminate the fee rather than risk a bad review because of them.If you travel throughout the South you know what a sweet tea is, it’s a Southern drink staple at any meal. Don’t expect to get it anywhere north of the Mason-Dixon Line (basically north of Kentucky as a reference) or west of Texas. In the north or west ask for this and you’ll usually get an unsweetened iced tea with some sugar packets. It’s just not the same, yall.If you’re travelling through college towns in the South on a Saturday, or a major city on a Sunday, in the Fall, you’re likely to come across tailgating. It’s a uniquely American experience that centers around getting together with a few thousand of your friends to support your favorite American football team. If you do, just run with it, join in and enjoy the fun. By the way, some of the best tailgating is found in college towns where the university is affiliated with the SEC.Tailgating at the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, ALAt crosswalks across intersections, when you see the solid “white man” on the sign across the street, go ahead and cross. When it changes to flashing red, the light is about to change, maybe in as little as a few seconds, so get across as quick as you can. Don’t expect to hear any audio prompts like you do overseas.In Europe when you use a public restroom you usually have total privacy. Don’t expect that here. The “privacy” partitions in our public restroom almost never go all the way to the ground and many have gaps from about knee level down and in between panels. You get used to it.Speaking of public restrooms, as others have mentioned, bring a roll of toilet paper with you in your car as you travel. You never know when the restroom you need, sometimes the only one available, is out of TP. This has happened to me personally a number of times and I’ve learned from my experience.Another thing about public restrooms is that while most are pretty decent, those at highway rest stops run by the states can vary widely in quality and upkeep between the states. I remember one trip I took going between Florida and Alabama. The Florida rest stop was modern, well kept and had 24-hour security, and the rest rooms were well stocked and clean. At the Alabama Welcome Center just across the state line, the place was run down, dirty, and not staffed. Also, and I’m not kidding here, the mirror in the restroom was being held up with duct tape. But if you have to go, you have to go, so keep #14 in mind just in case.When traveling by car, don’t cut people off by pulling in front of them abruptly unless you want to risk a road rage incident. You can travel well over the speed limit, have sex while driving, or many other things and no one will care at all, but do this and you’ll regret it.Don’t compare your country to ours, ever, unless yours is worse than ours in some way. Remember, Americans have huge egos and we just don’t like anyone belittling the good ol’ U.S.A. in any way. So keep your opinions to yourself and we’ll all get along just fine.Our National Parks are true gems and are often a great value worth the visit. From sites such as the Grand Canyon to the Smoky Mountains, take advantage and visit them if you’re in the area. One thing that many people don’t realize is that many sites within the National Park System are free. Visit the National Park Service website for more information.I know that this is going to sound weird, but when you park your car somewhere, take a picture of the street sign closest to where you are parked as well as the building, if there is one. If you forget where you parked, all you have to do is show someone the pictures you took. If they’re local chances are they will be able to easily direct you back to where your vehicle is. Trust me on this!You’ve also read in several posts about small towns across the country that are “speed traps” where the speed limit changes suddenly, often within a few blocks of from where the sign is posted. Take this seriously, it’s real. Here in Florida there is a city named Lawtey, outside of Jacksonville, that was so notorious for this that the city was recognized by the American Automobile Association (AAA) for many years as the only certified speed trap in the entire country. They’re not the only ones out there. Many small towns, especially across the South, use this dastardly tactic as a revenue generator for their town, and the fines are usually hefty. There was recently a report of one city in Alabama that was so bad at this that they had their own traffic court set up, run in conjunction with the police, to handle the number of cases the small force produced every day. And yes, they can, and do, do property seizures at traffic stops, also - so beware.If you want cheaper gas while driving along the highway, don’t get it at stations along the highway by the exits as it is usually more expensive. Instead, drive a mile or two away from the exit into town and you’ll usually find gas somewhat cheaper. Also, another fact I’ve found is that gas is, for some reason, more expensive in less affluent areas. So if the station is an area that doesn’t look at least what we would consider “middle class”, you may pay more in lower income areas.Travel with some music that will keep you awake while driving, especially in the Plains states or while driving across southwestern states like Texas, New Mexico or Arizona. Roads are usually very flat, very straight, and boring. You can get out of radio station range while going through these states and you’ll need something peppy playing to keep you awake during the long drive, especially in Texas where it may take you 2 days or so to cross the state since it’s so large. And by the way, watch your gas gauge. If you see a gas station, use it and keep your tank at least 1/2 full as you never know how far it is until the next station. You don’t want to run out of gas along the highway in these states.When eating at a sit-down restaurant (non-fast food), keep in mind that here in the states they are for primarily one purpose only: to get in as quickly as possible, get you fed, and get you out as quickly as possible. It’s not like in Europe or Asia where you make take several hours for a meal and socialize. Here, they want you out as quick as possible so they can turn the table over and make more money. You want to socialize? Find a coffee shop instead.Using a grocery store here while traveling can be intimidating for a foreigner. Our grocery stores compared to most around the world are, frankly, huge. European ones I found to more resemble like what an Aldi looks like here: small (around 25,000 square feet or less) and limited selection of goods and brands. At some of my local stores you might find 30+ varieties of just ketchup (no kidding!). There are sometimes just so many different options available to you that it can be overwhelming to just make a decision. Strange as it is, I’ve actually seen foreign visitors wanting to make a trip to our local Publix or Whole Foods just for this very reason. And for you Brits out there, yes you can even find real Yorkie bars here.One final tip I’ll leave you with is if you have the opportunity to “get off the beaten path”, do it. Take advantage of going through the small towns, seeing the sights along the drive instead of just traveling the quickest way along the freeway, and going to some of the more off-beat attractions. For example, if you travel ANYWHERE within a 300 mile radius of Chatanooga, TN (that’s basically from Atlanta in the south to Ohio in the north), you’ll see signs saying “See Rock City”. I know it sounds cheesy and like a tourist trap, and even as a lifelong resident down here I had never been there for that very reason. Well, one day while driving through the area solo I thought “what the heck” and stopped there. The view from atop the mountain was amazing, you could literally see as far as South Carolina and Alabama on a clear day from that vantage point which overlooked some Civil War battle sites. So as the saying goes, take time to stop and smell the roses!New addition! When visiting places such as zoos, aquariums, science centers or museums you may want to consider purchasing a year-long pass instead of the single-day admission ticket. Many offer a program of reciprocation with other institutions which allows you to either get in them for free or at greatly reduced costs. Here in Florida, Zoo Tampa at Lowry Park has such a program with over 150 other participating zoos and aquariums across the country as well as ones in Canada, Mexico and Singapore. A one day pass at Zoo Tampa currently runs $34.95, so if you go twice in a year to participating reciprocal locations the annual pass will pay for itself with any subsequent visits. The same is true for National Parks that charge admission such as Yellowstone and the Grand Canyon. Seriously consider buying the Park Service’s annual pass if you’re visiting more than one park with admission. After finding this out my family always gets the annual pass.Got another weird travel tip for the States? Let me know in the comments!Edits: Added a photo of a toll plaza by be to make a point about the need to carry coins in your car. Updated credit card usage info for gas pumps.

No they are all the samethe most important thing is that they contain fluorideJoakimFluorideThis article is about the fluoride ion. For a review of fluorine compounds, see Compounds of fluorine. For the fluoride additive used in toothpaste, see Fluoride therapy.Not to be confused with Floride or Fluorite.FluorideF- crop.svgFluoride ion.svgNamesIUPAC nameFluoride[1]IdentifiersCAS Number16984-48-8 ☑3D model (JSmol)Interactive imageChEBICHEBI:17051ChEMBLChEMBL1362 ☑ChemSpider26214 ☑Gmelin Reference14905KEGGC00742 ☑MeSH FluoridePubChem CID28179CompTox Dashboard (EPA)DTXSID9049617 Edit this at WikidataInChI[show]SMILES[show]PropertiesChemical formulaF−Molar mass 18.998403163 g·mol−1Conjugate acid Hydrogen fluorideThermochemistryStd molarentropy (So298)145.58 J/mol K (gaseous)[2]Std enthalpy offormation (ΔfH⦵298)−333 kJ mol−1Related compoundsOther anionsChlorideBromideIodideExcept where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).Infobox referencesFluoride (/ˈflʊəraɪd, ˈflɔːr-/)[3] is an inorganic, monatomic anion with the chemical formula F−(also written [F]−), whose salts are typically white or colorless. Fluoride salts typically have distinctive bitter tastes, and are odorless. Its salts and minerals are important chemical reagents and industrial chemicals, mainly used in the production of hydrogen fluoride for fluorocarbons. Fluoride is classified as a weak base since it only partially associates in solution, but concentrated fluoride is corrosive and can attack the skin.Fluoride is the simplest fluorine anion. In terms of charge and size, the fluoride ion resembles the hydroxide ion. Fluoride ions occur on earth in several minerals, particularly fluorite, but are present only in trace quantities in bodies of water in nature.Contents1 Nomenclature2 Occurrence3 Chemical properties3.1 Basicity3.2 Structure of fluoride salts3.3 Inorganic chemistry3.4 Naked fluoride3.5 Biochemistry4 Applications4.1 Cavity prevention4.2 Biochemical reagent4.3 Fluoride-ion Battery5 Dietary recommendations6 Estimated daily intake7 Safety7.1 Ingestion7.1.1 Hazard maps for fluoride in groundwater7.2 Topical8 Other derivatives9 See also10 References11 External linksNomenclatureFluorides include compounds that contain both ionic fluoride and those where fluoride does not dissociate. The nomenclature does not distinguish these situations. For example, sulfur hexafluoride and carbon tetrafluoride are not sources of fluoride ions under ordinary conditions.The systematic name fluoride, the valid IUPAC name, is determined according to the additive nomenclature. However, the name fluoride is also used in compositional IUPAC nomenclature which does not take the nature of bonding involved into account. Fluoride is also used non-systematically, to describe compounds which release fluoride upon dissolving. Hydrogen fluoride is itself an example of a non-systematic name of this nature. However, it is also a trivial name, and the preferred IUPAC name for fluorane.[citation needed]OccurrenceFluorite crystalsFluorine is estimated to be the 13th-most abundant element in the earth's crust and is widely dispersed in nature, almost entirely in the form of fluorides. Many minerals are known, but of paramount commercial importance is fluorite (CaF2), which is roughly 49% fluoride by mass.[4] The soft, colorful mineral is found worldwide.In waterFluoride is naturally present at low concentration in most fresh and saltwater sources. In addition, it can be found in rain water that washes fluoride-containing particulates from the atmosphere.[5] Seawater fluoride levels are usually in the range of 0.86 to 1.4 mg/L, and average 1.1 mg/L[6] (milligrams per litre). For comparison, chloride concentration in seawater is about 19 g/L. The low concentration of fluoride reflects the insolubility of the alkaline earth fluorides, e.g., CaF2.Concentrations in fresh water vary more significantly. Surface water such as rivers or lakes generally contains between 0.01–0.3 ppm.[7] Groundwater (well water) concentrations vary even more, depending on the presence of local fluoride-containing minerals. For example, natural levels of under 0.05 mg/L have been detected in parts of Canada but up to 8 mg/L in parts of China; in general levels rarely exceed 10 mg/litre[8]In some locations, such as Tanzania, the drinking water contains dangerously high levels of fluoride, leading to serious health problems.Worldwide, 50 million people receive water from water supplies that naturally have close to the "optimal level".[9]In other locations the level of fluoride is very low, sometimes leading to fluoridation of public water supplies to bring the level to around 0.7–1.2 ppm.Fluoride can be present in rain, with its concentration increasing significantly upon exposure to volcanic activity or atmospheric pollution derived from burning fossil fuels or other sorts of industry.[10][11]In plantsAll vegetation contains some fluoride, which is absorbed from soil and water.[8] Some plants concentrate fluoride from their environment more than others. All tea leaves contain fluoride; however, mature leaves contain as much as 10 to 20 times the fluoride levels of young leaves from the same plant.[12][13][14]Chemical propertiesBasicityFluoride can act as a base. It can combine with a proton ( H+):F− +  H+ → HF(1)This neutralization reaction forms hydrogen fluoride (HF), the conjugate acid of fluoride.In aqueous solution, fluoride has a pKb value of 10.8. It is therefore a weak base, and tends to remain as the fluoride ion rather than generating a substantial amount of hydrogen fluoride. That is, the following equilibrium favours the left-hand side in water:F− + H2O {\displaystyle {\ce {<<=>}}} {\displaystyle {\ce {<<=>}}} HF + HO−(2)However, upon prolonged contact with moisture, soluble fluoride salts will decompose to their respective hydroxides or oxides, as the hydrogen fluoride escapes. Fluoride is distinct in this regard among the halides. The identity of the solvent can have a dramatic effect on the equilibrium shifting it to the right-hand side, greatly increasing the rate of decomposition.Structure of fluoride saltsSalts containing fluoride are numerous and adopt myriad structures. Typically the fluoride anion is surrounded by four or six cations, as is typical for other halides. Sodium fluoride and sodium chloride adopt the same structure. For compounds containing more than one fluoride per cation, the structures often deviate from those of the chlorides, as illustrated by the main fluoride mineral fluorite (CaF2) where the Ca2+ ions are surrounded by eight F− centers. In CaCl2, each Ca2+ ion is surrounded by six Cl− centers. The difluorides of the transition metals often adopt the rutile structure whereas the dichlorides have cadmium chloride structures.Inorganic chemistryUpon treatment with a standard acid, fluoride salts convert to hydrogen fluoride and metal salts. With strong acids, it can be doubly protonated to give H2F+. Oxidation of fluoride gives fluorine. Solutions of inorganic fluorides in water contain F− and bifluoride HF−2.[15] Few inorganic fluorides are soluble in water without undergoing significant hydrolysis. In terms of its reactivity, fluoride differs significantly from chloride and other halides, and is more strongly solvated in protic solvents due to its smaller radius/charge ratio. Its closest chemical relative is hydroxide, since both have similar geometries.Naked fluorideWhen relatively unsolvated, for example in nonprotic solvents, fluoride anions are called "naked". Naked fluoride is a very strong Lewis base,[16] it is easily reacted with Lewis acids, forming strong adducts. Naked fluoride salts have been prepared as tetramethylammonium fluoride, tetramethylphosphonium fluoride, and tetrabutylammonium fluoride.[17] Many so-called naked fluoride sources are in fact bifluoride salts. In late 2016 a new type of imidazolium fluoride was synthesized that is thermodynamically stable example of a "naked" fluoride source in acetonitrile[18] and its reactivity shows significant potential.[19][20]BiochemistryAt physiological pHs, hydrogen fluoride is usually fully ionised to fluoride. In biochemistry, fluoride and hydrogen fluoride are equivalent. Fluorine, in the form of fluoride, is considered to be a micronutrient for human health, necessary to prevent dental cavities, and to promote healthy bone growth.[21] The tea plant (Camellia sinensis L.) is a known accumulator of fluorine compounds, released upon forming infusions such as the common beverage. The fluorine compounds decompose into products including fluoride ions. Fluoride is the most bioavailable form of fluorine, and as such, tea is potentially a vehicle for fluoride dosing.[22] Approximately, 50% of absorbed fluoride is excreted renally with a twenty-four-hour period. The remainder can be retained in the oral cavity, and lower digestive tract. Fasting dramatically increases the rate of fluoride absorption to near 100%, from a 60% to 80% when taken with food.[22] Per a 2013 study, it was found that consumption of one litre of tea a day, can potentially supply the daily recommended intake of 4 mg per day. Some lower quality brands can supply up to a 120% of this amount. Fasting can increase this to 150%. The study indicates that tea drinking communities are at an increased risk of dental and skeletal fluorosis, in the case where water fluoridation is in effect.[22] Fluoride ion in low doses in the mouth reduces tooth decay.[23] For this reason, it is used in toothpaste and water fluoridation. At much higher doses and frequent exposure, fluoride causes health complications and can be toxic.ApplicationsSee also: Fluorochemical industry, Biological aspects of fluorine, and FluorineFluoride salts and hydrofluoric acid are the main fluorides of industrial value. Compounds with C-F bonds fall into the realm of organofluorine chemistry. The main uses of fluoride, in terms of volume, are in the production of cryolite, Na3AlF6. It is used in aluminium smelting. Formerly, it was mined, but now it is derived from hydrogen fluoride. Fluorite is used on a large scale to separate slag in steel-making. Mined fluorite (CaF2) is a commodity chemical used in steel-making.Hydrofluoric acid and its anhydrous form, hydrogen fluoride, is also used in the production of fluorocarbons. Hydrofluoric acid has a variety of specialized applications, including its ability to dissolve glass.[4]Cavity preventionMain articles: Fluoride therapy and Water fluoridationFluoride is sold in tablets for cavity prevention.Fluoride-containing compounds, such as sodium fluoride or sodium monofluorophosphate are used in topical and systemic fluoride therapy for preventing tooth decay. They are used for water fluoridation and in many products associated with oral hygiene.[24] Originally, sodium fluoride was used to fluoridate water; hexafluorosilicic acid (H2SiF6) and its salt sodium hexafluorosilicate (Na2SiF6) are more commonly used additives, especially in the United States. The fluoridation of water is known to prevent tooth decay[25][26] and is considered by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as "one of 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century".[27][28] In some countries where large, centralized water systems are uncommon, fluoride is delivered to the populace by fluoridating table salt. For the method of action for cavity prevention, see Fluoride therapy. Fluoridation of water has its critics (see Water fluoridation controversy).[29] Fluoridated toothpaste is in common use, but is only effective at concentrations above 1,000 ppm, as is common in North America and Europe.[30]Biochemical reagentFluoride salts are commonly used in biological assay processing to inhibit the activity of phosphatases, such as serine/threonine phosphatases.[31] Fluoride mimics the nucleophilic hydroxide ion in these enzymes' active sites.[32] Beryllium fluoride and aluminium fluoride are also used as phosphatase inhibitors, since these compounds are structural mimics of the phosphate group and can act as analogues of the transition state of the reaction.[33][34]Fluoride-ion BatteryA large team of researchers, including Simon C. Jones of California Institute of Technology and Christopher J. Brooks of the Honda Research Institute, have come up with a liquid electrolyte that shuttles fluoride ions to and fro and demonstrated its use in a room-temperature, rechargeable FIB (Science 2018, DOI: 10.1126/science.aat7070).[35][36]Dietary recommendationsThe U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for some minerals in 1997. Where there was not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated Adequate Intake (AI) was used instead. AIs are typically matched to actual average consumption, with the assumption that there appears to be a need, and that need is met by what people consume. The current AI for women 19 years and older is 3.0 mg/day (includes pregnancy and lactation). The AI for men is 4.0 mg/day. The AI for children ages 1–18 increases from 0.7 to 3.0 mg/day. The major known risk of fluoride deficiency appears to be an increased risk of bacteria-caused tooth cavities. As for safety, the IOM sets tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of fluoride the UL is 10 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).[37]The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL defined the same as in United States. For women ages 18 and older the AI is set at 2.9 mg/day (includes pregnancy and lactation). For men the value is 3.4 mg/day. For children ages 1–17 years the AIs increase with age from 0.6 to 3.2 mg/day. These AIs are comparable to the U.S. AIs.[38] The EFSA reviewed safety evidence and set an adult UL at 7.0 mg/day (lower for children).[39]For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount of a vitamin or mineral in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). Although there is information to set Adequate Intake, fluoride does not have a Daily Value and is not required to be shown on food labels.[40]Estimated daily intakeDaily intakes of fluoride can vary significantly according to the various sources of exposure. Values ranging from 0.46 to 3.6–5.4 mg/day have been reported in several studies (IPCS, 1984).[21] In areas where water is fluoridated this can be expected to be a significant source of fluoride, however fluoride is also naturally present in virtually all foods and beverages at a wide range of concentrations.[41] The maximum safe daily consumption of fluoride is 10 mg/day for an adult (U.S.) or 7 mg/day (European Union).[37][39]The upper limit of fluoride intake from all sources (fluoridated water, food, beverages, fluoride dental products and dietary fluoride supplements) is set at 0.10 mg/kg/day for infants, toddlers, and children through to 8 years old. For older children and adults, who are no longer at risk for dental fluorosis, the upper limit of fluoride is set at 10 mg/day regardless of weight.[42]Examples of fluoride contentFood/Drink Fluoride(mg per 1000g/ppm) Portion Fluoride(mg per portion)Black tea (brewed) 3.73 1 cup, 240 g (8 fl oz) 0.884Raisins, seedless 2.34 small box, 43 g (1.5 oz) 0.101Table wine 1.53 Bottle, 750 ml (26.4 fl oz) 1.150Municipal tap-water,(Fluoridated) 0.81 Recommended daily intake,3 litres (0.79 US gal) 2.433Baked potatoes, Russet 0.45 Medium potato, 140 g (0.3 lb) 0.078Lamb 0.32 Chop, 170 g (6 oz) 0.054Carrots 0.03 1 large carrot, 72 g (2.5 oz) 0.002Source: Data taken from United States Department of Agriculture, National Nutrient Database[43]SafetyMain article: Fluoride toxicityIngestionAccording to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Dietary Reference Intakes, which is the "highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects" specify 10 mg/day for most people, corresponding to 10 L of fluoridated water with no risk. For infants and young children the values are smaller, ranging from 0.7 mg/d for infants to 2.2 mg/d.[44] Water and food sources of fluoride include community water fluoridation, seafood, tea, and gelatin.[45]Soluble fluoride salts, of which sodium fluoride is the most common, are toxic, and have resulted in both accidental and self-inflicted deaths from acute poisoning.[4] The lethal dose for most adult humans is estimated at 5 to 10 g (which is equivalent to 32 to 64 mg/kg elemental fluoride/kg body weight).[46][47][48] A case of a fatal poisoning of an adult with 4 grams of sodium fluoride is documented,[49] and a dose of 120 g sodium fluoride has been survived.[50] For sodium fluorosilicate (Na2SiF6), the median lethal dose (LD50) orally in rats is 0.125 g/kg, corresponding to 12.5 g for a 100 kg adult.[51]Treatment may involve oral administration of dilute calcium hydroxide or calcium chloride to prevent further absorption, and injection of calcium gluconate to increase the calcium levels in the blood.[49] Hydrogen fluoride is more dangerous than salts such as NaF because it is corrosive and volatile, and can result in fatal exposure through inhalation or upon contact with the skin; calcium gluconate gel is the usual antidote.[52]In the higher doses used to treat osteoporosis, sodium fluoride can cause pain in the legs and incomplete stress fractures when the doses are too high; it also irritates the stomach, sometimes so severely as to cause ulcers. Slow-release and enteric-coated versions of sodium fluoride do not have gastric side effects in any significant way, and have milder and less frequent complications in the bones.[53] In the lower doses used for water fluoridation, the only clear adverse effect is dental fluorosis, which can alter the appearance of children's teeth during tooth development; this is mostly mild and is unlikely to represent any real effect on aesthetic appearance or on public health.[54] Fluoride was known to enhance the measurement of bone mineral density at the lumbar spine, but it was not effective for vertebral fractures and provoked more non vertebral fractures.[55]A popular urban myth claims that the Nazis used fluoride in concentration camps, but there is no historical evidence to prove this claim.[56]In areas that have naturally occurring high levels of fluoride in groundwater which is used for drinking water, both dental and skeletal fluorosis can be prevalent and severe.[57]Hazard maps for fluoride in groundwaterAround one-third of the human population drinks water from groundwater resources. Of this, about 10%, approximately three hundred million people, obtains water from groundwater resources that are heavily contaminated with arsenic or fluoride.[58] These trace elements derive mainly from minerals.[59] Maps are available of locations of potential problematic wells.[60]TopicalConcentrated fluoride solutions are corrosive.[61] Gloves made of nitrile rubber are worn when handling fluoride compounds. The hazards of solutions of fluoride salts depend on the concentration. In the presence of strong acids, fluoride salts release hydrogen fluoride, which is corrosive, especially toward glass.[4]Other derivativesOrganic and inorganic anions are produced from fluoride, including:Bifluoride, used as an etchant for glass[62]TetrafluoroberyllateHexafluoroplatinateTetrafluoroborate used in organometallic synthesisHexafluorophosphate used as an electrolyte in commercial secondary batteries.TrifluoromethanesulfonateSee alsoicon Dentistry portalFluorine-19 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopyFluoride deficiencyFluoride selective electrodeFluoride therapySodium monofluorophosphateReferences"Fluorides – PubChem Public Chemical Database". The PubChem Project. USA: National Center for Biotechnology Information. Identification.Chase, M. W. (1998). "Fluorine anion". NIST: 1–1951. Retrieved July 4, 2012.Wells, J.C. (2008). Longman pronunciation dictionary (3rd ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited/Longman. p. 313. ISBN 9781405881180.. According to this source, /ˈfluːəraɪd/ is a possible pronunciation in British English.Aigueperse, Jean; Mollard, Paul; Devilliers, Didier; Chemla, Marius; Faron, Robert; Romano, René; Cuer, Jean Pierre (2000). "Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_307. ISBN 978-3527306732."Public Health Statement for Fluorides, Hydrogen Fluoride, and Fluorine". ATSDR. September 2003."Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Fluoride". Government of British Columbia. Retrieved 8 October 2014.Liteplo, Dr R.; Gomes, R.; Howe, P.; Malcolm, Heath (2002). FLUORIDES - Environmental Health Criteria 227 : 1st draft. Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 978-9241572279.Fawell, J.K.; et al. "Fluoride in Drinking-water Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality" (PDF). World Health Organization. Retrieved 6 May 2016.Tiemann, Mary (April 5, 2013). 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