Skill Practice 15 Periodic Table Configurations: Fill & Download for Free

JEE Main Syllabus 2020 - Paper 1 (B. Tech/B.E.)PHYSICS - Section A:●Physics and MeasurementPhysics, technology and society, SI units, Fundamental and derived units. Least count, accuracy and precision of measuring instruments, Errors in measurement, Dimensions of Physical quantities, dimensional analysis and its applications,●KinematicsFrame of reference. Motion in a straight line: Position-time graph, speed and velocity. Uniform and non-uniform motion, average speed and instantaneous velocity uniformly accelerated motion, velocity-time, position-time graphs, and relations for uniformly accelerated motion. Scalars and Vectors, Vector addition and Subtraction, Zero Vector, Scalar and Vector products, Unit Vector, Resolution of a Vector. Relative Velocity, Motion in a plane. Projectile Motion, Uniform Circular Motion.●Laws of MotionForce and Inertia, Newton's First Law of motion; Momentum, Newton's Second Law of motion; Impulse; Newton's Third Law of motion. Law of conservation of linear momentum and its applications, Equilibrium of concurrent forces. Static and Kinetic friction, laws of friction, rolling friction. Dynamics of uniform circular motion: Centripetal force and its applications,●Work, Energy and PowerWork done by a constant force and a variable force; kinetic and potential energies, work-energy theorem, power. Potential energy of a spring, conservation of mechanical energy, conservative and non-conservative forces; Elastic and inelastic collisions in one and two dimensions.●Rotational MotionCentre of mass of a two-particle system, Centre of mass of a rigid body; Basic concepts of rotational motion; moment of a force, torque, angular momentum, conservation of angular momentum and its applications; moment of inertia, radius of gyration. Values of moments of inertia for simple geometrical objects, parallel and perpendicular axes theorems and their applications. Rigid body rotation, equations of rotational motion.●GravitationThe universal law of gravitation. Acceleration due to gravity and its variation with altitude and depth, Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Gravitational potential energy; gravitational potential. Escape velocity. Orbital velocity of a satellite. Geo-stationary satellites.●Properties of Solids and LiquidsElastic behavior, Stress-strain relationship, Hooke's Law, Young's modulus, bulk modulus, modulus of rigidity. Pressure due to a fluid column; Pascal's law and its applications. Viscosity, Stokes' law, terminal velocity, streamline and turbulent flow, Reynolds number. Bernoulli's principle and its applications. Surface energy and surface tension, angle of contact, application of surface tension - drops, bubbles and capillary rise. Heat, temperature, thermal expansion; specific heat capacity, calorimetry; change of state, latent heat. Heat transfer-conduction, convection and radiation, Newton's law of cooling.●ThermodynamicsThermal equilibrium, zeroth law of thermodynamics, concept of temperature. Heat, work and internal energy. First law of thermodynamics. Second law of thermodynamics: reversible and irreversible processes. Carnot engine and its efficiency.●Kinetic Theory of GasesEquation of state of a perfect gas, work done on compressing a gas. Kinetic theory of gases-assumptions, concept of pressure. Kinetic energy and temperature: rms speed of gas molecules; Degrees of freedom, Law of equipartition of energy, applications to specific heat capacities of gases; Mean free path, Avogadro's number.●Oscillations and WavesPeriodic motion - period, frequency, displacement as a function of time. Periodic functions. Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M.) and its equation; phase; oscillations of a spring -restoring force and force constant; energy in S.H.M. - kinetic and potential energies; Simple pendulum - derivation of expression for its time period; Free, forced and damped oscillations, resonance.Wave motion. Longitudinal and transverse waves, speed of a wave. Displacement relation for a progressive wave. Principle of superposition of waves, reflection of waves, Standing waves in strings and organ pipes, fundamental mode and harmonics, Beats, Doppler effect in sound●ElectrostaticsElectric charges: Conservation of charge, Coulomb's law-forces between two point charges, forces between multiple charges; superposition principle and continuous charge distribution.Electric field: Electric field due to a point charge, Electric field lines, Electric dipole, Electric field due to a dipole, Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field.Electric flux, Gauss's law and its applications to find field due to infinitely long uniformly charged straight wire, uniformly charged infinite plane sheet and uniformly charged thin spherical shell. Electric potential and its calculation for a point charge, electric dipole and system of charges; Equipotential surfaces, Electrical potential energy of a system of two point charges in an electrostatic field.Conductors and insulators, Dielectrics and electric polarization, capacitor, combination of capacitors in series and in parallel, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium between the plates, Energy stored in a capacitor.●Current ElectricityElectric current, Drift velocity, Ohm's law, Electrical resistance, Resistances of different materials, V-I characteristics of Ohmic and non-ohmic conductors, Electrical energy and power, Electrical resistivity, Colour code for resistors; Series and parallel combinations of resistors; Temperature dependence of resistance.Electric Cell and its internal resistance, potential difference and emf of a cell, combination of cells in series and in parallel. Kirchhoffs laws and their applications. Wheatstone bridge, Metre Bridge. Potentiometer - principle and its applications.●Magnetic Effects of Current and MagnetismBiot - Savart law and its application to current carrying circular loop. Ampere's law and its applications to infinitely long current carrying straight wire and solenoid. Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic and electric fields. Cyclotron.Force on a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field. Force between two parallel current-carrying conductors-definition of ampere, Torque experienced by a current loop in uniform magnetic field; Moving coil galvanometer, its current sensitivity and conversion to ammeter and voltmeter.Current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment. Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid, magnetic field lines; Earth's magnetic field and magnetic elements. Para-, dia- and ferro- magnetic substances.Magnetic susceptibility and permeability, Hysteresis, Electromagnets and permanent magnets.●Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating CurrentsElectromagnetic induction; Faraday's law, induced emf and current; Lenz's Law, Eddy currents. Self and mutual inductance. Alternating currents, peak and rms value of alternating current/ voltage; reactance and impedance; LCR series circuit, resonance; Quality factor, power in AC circuits, wattless current. AC generator and transformer.●Electromagnetic WavesElectromagnetic waves and their characteristics. Transverse nature of electromagnetic waves.Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays). Applications of e.m. waves.●OpticsReflection and refraction of light at plane and spherical surfaces, mirror formula, Total internal reflection and its applications, Deviation and Dispersion of light by a prism, Lens Formula, Magnification, Power of a Lens, Combination of thin lenses in contact, Microscope and Astronomical Telescope (reflecting and refracting) and their magnifying powers.Wave optics: wave front and Huygens' principle, Laws of reflection and refraction using Huygen's principle. Interference, Young's double slit experiment and expression for fringe width, coherent sources and sustained interference of light. Diffraction due to a single slit, width of central maximum. Resolving power of microscopes and astronomical telescopes, Polarization, plane polarized light; Brewster's law, uses of plane polarized light and Polaroids.●Dual Nature of Matter and RadiationDual nature of radiation. Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard's observations; Einstein's photoelectric equation; particle nature of light. Matter waves-wave nature of particle, de Broglie relation. Davis son-Germer experiment.●Atoms and NucleiAlpha-particle scattering experiment; Rutherford's model of atom; Bohr model, energy levels, hydrogen spectrum. Composition and size of nucleus, atomic masses, isotopes, isobars; isotones. Radioactivity-alpha, beta and gamma particles/rays and their properties; radioactive decay law. Mass-energy relation, mass defect; binding energy per nucleon and its variation with mass number, nuclear fission and fusion.●Electronic DevicesSemiconductors; semiconductor diode: I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias; diode as a rectifier; 1-V characteristics of LED, photodiode, solar cell and Zener diode; Zener diode as a voltage regulator. Junction transistor, transistor action, characteristics of a transistor; transistor as an amplifier (common emitter configuration) and oscillator. Logic gates (OR, AND, NOT, NAND and NOR). Transistor as a switch.●Communication SystemsPropagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere; Sky and space wave propagation, Need for modulation, Amplitude and Frequency Modulation, Bandwidth of signals, Bandwidth of Transmission medium, Basic Elements of a Communication System (Block Diagram only).PHYSICS - Section B:Experimental SkillsFamiliarity with the basic approach and observations of the experiments and activities:●Vernier callipers-its use to measure internal and external diameter and depth of a vessel.●Screw gauge-its use to determine thickness/ diameter of thin sheet/wire.●Simple Pendulum-dissipation of energy by plotting a graph between square of amplitude and time.●Metre Scale-mass of a given object by principle of moments.●Young's modulus of elasticity of the material of a metallic wire.●Surface tension of water by capillary rise and effect of detergents.●Co-efficient of Viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring terminal velocity of a given spherical body.●Plotting a cooling curve for the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time.●Speed of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube.●Specific heat capacity of a given (i) solid and (ii) liquid by method of mixtures.●Resistivity of the material of a given wire using Metre Bridge.●Resistance of a given wire using Ohm's law.●Potentiometer-a)Comparison of emf of two primary cells.b)Determination of internal resistance of a cell.●Resistance and figure of merit of a galvanometer by half deflection method,●Focal length of the following using parallax method:a)Convex mirrorb)Concave mirror, andc)Convex lens●Plot of angle of deviation vs angle of incidence for a triangular prism.●Refractive index of a glass slab using a traveling microscope.●Characteristic curves of a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias.●Characteristic curves of a Zener diode and finding reverse break down voltage.●Characteristic curves of a transistor and finding current gain and voltage gain.●Identification of Diode, LED, Transistor, IC, Resistor, and Capacitor from mixed collection of such items.●Using multimeter to:a.Identify base of a transistorb.Distinguish between npn and pnp type Transistorc.See the unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and an LED.d.Check the correctness or otherwise of a given electronic component (diode,Transistor or IC).CHEMISTRY:Physical chemistry·Some Basic Concepts in Chemistry: Matter and its nature, Dalton's atomic theory; Concept of atom, molecule, element and compound; Physical quantities and their measurements in Chemistry, precision and accuracy, significant figures, S.I. Units, dimensional analysis; Laws of chemical combination: Atomic and molecular masses, mole concept, molar mass, percentage composition, empirical and molecular formulae; Chemical equations and stoichiometry.·States of Matter: Classification of matter into solid, liquid and gaseous states.Gaseous State: Measurable properties of gases; Gas laws - Boyle's law, Charle's law, Graham's law of diffusion, Avogadro's law, Dalton's law of partial pressure; Concept of Absolute scale of temperature; Ideal gas equation; Kinetic theory of gases (only postulates); Concept of average, root mean square and most probable velocities; Real gases, deviation from Ideal behavior, compressibility factor and van der Waals equation.Liquid State: Properties of liquids - vapor pressure, viscosity and surface tension and effect of temperature on them (qualitative treatment only).Solid State: Classification of solids: molecular, ionic, covalent and metallic solids, amorphous and crystalline solids (elementary idea); Bragg's Law and its applications; Unit cell and lattices, packing in solids (fee, bec and hep lattices), voids, calculations involving unit cell parameters, imperfection in solids; Electrical and magnetic properties.·Atomic Structure: Thomson and Rutherford atomic models and their limitations; Nature of electromagnetic radiation, photoelectric effect; Spectrum of hydrogen atom, Bohr model of hydrogen atom - its postulates, derivation of the relations for energy of the electron and radii of the different orbits, limitations of Bohr's model; Dual nature of matter, de-Broglie's relationship, Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Elementary ideas of quantum mechanics, quantum mechanical model of atom, its important features. Concept of atomic orbitals as one electron wave functions; Variation of t|/ and \|/2 with r for Is and 2s orbitals; various quantum numbers (principal, angular momentum and magnetic quantum numbers) and their significance; shapes of s, p and d - orbitals, electron spin and spin quantum number; Rules for filling electrons in orbitals - aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund's rule, electronic configuration of elements, extra stability of half-filled and completely filled orbitals.·Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure: Kossel - Lewis approach to chemical bond formation, concept of ionic and covalent bonds.Ionic Bonding: Formation of ionic bonds, factors affecting the formation of ionic bonds; calculation of lattice enthalpy. Covalent Bonding: Concept of electronegativity, Fajan's rule, dipole moment; Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory and shapes of simple molecules.Quantum mechanical approach to covalent bonding: Valence bond theory - Its important features, concept of hybridization involving s, p and d orbitals; Resonance.Molecular Orbital Theory - Its important features, LCAOs, types of molecular orbitals (bonding, antibonding), sigma and pi-bonds, molecular orbital electronic configurations of homonuclear diatomic molecules, concept of bond order, bond length and bond energy.Elementary idea of metallic bonding. Hydrogen bonding and its applications.·Chemical Thermodynamics: Fundamentals of thermodynamics: System and surroundings, extensive and intensive properties, state functions, types of processes.First law of thermodynamics: Concept of work, heat internal energy and enthalpy, heat capacity, molar heat capacity; Hess's law of constant heat summation; Enthalpies of bond dissociation, combustion, formation, atomization, sublimation, phase transition, hydration, ionization and solution.Second law of thermodynamics: Spontaneity of processes; AS of the universe and AG of the system as criteria for spontaneity, AG" (Standard Gibbs energy change) and equilibrium constant.·Solutions: Different methods for expressing concentration of solution - molality, molarity, mole fraction, percentage (by volume and mass both), vapor pressure of solutions and Raoult's Law - Ideal and non-ideal solutions, vapor pressure - composition, plots for ideal and non-ideal solutions; Colligative properties of dilute solutions - relative lowering of vapor pressure, depression of freezing point, elevation of boiling point and osmotic pressure; Determination of molecular mass using colligative properties; Abnormal value of molar mass, Van't Hoff factor and its significance.·Equilibrium: Meaning of equilibrium, concept of dynamic equilibrium.Equilibria involving physical processes: Solid -liquid, liquid - gas and solid - gas equilibria, Henry's law, general characteristics of equilibrium involving physical processes.Equilibria involving chemical processes: Law of chemical equilibrium, equilibrium constants (Kp and Kc) and their significance, significance of AG and AG" in chemical equilibria, factors affecting equilibrium concentration, pressure, temperature, effect of catalyst; Le Chatelier's principle.Ionic equilibrium: Weak and strong electrolytes, ionization of electrolytes, various concepts of acids and bases (Arrhenius, Bronsted - Lowry and Lewis) and their ionization, acid - base equilibria (including multistage ionization) and ionization constants, ionization of water, pH scale, common ion effect, hydrolysis of salts and pH of their solutions, solubility of sparingly soluble salts and solubility products, buffer solutions.·Redox Reactions and Electro-chemistry: Electronic concepts of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions, oxidation number, rules for assigning oxidation number, balancing of redox reactions.Electrolytic and metallic conduction, conductance in electrolytic solutions, molar conductivities and their variation with concentration: Kohlrausch's law and its applications.Electrochemical cells - Electrolytic and Galvanic cells, different types of electrodes, electrode potentials including standard electrode potential, half - cell and cell reactions, emf of a Galvanic cell and its measurement; Nernst equation and its applications; Relationship between cell potential and Gibbs' energy change; Dry cell and lead accumulator; Fuel cells.·Chemical Kinetics: Rate of a chemical reaction, factors affecting the rate of reactions: concentration, temperature, pressure and catalyst; elementary and complex reactions, order and molecularity of reactions, rate law, rate constant and its units, differential and integral forms of zero and first order reactions, their characteristics and half -lives, effect of temperature on rate of reactions -Arrhenius theory, activation energy and its calculation, collision theory of bimolecular gaseous reactions (no derivation).·Surface Chemistry: Adsorption- Physisorption and chemisorption and their characteristics, factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids - Freundlich and Langmuir adsorption isotherms, adsorption from solutions.Catalysis - Homogeneous and heterogeneous, activity and selectivity of solid catalysts, enzyme catalysis and its mechanism.Colloidal state- distinction among true solutions, colloids and suspensions, classification of colloids -lyophilic, lyophobic; multi-molecular, macromolecular and associated colloids (micelles), preparation and properties of colloids - Tyndall effect, Brownian movement, electrophoresis, dialysis, coagulation and flocculation; Emulsions and their characteristics.Inorganic Chemistry:·Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties: Modem periodic law and present form of the periodic table, s, p, d and f block elements, periodic trends in properties of elements atomic and ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, valence, oxidation states and chemical reactivity.·General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Metals: Modes of occurrence of elements in nature, minerals, ores; Steps involved in the extraction of metals -concentration, reduction (chemical and electrolytic methods) and refining with special reference to the extraction of Al, Cu, Zn and Fe; Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles involved in the extraction of metals.·Hydrogen: Position of hydrogen in periodic table, isotopes, preparation, properties and uses of hydrogen; Physical and chemical properties of water and heavy water; Structure, preparation, reactions and uses of hydrogen peroxide; Classification of hydrides - ionic, covalent and interstitial; Hydrogen as a fuel.·S - Block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals): Group -1 and 2 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration and general trends in physical and chemical properties of elements, anomalous properties of the first element of each group, diagonal relationships.Preparation and properties of some important compounds - sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide and sodium hydrogen carbonate; Industrial uses of lime, limestone, Plaster of Paris and cement; Biological significance of Na, K, Mg and C·P- Block Elements: Group -13 to Group 18 ElementsGeneral Introduction: Electronic configuration and general trends in physical and chemical properties of elements across the periods and down the groups; unique behavior of the first element in each group.Group wise study of the p - block elementsGroup -13: Preparation, properties and uses of boron and aluminium; Structure, properties and uses of borax, boric acid, diborane, boron trifluoride, aluminium chloride and alums.Group -14: Tendency for catenation; Structure, properties and uses of Allotropes and oxides of carbon, silicon tetrachloride, silicates, zeolites and silicones.Group -15: Properties and uses of nitrogen and phosphorus; Allotrophic forms of phosphorus; Preparation, properties, structure and uses of ammonia, nitric acid, phosphine and phosphorus halides, (PC13, PCI,); Structures of oxides and oxoacids of nitrogen and phosphorus.Group -16: Preparation, properties, structures and uses of ozone; Allotropic forms of sulphur; Preparation, properties, structures and uses of sulphuric acid (including its industrial preparation); Structures of oxoacids of sulphur.Group -17: Preparation, properties and uses of hydrochloric acid; Trends in the acidic nature of hydrogen halides; Structures of Interhalogen compounds and oxides and oxoacids of halogens.Group-18: Occurrence and uses of noble gases; Structures of fluorides and oxides of xenon.·d - and f - Block Elements:Transition Elements-General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics, general trends in properties of the first row transition elements -physical properties, ionization enthalpy, oxidation states, atomic radii, colour, catalytic behaviour, magnetic properties, complex formation, interstitial compounds, alloy formation; Preparation, properties and uses of K2 Cr, 07 and Kmn04.Inner Transition Elements-Lanthanoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states and lanthanoid contraction.Actinoids - Electronic configuration and oxidation states.·Co-Ordination Compounds: Introduction to co-ordination compounds, Werner's theory; ligands, co-ordination number, denticity, chelation; IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds, isomerism; Bonding-Valence bond approach and basic ideas of Crystal field theory, colour and magnetic properties; Importance of co­ordination compounds (in qualitative analysis, extraction of metals and in biological systems).·Environmental Chemistry: Environmental pollution - Atmospheric, water and soil.Atmospheric pollution - Tropospheric and StratosphericTropospheric pollutants - Gaseous pollutants: Oxides of carbon, nitrogen and Sulphur, hydrocarbons; their sources, harmful effects and prevention; Greenhouse effect and Global warming; Acid rain.Particulate pollutants: Smoke, dust, smog, fumes, mist; their sources, harmful effects and prevention.Stratospheric pollution- Formation and breakdown of ozone, depletion of ozone layer - its mechanism and effects.Water Pollution - Major pollutants such as, pathogens, organic wastes and chemical pollutants; their harmful effects and prevention.Soil pollution - Major pollutants such as: Pesticides (insecticides,, herbicides and fungicides), their harmful effects and prevention.Strategies to control environmental pollution.Organic Chemistry:·Purification and Characterization of Organic Compounds:Purification - Crystallization, sublimation, distillation, differential extraction and chromatography - principles and their applications.Qualitative analysis - Detection of nitrogen, Sulphur, phosphorus and halogens.Quantitative analysis (basic principles only) - Estimation of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, halogens, Sulphur, phosphorus.Calculations of empirical formulae and molecular formulae; Numerical problems in organic quantitative analysis.·Some Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry: Tetravalency of carbon; Shapes of simple molecules -hybridization (s and p); Classification of organic compounds based on functional groups: and those containing halogens, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur; Homologous series; Isomerism - structural and stereoisomerism.Nomenclature (Trivial and IUPAC): Covalent bond fission - Homolytic and heterolytic: free radicals, carbocations and carbanions; stability of carbocations and free radicals, electrophiles and nucleophiles.Electronic displacement in a covalent bond- Inductive effect, electromeric effect, resonance and hyper-conjugation.Common types of organic reactions- Substitution, addition, elimination and rearrangement.·Hydrocarbons: Classification, isomerism, IUPAC nomenclature, general methods of preparation, properties and reactions.Alkanes - Conformations: Sawhorse and Newman projections (of ethane); Mechanism of halogenation of alkanes.Alkenes - Geometrical isomerism; Mechanism of electrophilic addition: addition of hydrogen, halogens, water, hydrogen halides (Markownikoff s and peroxide effect); Ozonolysis and polymerization.Alkynes - Acidic character; Addition of hydrogen, halogens, water and hydrogen halides; Polymerization.Aromatic hydrocarbons - Nomenclature, benzene -structure and aromaticity; Mechanism of electrophilic substitution: halogenation, nitration, Friedel - Craft's alkylation and acylation, directive influence of functional group in mono-substituted benzene.·Organic Compounds Containing Halogens: General methods of preparation, properties and reactions; Nature of C-X bond; Mechanisms of substitution reactions. Uses; Environmental effects of chloroform, iodoform freons and DDT.·Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen: General methods of preparation, properties, reactions and uses.ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERSAlcohols: Identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols; mechanism of dehydration.Phenols: Acidic nature, electrophilic substitution reactions: halogenation, nitration and sulphonation, Reitner - Tiemann reaction.Ethers: Structure.Aldehyde and Ketones: Nature of carbonyl group; Nucleophilic addition to >C=0 group, relative reactivities of aldehydes and ketones; Important reactions such as - Nucleophilic addition reactions (addition of HCN, NH, and its derivatives), Griguard reagent; oxidation; reduction (Wolff Kishner and Clemmensen); acidity of a-hydrogen, aldol condensation, Cannizzaro reaction, Haloform reaction; Chemical tests to distinguish between aldehydes and Ketones.Carboxylic Acids: Acidic strength and factors affecting it.·Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen: General methods of preparation, properties, reactions and uses.Amines: Nomenclature, classification, structure, basic character and identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines and their basic character.Diazonium Salts: Importance in synthetic organic chemistry.·Polymers: General introduction and classification of polymers, general methods of polymerization-addition and condensation, copolymerization;Natural and synthetic rubber and vulcanization; some important polymers with emphasis on their monomers and uses - polythene, nylon, polyester and bakelite.·Biomolecules: General introduction and importance of biomolecules.Carbohydrates - Classification: aldoses and ketoses; monosaccharides (glucose and fructose) and constituent monosaccharides of oligosacctiorides (sucrose, lactose and maltose).Proteins - Elementary Idea of a-amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides; Proteins: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure (qualitative idea only), denaturation of proteins, enzymes.Vitamins - Classification and functions.Nucleic Acids - Chemical constitution of DN A and RNA.Biological functions of nucleic acids.·Chemistry in Everyday Life:Chemicals in medicines - Analgesics, tranquilizers, antiseptics, disinfectants, antimicrobials, antifertility drugs, antibiotics, antacids, antihistamines - their meaning and common examples.Chemicals in food - Preservatives, artificial sweetening agents - common examples.Cleansing agents - Soaps and detergents, cleansing action.·Principles Related to Practical Chemistry: Detection of extra elements (N, S, halogens) in organic compounds; Detection of the following functional groups: hydroxyl (alcoholic and phenolic), carbonyl (aldehyde and ketone), carboxyl and amino groups in organic compounds.Chemistry involved in the preparation of the following- Inorganic compounds: Mohr's salt, potash alum. Organic compounds: Acetanilide, pnitroacetanilide, aniline yellow, iodoform.Chemistry involved in the titrimetric exercises -Acids bases and the use of indicators, oxalic-acid vs KMnO₄, Mohr's salt vs KMnO₄.Chemical principles involved in the qualitative salt analysis:Cations - Pb2+, Cu2+, Al3+, Fe3+, Zn2+, Ni2+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Mg2+, NH⁺ ₄Anions- CO²⁻₃, S2-, SO²⁻₄, NO3-, NO2−, Cl-, Br-, I-. (Insoluble salts excluded).Chemical principles involved in the following experiments:1.Enthalpy of solution of CuSO42.Enthalpy of neutralization of strong acid and strong base.3.Preparation of lyophilic and lyophobic sols.4.Kinetic study of reaction of iodide ion with hydrogen peroxide at room temperature.MATHEMATICS:·Sets, Relations and Functions: Sets and their representation; Union, intersection and complement of sets and their algebraic properties; Power set; Relation, Types of relations, equivalence relations, functions;, one-one, into and onto functions, composition of functions,·Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations: Complex numbers as ordered pairs of reals, Representation of complex numbers in the form a+ib and their representation in a plane, Argand diagram, algebra of complex numbers, modulus and argument (or amplitude) of a complex number, square root of a complex number, triangle inequality, Quadratic equations in real and complex number system and their solutions. Relation between roots and co-efficient, nature of roots, formation of quadratic equations with given roots.·Matrices and Determinants: Matrices, algebra of matrices, types of matrices, determinants and matrices of order two and three. Properties of determinants, evaluation of determinants, area of triangles using determinants. Adjoint and evaluation of inverse of a square matrix using determinants and elementary transformations, Test of consistency and solution of simultaneous linear equations in two or three variables using determinants and matrices.·Permutations and Combinations: Fundamental principle of counting, permutation as an arrangement and combination as selection, Meaning of P (n,r) and C (n,r), simple applications.·Mathematical Induction: Principle of Mathematical Induction and its simple applications.·Binomial Theorem and its Simple Applications: Binomial theorem for a positive integral index, general term and middle term, properties of Binomial coefficients and simple applications.·Sequences and Series: Arithmetic and Geometric progressions, insertion of arithmetic, geometric means between two given numbers. Relation between A.M. and G.M. Sum up to n terms of special series: S n, S n2, Sn3. Arithmetico-Geometric progression.·Limit, Continuity and Differentiability:Real - valued functions, algebra of functions, polynomials, rational, trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions, inverse functions. Graphs of simple functions. Limits, continuity and differentiability. Differentiation of the sum, difference, product and quotient of two functions. Differentiation of trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, composite and implicit functions; derivatives of order upto two. Rolle's and Lagrange's Mean Value Theorems. Applications of derivatives: Rate of change of quantities, monotonic - increasing and decreasing functions, Maxima and minima of functions of one variable, tangents and normals.·Integral Calculus: Integral as an anti - derivative. Fundamental integrals involving algebraic, trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions. Integration by substitution, by parts and by partial fractions. Integration using trigonometric identities.Integral as limit of a sum. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Properties of definite integrals. Evaluation of definite integrals, determining areas of the regions bounded by simple curves in standard form.·Differential Equations: Ordinary differential equations, their order and degree. Formation of differential equations. Solution of differential equations by the method of separation of variables, solution of homogeneous and linear differential equations.·Co-ordinate Geometry: Cartesian system of rectangular co-ordinates 10 in a plane, distance formula, section formula, locus and its equation, translation of axes, slope of a line, parallel and perpendicular lines, intercepts of a line on the coordinate axes.Straight lines: Various forms of equations of a line, intersection of lines, angles between two lines, conditions for concurrence of three lines, distance of a point from a line, equations of internal and external bisectors of angles between two lines, coordinates of centroid, orthocentre and circumcenter of a triangle, equation of family of lines passing through the point of intersection of two lines.Circles, conic sections: Standard form of equation of a circle, general form of the equation of a circle, its radius and centre, equation of a circle when the end points of a diameter are given, points of intersection of a line and a circle with the centre at the origin and condition for a line to be tangent to a circle, equation of the tangent. Sections of cones, equations of conic sections (parabola, ellipse and hyperbola) in standard forms, condition for y = mx + c to be a tangent and point (s) of tangency.·Three Dimensional Geometry: Coordinates of a point in space, distance between two points, section formula, direction ratios and direction cosines, angle between two intersecting lines. Skew lines, the shortest distance between them and its equation. Equations of a line and a plane in different forms, intersection of a line and a plane, coplanar lines.·Vector Algebra: Vectors and scalars, addition of vectors, components of a vector in two dimensions and three dimensional space, scalar and vector products, scalar and vector triple product.·Statistics and Probability:Measures of Dispersion: Calculation of mean, median, mode of grouped and ungrouped data calculation of standard deviation, variance and mean deviation for grouped and ungrouped data.Probability: Probability of an event, addition and multiplication theorems of probability, Baye's theorem, probability distribution of a random variate, Bernoulli trials and Binomial distribution.·Trigonometry: Trigonometrical identities and equations. Trigonometrical functions. Inverse trigonometrical functions and their properties. Heights and Distances.·Mathematical Reasoning: Statements, logical operations and, or, implies, implied by, if and only if. Understanding of tautology, contradiction, converse and contrapositive.JEE Main Syllabus 2020 - Paper 2 (Aptitude Test B. Arch/ B. Plan)Part I:Awareness of persons, places, Buildings, Materials. Objects, Texture related to Architecture and build—environment. Visualizing three-dimensional objects from two-dimensional drawings. Visualizing different sides of three-dimensional objects. Analytical Reasoning Mental Ability (Visual, Numerical and Verbal).Part II:Three dimensional - perception: Understanding and appreciation of scale and proportion of objects, building forms and elements, color texture, harmony and contrast. Design and drawing of geometrical or abstract shapes and patterns in pencil. Transformation of forms both 2 D and 3 D union, subtraction, rotation, development of surfaces and volumes, Generation of Plan, elevations and 3 D views of objects. Creating two dimensional and three dimensional compositions using given shapes and forms.Sketching of scenes and activities from memory of urbanscape (public space, market, festivals, street scenes, monuments, recreational spaces, etc.), landscape (river fronts, jungles, trees, plants, etc.) and rural life.

JEE Main Syllabus 2020 - Paper 1 (B. Tech/B.E.)PHYSICS - Section A:●Physics and MeasurementPhysics, technology and society, SI units, Fundamental and derived units. Least count, accuracy and precision of measuring instruments, Errors in measurement, Dimensions of Physical quantities, dimensional analysis and its applications,●KinematicsFrame of reference. Motion in a straight line: Position-time graph, speed and velocity. Uniform and non-uniform motion, average speed and instantaneous velocity uniformly accelerated motion, velocity-time, position-time graphs, and relations for uniformly accelerated motion. Scalars and Vectors, Vector addition and Subtraction, Zero Vector, Scalar and Vector products, Unit Vector, Resolution of a Vector. Relative Velocity, Motion in a plane. Projectile Motion, Uniform Circular Motion.●Laws of MotionForce and Inertia, Newton's First Law of motion; Momentum, Newton's Second Law of motion; Impulse; Newton's Third Law of motion. Law of conservation of linear momentum and its applications, Equilibrium of concurrent forces. Static and Kinetic friction, laws of friction, rolling friction. Dynamics of uniform circular motion: Centripetal force and its applications,●Work, Energy and PowerWork done by a constant force and a variable force; kinetic and potential energies, work-energy theorem, power. Potential energy of a spring, conservation of mechanical energy, conservative and non-conservative forces; Elastic and inelastic collisions in one and two dimensions.●Rotational MotionCentre of mass of a two-particle system, Centre of mass of a rigid body; Basic concepts of rotational motion; moment of a force, torque, angular momentum, conservation of angular momentum and its applications; moment of inertia, radius of gyration. Values of moments of inertia for simple geometrical objects, parallel and perpendicular axes theorems and their applications. Rigid body rotation, equations of rotational motion.●GravitationThe universal law of gravitation. Acceleration due to gravity and its variation with altitude and depth, Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Gravitational potential energy; gravitational potential. Escape velocity. Orbital velocity of a satellite. Geo-stationary satellites.●Properties of Solids and LiquidsElastic behavior, Stress-strain relationship, Hooke's Law, Young's modulus, bulk modulus, modulus of rigidity. Pressure due to a fluid column; Pascal's law and its applications. Viscosity, Stokes' law, terminal velocity, streamline and turbulent flow, Reynolds number. Bernoulli's principle and its applications. Surface energy and surface tension, angle of contact, application of surface tension - drops, bubbles and capillary rise. Heat, temperature, thermal expansion; specific heat capacity, calorimetry; change of state, latent heat. Heat transfer-conduction, convection and radiation, Newton's law of cooling.●ThermodynamicsThermal equilibrium, zeroth law of thermodynamics, concept of temperature. Heat, work and internal energy. First law of thermodynamics. Second law of thermodynamics: reversible and irreversible processes. Carnot engine and its efficiency.●Kinetic Theory of GasesEquation of state of a perfect gas, work done on compressing a gas. Kinetic theory of gases-assumptions, concept of pressure. Kinetic energy and temperature: rms speed of gas molecules; Degrees of freedom, Law of equipartition of energy, applications to specific heat capacities of gases; Mean free path, Avogadro's number.●Oscillations and WavesPeriodic motion - period, frequency, displacement as a function of time. Periodic functions. Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M.) and its equation; phase; oscillations of a spring -restoring force and force constant; energy in S.H.M. - kinetic and potential energies; Simple pendulum - derivation of expression for its time period; Free, forced and damped oscillations, resonance.Wave motion. Longitudinal and transverse waves, speed of a wave. Displacement relation for a progressive wave. Principle of superposition of waves, reflection of waves, Standing waves in strings and organ pipes, fundamental mode and harmonics, Beats, Doppler effect in sound●ElectrostaticsElectric charges: Conservation of charge, Coulomb's law-forces between two point charges, forces between multiple charges; superposition principle and continuous charge distribution.Electric field: Electric field due to a point charge, Electric field lines, Electric dipole, Electric field due to a dipole, Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field.Electric flux, Gauss's law and its applications to find field due to infinitely long uniformly charged straight wire, uniformly charged infinite plane sheet and uniformly charged thin spherical shell. Electric potential and its calculation for a point charge, electric dipole and system of charges; Equipotential surfaces, Electrical potential energy of a system of two point charges in an electrostatic field.Conductors and insulators, Dielectrics and electric polarization, capacitor, combination of capacitors in series and in parallel, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium between the plates, Energy stored in a capacitor.●Current ElectricityElectric current, Drift velocity, Ohm's law, Electrical resistance, Resistances of different materials, V-I characteristics of Ohmic and non-ohmic conductors, Electrical energy and power, Electrical resistivity, Colour code for resistors; Series and parallel combinations of resistors; Temperature dependence of resistance.Electric Cell and its internal resistance, potential difference and emf of a cell, combination of cells in series and in parallel. Kirchhoffs laws and their applications. Wheatstone bridge, Metre Bridge. Potentiometer - principle and its applications.●Magnetic Effects of Current and MagnetismBiot - Savart law and its application to current carrying circular loop. Ampere's law and its applications to infinitely long current carrying straight wire and solenoid. Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic and electric fields. Cyclotron.Force on a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field. Force between two parallel current-carrying conductors-definition of ampere, Torque experienced by a current loop in uniform magnetic field; Moving coil galvanometer, its current sensitivity and conversion to ammeter and voltmeter.Current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment. Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid, magnetic field lines; Earth's magnetic field and magnetic elements. Para-, dia- and ferro- magnetic substances.Magnetic susceptibility and permeability, Hysteresis, Electromagnets and permanent magnets.●Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating CurrentsElectromagnetic induction; Faraday's law, induced emf and current; Lenz's Law, Eddy currents. Self and mutual inductance. Alternating currents, peak and rms value of alternating current/ voltage; reactance and impedance; LCR series circuit, resonance; Quality factor, power in AC circuits, wattless current. AC generator and transformer.●Electromagnetic WavesElectromagnetic waves and their characteristics. Transverse nature of electromagnetic waves.Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays). Applications of e.m. waves.●OpticsReflection and refraction of light at plane and spherical surfaces, mirror formula, Total internal reflection and its applications, Deviation and Dispersion of light by a prism, Lens Formula, Magnification, Power of a Lens, Combination of thin lenses in contact, Microscope and Astronomical Telescope (reflecting and refracting) and their magnifying powers.Wave optics: wave front and Huygens' principle, Laws of reflection and refraction using Huygen's principle. Interference, Young's double slit experiment and expression for fringe width, coherent sources and sustained interference of light. Diffraction due to a single slit, width of central maximum. Resolving power of microscopes and astronomical telescopes, Polarization, plane polarized light; Brewster's law, uses of plane polarized light and Polaroids.●Dual Nature of Matter and RadiationDual nature of radiation. Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard's observations; Einstein's photoelectric equation; particle nature of light. Matter waves-wave nature of particle, de Broglie relation. Davis son-Germer experiment.●Atoms and NucleiAlpha-particle scattering experiment; Rutherford's model of atom; Bohr model, energy levels, hydrogen spectrum. Composition and size of nucleus, atomic masses, isotopes, isobars; isotones. Radioactivity-alpha, beta and gamma particles/rays and their properties; radioactive decay law. Mass-energy relation, mass defect; binding energy per nucleon and its variation with mass number, nuclear fission and fusion.●Electronic DevicesSemiconductors; semiconductor diode: I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias; diode as a rectifier; 1-V characteristics of LED, photodiode, solar cell and Zener diode; Zener diode as a voltage regulator. Junction transistor, transistor action, characteristics of a transistor; transistor as an amplifier (common emitter configuration) and oscillator. Logic gates (OR, AND, NOT, NAND and NOR). Transistor as a switch.●Communication SystemsPropagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere; Sky and space wave propagation, Need for modulation, Amplitude and Frequency Modulation, Bandwidth of signals, Bandwidth of Transmission medium, Basic Elements of a Communication System (Block Diagram only).PHYSICS - Section B:Experimental SkillsFamiliarity with the basic approach and observations of the experiments and activities:●Vernier callipers-its use to measure internal and external diameter and depth of a vessel.●Screw gauge-its use to determine thickness/ diameter of thin sheet/wire.●Simple Pendulum-dissipation of energy by plotting a graph between square of amplitude and time.●Metre Scale-mass of a given object by principle of moments.●Young's modulus of elasticity of the material of a metallic wire.●Surface tension of water by capillary rise and effect of detergents.●Co-efficient of Viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring terminal velocity of a given spherical body.●Plotting a cooling curve for the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time.●Speed of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube.●Specific heat capacity of a given (i) solid and (ii) liquid by method of mixtures.●Resistivity of the material of a given wire using Metre Bridge.●Resistance of a given wire using Ohm's law.●Potentiometer-a)Comparison of emf of two primary cells.b)Determination of internal resistance of a cell.●Resistance and figure of merit of a galvanometer by half deflection method,●Focal length of the following using parallax method:a)Convex mirrorb)Concave mirror, andc)Convex lens●Plot of angle of deviation vs angle of incidence for a triangular prism.●Refractive index of a glass slab using a traveling microscope.●Characteristic curves of a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias.●Characteristic curves of a Zener diode and finding reverse break down voltage.●Characteristic curves of a transistor and finding current gain and voltage gain.●Identification of Diode, LED, Transistor, IC, Resistor, and Capacitor from mixed collection of such items.●Using multimeter to:a.Identify base of a transistorb.Distinguish between npn and pnp type Transistorc.See the unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and an LED.d.Check the correctness or otherwise of a given electronic component (diode,Transistor or IC).CHEMISTRY:Physical chemistry·Some Basic Concepts in Chemistry: Matter and its nature, Dalton's atomic theory; Concept of atom, molecule, element and compound; Physical quantities and their measurements in Chemistry, precision and accuracy, significant figures, S.I. Units, dimensional analysis; Laws of chemical combination: Atomic and molecular masses, mole concept, molar mass, percentage composition, empirical and molecular formulae; Chemical equations and stoichiometry.·States of Matter: Classification of matter into solid, liquid and gaseous states.Gaseous State: Measurable properties of gases; Gas laws - Boyle's law, Charle's law, Graham's law of diffusion, Avogadro's law, Dalton's law of partial pressure; Concept of Absolute scale of temperature; Ideal gas equation; Kinetic theory of gases (only postulates); Concept of average, root mean square and most probable velocities; Real gases, deviation from Ideal behavior, compressibility factor and van der Waals equation.Liquid State: Properties of liquids - vapor pressure, viscosity and surface tension and effect of temperature on them (qualitative treatment only).Solid State: Classification of solids: molecular, ionic, covalent and metallic solids, amorphous and crystalline solids (elementary idea); Bragg's Law and its applications; Unit cell and lattices, packing in solids (fee, bec and hep lattices), voids, calculations involving unit cell parameters, imperfection in solids; Electrical and magnetic properties.·Atomic Structure: Thomson and Rutherford atomic models and their limitations; Nature of electromagnetic radiation, photoelectric effect; Spectrum of hydrogen atom, Bohr model of hydrogen atom - its postulates, derivation of the relations for energy of the electron and radii of the different orbits, limitations of Bohr's model; Dual nature of matter, de-Broglie's relationship, Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Elementary ideas of quantum mechanics, quantum mechanical model of atom, its important features. Concept of atomic orbitals as one electron wave functions; Variation of t|/ and \|/2 with r for Is and 2s orbitals; various quantum numbers (principal, angular momentum and magnetic quantum numbers) and their significance; shapes of s, p and d - orbitals, electron spin and spin quantum number; Rules for filling electrons in orbitals - aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund's rule, electronic configuration of elements, extra stability of half-filled and completely filled orbitals.·Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure: Kossel - Lewis approach to chemical bond formation, concept of ionic and covalent bonds.Ionic Bonding: Formation of ionic bonds, factors affecting the formation of ionic bonds; calculation of lattice enthalpy. Covalent Bonding: Concept of electronegativity, Fajan's rule, dipole moment; Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory and shapes of simple molecules.Quantum mechanical approach to covalent bonding: Valence bond theory - Its important features, concept of hybridization involving s, p and d orbitals; Resonance.Molecular Orbital Theory - Its important features, LCAOs, types of molecular orbitals (bonding, antibonding), sigma and pi-bonds, molecular orbital electronic configurations of homonuclear diatomic molecules, concept of bond order, bond length and bond energy.Elementary idea of metallic bonding. Hydrogen bonding and its applications.·Chemical Thermodynamics: Fundamentals of thermodynamics: System and surroundings, extensive and intensive properties, state functions, types of processes.First law of thermodynamics: Concept of work, heat internal energy and enthalpy, heat capacity, molar heat capacity; Hess's law of constant heat summation; Enthalpies of bond dissociation, combustion, formation, atomization, sublimation, phase transition, hydration, ionization and solution.Second law of thermodynamics: Spontaneity of processes; AS of the universe and AG of the system as criteria for spontaneity, AG" (Standard Gibbs energy change) and equilibrium constant.·Solutions: Different methods for expressing concentration of solution - molality, molarity, mole fraction, percentage (by volume and mass both), vapor pressure of solutions and Raoult's Law - Ideal and non-ideal solutions, vapor pressure - composition, plots for ideal and non-ideal solutions; Colligative properties of dilute solutions - relative lowering of vapor pressure, depression of freezing point, elevation of boiling point and osmotic pressure; Determination of molecular mass using colligative properties; Abnormal value of molar mass, Van't Hoff factor and its significance.·Equilibrium: Meaning of equilibrium, concept of dynamic equilibrium.Equilibria involving physical processes: Solid -liquid, liquid - gas and solid - gas equilibria, Henry's law, general characteristics of equilibrium involving physical processes.Equilibria involving chemical processes: Law of chemical equilibrium, equilibrium constants (Kp and Kc) and their significance, significance of AG and AG" in chemical equilibria, factors affecting equilibrium concentration, pressure, temperature, effect of catalyst; Le Chatelier's principle.Ionic equilibrium: Weak and strong electrolytes, ionization of electrolytes, various concepts of acids and bases (Arrhenius, Bronsted - Lowry and Lewis) and their ionization, acid - base equilibria (including multistage ionization) and ionization constants, ionization of water, pH scale, common ion effect, hydrolysis of salts and pH of their solutions, solubility of sparingly soluble salts and solubility products, buffer solutions.·Redox Reactions and Electro-chemistry: Electronic concepts of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions, oxidation number, rules for assigning oxidation number, balancing of redox reactions.Electrolytic and metallic conduction, conductance in electrolytic solutions, molar conductivities and their variation with concentration: Kohlrausch's law and its applications.Electrochemical cells - Electrolytic and Galvanic cells, different types of electrodes, electrode potentials including standard electrode potential, half - cell and cell reactions, emf of a Galvanic cell and its measurement; Nernst equation and its applications; Relationship between cell potential and Gibbs' energy change; Dry cell and lead accumulator; Fuel cells.·Chemical Kinetics: Rate of a chemical reaction, factors affecting the rate of reactions: concentration, temperature, pressure and catalyst; elementary and complex reactions, order and molecularity of reactions, rate law, rate constant and its units, differential and integral forms of zero and first order reactions, their characteristics and half -lives, effect of temperature on rate of reactions -Arrhenius theory, activation energy and its calculation, collision theory of bimolecular gaseous reactions (no derivation).·Surface Chemistry: Adsorption- Physisorption and chemisorption and their characteristics, factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids - Freundlich and Langmuir adsorption isotherms, adsorption from solutions.Catalysis - Homogeneous and heterogeneous, activity and selectivity of solid catalysts, enzyme catalysis and its mechanism.Colloidal state- distinction among true solutions, colloids and suspensions, classification of colloids -lyophilic, lyophobic; multi-molecular, macromolecular and associated colloids (micelles), preparation and properties of colloids - Tyndall effect, Brownian movement, electrophoresis, dialysis, coagulation and flocculation; Emulsions and their characteristics.Inorganic Chemistry:·Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties: Modem periodic law and present form of the periodic table, s, p, d and f block elements, periodic trends in properties of elements atomic and ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, valence, oxidation states and chemical reactivity.·General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Metals: Modes of occurrence of elements in nature, minerals, ores; Steps involved in the extraction of metals -concentration, reduction (chemical and electrolytic methods) and refining with special reference to the extraction of Al, Cu, Zn and Fe; Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles involved in the extraction of metals.·Hydrogen: Position of hydrogen in periodic table, isotopes, preparation, properties and uses of hydrogen; Physical and chemical properties of water and heavy water; Structure, preparation, reactions and uses of hydrogen peroxide; Classification of hydrides - ionic, covalent and interstitial; Hydrogen as a fuel.·S - Block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals): Group -1 and 2 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration and general trends in physical and chemical properties of elements, anomalous properties of the first element of each group, diagonal relationships.Preparation and properties of some important compounds - sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide and sodium hydrogen carbonate; Industrial uses of lime, limestone, Plaster of Paris and cement; Biological significance of Na, K, Mg and C·P- Block Elements: Group -13 to Group 18 ElementsGeneral Introduction: Electronic configuration and general trends in physical and chemical properties of elements across the periods and down the groups; unique behavior of the first element in each group.Group wise study of the p - block elementsGroup -13: Preparation, properties and uses of boron and aluminium; Structure, properties and uses of borax, boric acid, diborane, boron trifluoride, aluminium chloride and alums.Group -14: Tendency for catenation; Structure, properties and uses of Allotropes and oxides of carbon, silicon tetrachloride, silicates, zeolites and silicones.Group -15: Properties and uses of nitrogen and phosphorus; Allotrophic forms of phosphorus; Preparation, properties, structure and uses of ammonia, nitric acid, phosphine and phosphorus halides, (PC13, PCI,); Structures of oxides and oxoacids of nitrogen and phosphorus.Group -16: Preparation, properties, structures and uses of ozone; Allotropic forms of sulphur; Preparation, properties, structures and uses of sulphuric acid (including its industrial preparation); Structures of oxoacids of sulphur.Group -17: Preparation, properties and uses of hydrochloric acid; Trends in the acidic nature of hydrogen halides; Structures of Interhalogen compounds and oxides and oxoacids of halogens.Group-18: Occurrence and uses of noble gases; Structures of fluorides and oxides of xenon.·d - and f - Block Elements:Transition Elements-General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics, general trends in properties of the first row transition elements -physical properties, ionization enthalpy, oxidation states, atomic radii, colour, catalytic behaviour, magnetic properties, complex formation, interstitial compounds, alloy formation; Preparation, properties and uses of K2 Cr, 07 and Kmn04.Inner Transition Elements-Lanthanoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states and lanthanoid contraction.Actinoids - Electronic configuration and oxidation states.·Co-Ordination Compounds: Introduction to co-ordination compounds, Werner's theory; ligands, co-ordination number, denticity, chelation; IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds, isomerism; Bonding-Valence bond approach and basic ideas of Crystal field theory, colour and magnetic properties; Importance of co­ordination compounds (in qualitative analysis, extraction of metals and in biological systems).·Environmental Chemistry: Environmental pollution - Atmospheric, water and soil.Atmospheric pollution - Tropospheric and StratosphericTropospheric pollutants - Gaseous pollutants: Oxides of carbon, nitrogen and Sulphur, hydrocarbons; their sources, harmful effects and prevention; Greenhouse effect and Global warming; Acid rain.Particulate pollutants: Smoke, dust, smog, fumes, mist; their sources, harmful effects and prevention.Stratospheric pollution- Formation and breakdown of ozone, depletion of ozone layer - its mechanism and effects.Water Pollution - Major pollutants such as, pathogens, organic wastes and chemical pollutants; their harmful effects and prevention.Soil pollution - Major pollutants such as: Pesticides (insecticides,, herbicides and fungicides), their harmful effects and prevention.Strategies to control environmental pollution.Organic Chemistry:·Purification and Characterization of Organic Compounds:Purification - Crystallization, sublimation, distillation, differential extraction and chromatography - principles and their applications.Qualitative analysis - Detection of nitrogen, Sulphur, phosphorus and halogens.Quantitative analysis (basic principles only) - Estimation of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, halogens, Sulphur, phosphorus.Calculations of empirical formulae and molecular formulae; Numerical problems in organic quantitative analysis.·Some Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry: Tetravalency of carbon; Shapes of simple molecules -hybridization (s and p); Classification of organic compounds based on functional groups: and those containing halogens, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur; Homologous series; Isomerism - structural and stereoisomerism.Nomenclature (Trivial and IUPAC): Covalent bond fission - Homolytic and heterolytic: free radicals, carbocations and carbanions; stability of carbocations and free radicals, electrophiles and nucleophiles.Electronic displacement in a covalent bond- Inductive effect, electromeric effect, resonance and hyper-conjugation.Common types of organic reactions- Substitution, addition, elimination and rearrangement.·Hydrocarbons: Classification, isomerism, IUPAC nomenclature, general methods of preparation, properties and reactions.Alkanes - Conformations: Sawhorse and Newman projections (of ethane); Mechanism of halogenation of alkanes.Alkenes - Geometrical isomerism; Mechanism of electrophilic addition: addition of hydrogen, halogens, water, hydrogen halides (Markownikoff s and peroxide effect); Ozonolysis and polymerization.Alkynes - Acidic character; Addition of hydrogen, halogens, water and hydrogen halides; Polymerization.Aromatic hydrocarbons - Nomenclature, benzene -structure and aromaticity; Mechanism of electrophilic substitution: halogenation, nitration, Friedel - Craft's alkylation and acylation, directive influence of functional group in mono-substituted benzene.·Organic Compounds Containing Halogens: General methods of preparation, properties and reactions; Nature of C-X bond; Mechanisms of substitution reactions. Uses; Environmental effects of chloroform, iodoform freons and DDT.·Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen: General methods of preparation, properties, reactions and uses.ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERSAlcohols: Identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols; mechanism of dehydration.Phenols: Acidic nature, electrophilic substitution reactions: halogenation, nitration and sulphonation, Reitner - Tiemann reaction.Ethers: Structure.Aldehyde and Ketones: Nature of carbonyl group; Nucleophilic addition to >C=0 group, relative reactivities of aldehydes and ketones; Important reactions such as - Nucleophilic addition reactions (addition of HCN, NH, and its derivatives), Griguard reagent; oxidation; reduction (Wolff Kishner and Clemmensen); acidity of a-hydrogen, aldol condensation, Cannizzaro reaction, Haloform reaction; Chemical tests to distinguish between aldehydes and Ketones.Carboxylic Acids: Acidic strength and factors affecting it.·Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen: General methods of preparation, properties, reactions and uses.Amines: Nomenclature, classification, structure, basic character and identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines and their basic character.Diazonium Salts: Importance in synthetic organic chemistry.·Polymers: General introduction and classification of polymers, general methods of polymerization-addition and condensation, copolymerization;Natural and synthetic rubber and vulcanization; some important polymers with emphasis on their monomers and uses - polythene, nylon, polyester and bakelite.·Biomolecules: General introduction and importance of biomolecules.Carbohydrates - Classification: aldoses and ketoses; monosaccharides (glucose and fructose) and constituent monosaccharides of oligosacctiorides (sucrose, lactose and maltose).Proteins - Elementary Idea of a-amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides; Proteins: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure (qualitative idea only), denaturation of proteins, enzymes.Vitamins - Classification and functions.Nucleic Acids - Chemical constitution of DN A and RNA.Biological functions of nucleic acids.·Chemistry in Everyday Life:Chemicals in medicines - Analgesics, tranquilizers, antiseptics, disinfectants, antimicrobials, antifertility drugs, antibiotics, antacids, antihistamines - their meaning and common examples.Chemicals in food - Preservatives, artificial sweetening agents - common examples.Cleansing agents - Soaps and detergents, cleansing action.·Principles Related to Practical Chemistry: Detection of extra elements (N, S, halogens) in organic compounds; Detection of the following functional groups: hydroxyl (alcoholic and phenolic), carbonyl (aldehyde and ketone), carboxyl and amino groups in organic compounds.Chemistry involved in the preparation of the following- Inorganic compounds: Mohr's salt, potash alum. Organic compounds: Acetanilide, pnitroacetanilide, aniline yellow, iodoform.Chemistry involved in the titrimetric exercises -Acids bases and the use of indicators, oxalic-acid vs KMnO₄, Mohr's salt vs KMnO₄.Chemical principles involved in the qualitative salt analysis:Cations - Pb2+, Cu2+, Al3+, Fe3+, Zn2+, Ni2+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Mg2+, NH⁺ ₄Anions- CO²⁻₃, S2-, SO²⁻₄, NO3-, NO2−, Cl-, Br-, I-. (Insoluble salts excluded).Chemical principles involved in the following experiments:1.Enthalpy of solution of CuSO42.Enthalpy of neutralization of strong acid and strong base.3.Preparation of lyophilic and lyophobic sols.4.Kinetic study of reaction of iodide ion with hydrogen peroxide at room temperature.MATHEMATICS:·Sets, Relations and Functions: Sets and their representation; Union, intersection and complement of sets and their algebraic properties; Power set; Relation, Types of relations, equivalence relations, functions;, one-one, into and onto functions, composition of functions,·Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations: Complex numbers as ordered pairs of reals, Representation of complex numbers in the form a+ib and their representation in a plane, Argand diagram, algebra of complex numbers, modulus and argument (or amplitude) of a complex number, square root of a complex number, triangle inequality, Quadratic equations in real and complex number system and their solutions. Relation between roots and co-efficient, nature of roots, formation of quadratic equations with given roots.·Matrices and Determinants: Matrices, algebra of matrices, types of matrices, determinants and matrices of order two and three. Properties of determinants, evaluation of determinants, area of triangles using determinants. Adjoint and evaluation of inverse of a square matrix using determinants and elementary transformations, Test of consistency and solution of simultaneous linear equations in two or three variables using determinants and matrices.·Permutations and Combinations: Fundamental principle of counting, permutation as an arrangement and combination as selection, Meaning of P (n,r) and C (n,r), simple applications.·Mathematical Induction: Principle of Mathematical Induction and its simple applications.·Binomial Theorem and its Simple Applications: Binomial theorem for a positive integral index, general term and middle term, properties of Binomial coefficients and simple applications.·Sequences and Series: Arithmetic and Geometric progressions, insertion of arithmetic, geometric means between two given numbers. Relation between A.M. and G.M. Sum up to n terms of special series: S n, S n2, Sn3. Arithmetico-Geometric progression.·Limit, Continuity and Differentiability:Real - valued functions, algebra of functions, polynomials, rational, trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions, inverse functions. Graphs of simple functions. Limits, continuity and differentiability. Differentiation of the sum, difference, product and quotient of two functions. Differentiation of trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, composite and implicit functions; derivatives of order upto two. Rolle's and Lagrange's Mean Value Theorems. Applications of derivatives: Rate of change of quantities, monotonic - increasing and decreasing functions, Maxima and minima of functions of one variable, tangents and normals.·Integral Calculus: Integral as an anti - derivative. Fundamental integrals involving algebraic, trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions. Integration by substitution, by parts and by partial fractions. Integration using trigonometric identities.Integral as limit of a sum. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Properties of definite integrals. Evaluation of definite integrals, determining areas of the regions bounded by simple curves in standard form.·Differential Equations: Ordinary differential equations, their order and degree. Formation of differential equations. Solution of differential equations by the method of separation of variables, solution of homogeneous and linear differential equations.·Co-ordinate Geometry: Cartesian system of rectangular co-ordinates 10 in a plane, distance formula, section formula, locus and its equation, translation of axes, slope of a line, parallel and perpendicular lines, intercepts of a line on the coordinate axes.Straight lines: Various forms of equations of a line, intersection of lines, angles between two lines, conditions for concurrence of three lines, distance of a point from a line, equations of internal and external bisectors of angles between two lines, coordinates of centroid, orthocentre and circumcenter of a triangle, equation of family of lines passing through the point of intersection of two lines.Circles, conic sections: Standard form of equation of a circle, general form of the equation of a circle, its radius and centre, equation of a circle when the end points of a diameter are given, points of intersection of a line and a circle with the centre at the origin and condition for a line to be tangent to a circle, equation of the tangent. Sections of cones, equations of conic sections (parabola, ellipse and hyperbola) in standard forms, condition for y = mx + c to be a tangent and point (s) of tangency.·Three Dimensional Geometry: Coordinates of a point in space, distance between two points, section formula, direction ratios and direction cosines, angle between two intersecting lines. Skew lines, the shortest distance between them and its equation. Equations of a line and a plane in different forms, intersection of a line and a plane, coplanar lines.·Vector Algebra: Vectors and scalars, addition of vectors, components of a vector in two dimensions and three dimensional space, scalar and vector products, scalar and vector triple product.·Statistics and Probability:Measures of Dispersion: Calculation of mean, median, mode of grouped and ungrouped data calculation of standard deviation, variance and mean deviation for grouped and ungrouped data.Probability: Probability of an event, addition and multiplication theorems of probability, Baye's theorem, probability distribution of a random variate, Bernoulli trials and Binomial distribution.·Trigonometry: Trigonometrical identities and equations. Trigonometrical functions. Inverse trigonometrical functions and their properties. Heights and Distances.·Mathematical Reasoning: Statements, logical operations and, or, implies, implied by, if and only if. Understanding of tautology, contradiction, converse and contrapositive.JEE Main Syllabus 2020 - Paper 2 (Aptitude Test B. Arch/ B. Plan)Part I:Awareness of persons, places, Buildings, Materials. Objects, Texture related to Architecture and build—environment. Visualizing three-dimensional objects from two-dimensional drawings. Visualizing different sides of three-dimensional objects. Analytical Reasoning Mental Ability (Visual, Numerical and Verbal).Part II:Three dimensional - perception: Understanding and appreciation of scale and proportion of objects, building forms and elements, color texture, harmony and contrast. Design and drawing of geometrical or abstract shapes and patterns in pencil. Transformation of forms both 2 D and 3 D union, subtraction, rotation, development of surfaces and volumes, Generation of Plan, elevations and 3 D views of objects. Creating two dimensional and three dimensional compositions using given shapes and forms.Sketching of scenes and activities from memory of urbanscape (public space, market, festivals, street scenes, monuments, recreational spaces, etc.), landscape (river fronts, jungles, trees, plants, etc.) and rural life.

Based on what I know, I think for the MG-42: effectiveness and ammo consumption were 2 separate issues.Was the MG-42 effective? - Extremely, if operated by a skillful machine-gunner AND employed in the defense in concert with other MG-42s in a tactically intelligent manner.Was the MG-42 wasteful of ammunition? - Yes, it could be due to its high ROF. But with skillful control by a well-trained and experienced gunner, ammo consumption could be controlled to avoid wastage.I will explain both aspects of the weapon in the following section. (quite long so please bear with me)The MG 42 was unique in that it boasted an exceptionally high ROF: 1,200 - 1,500 RPM. The fact that it could only fire in automatic mode (semiautomatic was possible but it required extremely delicate control or by loading alternate links with cartridge. The second option required the gun’s charging handle to be pulled back after each round was fired.) meant that if used carelessly by an inexperienced or poorly trained gunner, it would consume a tremendous amount of ammunition in a short time span. The 1,800 rounds carried by a full squad could be burned through in little more than 10 or 15 minutes of intensive firing.In fact, this popular American military training video, although evidently disparaging of German weapons as inferior to American weapons, was right on one point that the MG-42 was wasteful of ammunition and essentially required additional soldiers in an MG squad to carry extra ammo.Even the most restrained MG-gunners found it difficult to completely avoid wasteful consumption of ammo and often found themselves often dangerously low on ammo, especially when facing some of the massed Soviet infantry assaults on the Eastern Front. One soldier recalled:Rather than simply attacking another section of the defensive rim, or retreating - as I believe any sane commander would do - the Russians continued to send countless troops to attack this one section of the line. They fired mortars into our rank, killing several paratroopers. German machine-gun crews were desperately screaming for ammunition as they continued mowing down groups of Russian infantrymen. They fired their MG 42s in one-second bursts, as they had been trained, but this was not enough to conserve their ammunition. The Russians were very numerous.Before discussing the effectiveness of the MG-42, I think a detailed discussion relating to the challenges of operating the MG-42 will help you appreciate what it took to become an MG-42 gunner. Challenges associated with the MG-42 gave rise to rigorous training to master the intricacies of the weapon. Rigorous training contributed to effective use of the weapon in combat.Being in charge of the MG-42 was a tremendous responsibility, both a curse and a blessing for the machine gunner. Weighing at 11.5 kg empty, carrying an MG-42 was a considerable strain on the machine gunner. Besides the MG, an MG team had to carry a Lafette tripod which weighed 20 kg without fixing the gun on it. There were other tools to be maintained; the ammunition cans (patronenkasten) each weighing 13kg, Gurtfuller 34 or Gurtfuller 41 belt-filling machines, 2-kg spare barrels plus the barrel container, gun optics, bolts, recoil springs. etc… The weapon’s high ROF, heavy recoil, excessive muzzle flash, etc… added more challenges to the use of the weapon.Apart from the physical strain of carrying an MG-42 and its accessories, heavy emphasis was placed on the weapon’s regular maintenance to ensure proper functioning. The last thing a German squad wanted to happen was to see their MG jammed at the critical moments which could be fatal for them. In fact, maintaining an MG-42 was such an essential task of an MG team, that the German Army issued the 12 Commandments of the machine gunners as follows:As a consequence of all of physical and technical challenges, an MG-42 gunner couldn’t be just anyone. Ideally, MG-42 gunners had to be those with superb visions, right-handed, strong and well-built. Not only that, he had to be highly competent and technically-minded, endowed with the physical and technical aptitude to operate the MG-42 effectively.Soldiers chosen to handle the Einheitsmaschinengewehr (unit MG) were subjected to a very comprehensive and rigorous training program divided into 2 phases.Phase 1 revolved around the use of MG-42 in their bipod-mounted LMG configuration and consisted of 21 separate lessons. The recruits would learn how the weapon worked, how to maintain it, change barrels, clear stoppages, reload, and take part in firing exercises. In the final lesson, the recruits would engage in tactical exercises involving the weapon. As a side note, the fast barrel-changing mechanism of the MG-42 was one of the genius features of the weapon. A well-trained crew could change a barrel in 4–7 seconds, resulting in only a brief drop in squad firepower in combat.Phase 2 consisted of 16 lessons in employing the MG-42 in HMG role on the Lafette tripod mount. The recruits would have to master how to set up the weapon on the Lafette, how to use the MG Z optical sight, and the tactics of sustained and indirect fire. In addition, they would learn how to fire the weapon when mounted on the Zwillingsockel twin mount or the Fliegerdrehstuze 36 vehicle pedestal mount.One particularly important aspect of the training program was how to fire the MG-42 properly in various positions and mounts. Apart from the standard firing positions, training featured firing in an assault position = firing from the hip which required great upper-body strength and delicate trigger control.An alternative firing position was firing over the shoulder of a willing comrade. This was often the last resort.Only for the exceptionally brave and in exceptional situations. Firing over the shoulder of another soldier like this subjected the man at the front to deafening noise, strong blast and dazzling muzzle flash.The MG-42’s high ROF produced excessive recoil in lengthy burst of fire on bipod mount. If not controlled tightly, the gun would wander off the target. The muzzle blast would kick up dust cloud that reduced visibility. The muzzle flash could be dazzling in low-light or night-time conditions.To effectively fire the MG-42, special emphasis was placed on making the correct grip on the weapon. The German LMG training manual statedThe results of the fire will largely depend upon how the machine gun is being held by the machine-gunner. The bipod, elbows and shoulders are the support for the machine gun and they may equal the mount for a heavy machine gun if utilized correctly. Good results may be achieved by digging the points of the boots into the ground for added support... In a normal prone position, the machine-gunner’s body must lie directly behind the weapon. The bipod, shoulders and elbows must work together and support the machine gun equally. The weight of the body should press lightly against the bipod.The manual described the problems of incorrect grip. Held too loosely and the rounds would frequently strike the area between the MG position and the target. Too much forward pressure against the bipod, or the misalignment of the gunner’s body with the axis of the gun, and the muzzle would stray up and to the right or left.In addition to correct gripping, firing carefully controlled bursts of fire was crucial for optimal results. Interestingly, the specifics of firing effective controlled bursts can be found in a US army report in January 1944 which stated the following:It would appear, in any case, that a high degree of skill and training are required to obtain the best results from the MG-42…a. When Used As a Light Machine GunTrials under battle conditions have shown that the best results are obtained from bursts of 5 to 7 rounds, as it is not possible to keep the gun on the target for a longer period.The destruction of the target is therefore accomplished with bursts of 5 to 7 rounds, the point of aim being continually checked. It is of course important that re-aiming should be carried out rapidly, so that the bursts follow one another in quick succession. Under battle conditions the firer can get off approximately 22 bursts in a minute, or approximately 154 rounds. Comparative trials under the same conditions with the MG-34 showed that the best results in this case were obtained with 15 bursts in the minute, each of 7 to 10 rounds, i.e. approximately 150 rounds.It will be seen from this that the ammunition expenditure of the MG-42 is a little higher than with the MG-34, but to balance this, the results on the target with the MG-42 are increased up to approximately 40%. (US Army 1944a)The results of the American testing are useful. One key takeaway is that the cyclical rate of an MG dictates the rate of fire in practice. In the American opinion, the fast-firing MG-42 required controlled bursts of 5–7 rounds to be most effective, while for the MG-34 with a lower ROF, the optimal was 7–10 rounds per burst.Another takeaway is that the report acknowledged that firing the MG-42 required extra skill and control not required in other MGs. Indeed, there were several first-hand accounts that attested to the challenges of firing the MG-42 even by experienced German soldiers. One such account is from the book The Forgotten Soldier by Guy Sajer. The setting was a battle around Belgorod in the summer of 1943. Sajer served as an MG-42 gunner. As the Germans were prepared to mount an attack, Sajer tried to control his nerve in a position only about 100-m from the advanced Soviet trench:Suddenly I began to shake uncontrollably [...] I tried shifting my weight, but nothing did any good. I managed to open the magazine [the top cover] and nervously slipped the first belt into the breech of the gun, which the veteran held open for me, and left partly open, to prevent the sound of its clicking shut.Hals had just opened fire. The veteran slammed our gun shut and fitted it into the hollow of his shoulder.‘Fire!’ shouted the noncom. ‘Wipe them out!’The Russians ran to take their places. The string of 7.7 [sic] cartridges slid through our hands with brutal rapidity, while the noise of the gun burst against our eardrums.I could see what was happening only with the greatest difficulty. The spandau was shuddering and jumping on its legs, and shaking the veteran, who kept trying to steady himself. Its percussive bark put a final touch on the vast din which had broken out. Through the vibrations and smoke, we were able to observe the horrible impact of our projectiles.You see, these men were veteran soldiers, and even they had to strain to keep the weapon on target. It would have been more difficult for an inexperienced gunner.After successful completion of the training program, the recruits qualified as MG-42 gunners. They would go into combat to apply their skills, gain combat experience and become invaluable members of their units whose success and survival depended on their skillful operation of the weapon.MG-42’s squad in combatThe MG-34/42 was the core of German infantry organization, right down to the Gruppe (squad) level. The basic German wartime squad comprised 10 men, armed and equipped as follows:With its high ROF, the MG-42 could deliver a volume of firepower equivalent to 20 riflemen.Support fire was generated by a battalion’s heavy MG platoon which consisted of 4 tripod-mounted MG. Each of these MG was manned by 6 men: an MG leader, primary MG gunner, assistant MG gunner, and 3 ammunition men. The 3 ammunition men carried 1,800 rounds of ammunition and 2 spare barrels.The role of the German squad MG was simple - provide a powerful base of fire in either offensive or defensive situations. A key German squad battlefield formation during WW2 was the Reihe:In this formation, squad members fell into a fluid single-file formation with the squad leader at the front, the MG gunner in the 2nd position, the assistant gunner the 3rd position, and riflemen followed them behind. The assistant squad leader would be position at the end of the line.As soon as the squad came under hostile fire, or spotted an enemy position to be engaged, the MG gunner would immediately take up an optimal firing position and start unleashing heavy suppressive fire by firing short and accurate bursts. The assistant gunner would stay by his side to help load ammunition and change barrel. Meanwhile, the rest of the squad would fan out to the left and right of the MG, creating the Schützenkette (skirmish line). One critical factor was maintaining a reasonable distance between each man - about 5 paces. The distance mattered because the MG, once identified by the enemy, would receive the lion’s share of retaliatory fire. This problem could be mitigated by firing short disciplined bursts rather than long bursts and by moving to various positions of cover regularly which would partly hide the MG-gunner.A single German squad would create a defensive sector about 40-m of front. When used in an LMG mode, the 2-man MG-42 team would occupy a Schützenloch für leichte maschinengewehr (two-man light MG position). In ideal form, this position was a curved trench about 1.6 m long plus 2 shorter Panzerdeckungsloch (armor protection trenches) in which the occupants could squat down if their position was overrun by tanks. Multiple such positions would be dug in a well-constructed squad defense to give the MG team the option of shifting to more advantageous positions, or abandoning ones that would be overrun.Enough about squad tactic. Let’s talk about how the MG-42s and their operators performed in combat using reports from both the Allies and the German Army.The Germans proved themselves masters of using the MG-34/42 in urban defense. Several guns would be positioned around a town square or important street section, carefully sited to lure Allied troops into a kill zone from which escape was uncertain and difficult once the trap was sprung. Barricades of rubble, created by explosives to collapse buildings across streets would be covered by individual MGs, and the weapons would be positioned at various floor levels in buildings to give multi-directional and multi-dimensional angles of fire that further confounded Allied troops and increased Allies’ casualties.A convincing example of how the Germans used their MG-34/42 in urban defense could be found in a US Intelligence Bulletin dated July 1944. In particular, a 5th Army’s report meticulously described how the Germans defended 2 houses on the road to Carano, Italy with just 2 platoons. Let’s read the Germans’ skillful defense of one of the houses, referred to as house ‘A’, using MGs:In the case of house A, it was observed that all the machine guns (345) were emplaced in the house itself or in its outbuildings. Machine gun No. 1 was fired from a table in the ruins of what had been a room; the gun’s direction of fire was through a hole in the main wall and then through the archway of a cowshed. By emplacing the machine gun in this manner, the Germans concealed its muzzle flash from all directions except to the front, and even from that direction it was not conspicuous. The gunner was well protected from small-arms fire and grenades, and was not exposed when he moved to his alternate (1a) position. From position 1a, the gunner was able to cover an additional area to the front and also to protect the flank of the strong point against any attack from the road. Three Mauser rifles loaded with antitank grenades were found leaning against the wall to the left of the doorway.Machine gun No. 2 was in position inside the same room, and was sited so that it could be fired through a window facing the stream. It is interesting to note that when our forces secured the south side of the building and attempted to toss grenades through the window at machine gun No. 2, the German gunner ricocheted bullets off the wall (W) in an effort to forestall the grenade fire.Machine gun No. 3 was sited in a corner of an adjoining room, where the walls were still standing. This gun was so sited that its plane of fire was close to the ground; during the course of the action, the gun delivered continuous fire, angle high, toward the stream and, alternately, to the south. The walls afforded protection from the south and west.The siting of machine gun No. 4 shows how the enemy utilizes the characteristic Italian outdoor oven as a machine-gun emplacement. By siting his weapon in the part of the oven normally used for storing wood, the gunner protects himself against small-arms fire from the flanks and rear, and enjoys a certain amount of overhead protection against artillery fire. During the action, the No. 4 gun delivered grazing fire ankle high. (Hand grenades and rifle grenades wounded the two-man crew of this gun, and destroyed the gun itself.) (US Army 1944b)As you can see, the placement of the MGs demonstrated intelligence and skills on the part of the German defenders. Everything from the concealment of the muzzle flash to the height of the fire is considered. Most importantly, the guns together formed a mutually supporting tactical entity.The Germans also proved adept at using indirect fire tactic learned in their training. This was done in HMG mode on tripod using optical sights. It was a complicated task requiring highly technical understanding of the sight’s traverse and elevation settings and their relation to various range tables and ancillary range-calculating equipment. Training and practice made this easier to perform. German gunners were noted for their ability to use a group of tripod-mounted MGs to saturate a target area from distance. With about 13 MGs in its complement, a German infantry company could unleash well over 2,000 rounds every minute against enemy formations.The tactic was deadly. Allied troops in the attack were particularly vulnerable to this tactic. The first they would know of the enemy MGs would be the crack of rounds splitting the air, observed bullet impacts and soldiers dropping to the ground, dead or wounded. Numerous Allies’ reports from the advance across Normandy and France in 1944 attested to getting caught in German MG-crossfire, with entire battalions and even divisions unable to advance against withering fire while suffer heavy losses. One report noted that during an attack on a German position:the Germans had at least 2 platoons with 2 MGs each, with at least 3 in our sector. We keep going forward and we keep losing people. They just decimated us.Also, don’t forget how MG-42 claimed the lives of thousands of American soldiers on the beach of Omaha June 6th 1944.German paratroopers firing their MG-42 in the rubble of Monte Cassino. Well-entrenched, the German defenders inflicted heavy casualties on the attacking Allied troops.Apart from the massive firepower the MG-42 unleashed, it also had a devastating psychological effect on the enemies. Nicknamed Spandaus by the Allies, Allied troops were terrified by the sound of the weapon which resembled the sound of linoleum ripping or a buzzsaw.The MG-42’s coupled with its lethal effect on the target earned it a variety of epithets such a Hitlersäge (Hitler’s saw), Die Schnellespritze (the fast sprayer), knochensäge (Bone saw), Linoleum Ripper. An account of Canadian soldier in the 5th armored division attested to the psychological impact of the MG-42:From beyond the embankment came the steady rattle of small arms, mostly the enemy’s. It was easy to identify them. Brens could push out a maximum 540 rounds per minute, while the MG 34 delivered eight to nine hundred, [the MG] 42 could spit out twelve hundred. Someone somewhere on the battlefield came up with the term ‘rubber gun’ for the Jerry MGs - not an apt name, but nonetheless that’s what we came to know them [sic] until the more descriptive term ‘cheese cutter’ took over. By whatever name we called it, the Jerry machine-gun was a weapon to be feared. (Scislowski 1997: 123-24)So fearsome was the weapon that the US army produced a famous training film designed to allay American GIs’ fear should they face this weapon in combat, The training film compares German automatic weapons vis-a-vis American automatic weapons to demonstrate how accurate and efficient in ammo use American MG were compared to their German weapons:The most famous line in the video was: “Its bark is worse than its bite”.Apart from being mendacious and deliberately disparaging of German automatic weapons (the only truth was that the MG-42 could be wasteful of ammo only if used carelessly) designed to allay the fear of Allied soldiers facing the MG-42, the video conveniently omitted one important thing: how the German actually used their MG-42s in mutually supporting positions, an omission that would prove to be a nasty surprise to Allied soldiers in combat and caused them to incur heavy casualties. German MG teams were tactically intelligent units who knew how to employ the MG-42’s high ROF to good effect. This was testified by Lieutenant Sydney Jary of 4th Battalion, The Somerset Light Infantry, fighting in Normandy in 1944:The forward platoon had barely crossed the stream when concentrated Spandau fire came from the front and both flanks. There must have been about twelve machine guns firing at one time. This devastating firepower stopped the battalion dead in its tracks. There was no way forward or around it and no way to retire.Tom Renouf, serving with 5lst Highland Division in 1944- 45, witnessed the grim effects of ‘Spandau’ impacts at first hand:Meanwhile, our platoon secured some high ground further forward, where we came under heavy Spandau fire. A bullet hit our corporal, Sam Clarke from Elphinstone, near Ormiston, in the leg, severing an artery. He died shortly afterwards… This was my first experience of direct Spandau fire. All you heard was a short burst and then people were falling.The Allies’ methods of countering MG-42s could be extremely expensive. Many combat reports of the North-West Europe campaign spoke not only of the terror and casualties that the German MGs could inflict on Allied troops, but also the overwhelming firepower that tended to engulf those guns once they could be targeted. Increasingly, German infantry companies would stay in place long enough to hit advancing Allied troops hard with crossfire, but then retreat when the firepower directed at them became overwhelming. General Heinrich von Luttwitz, the commander of XLVII Panzer Corps, observed that:The incredibly heavy artillery and mortar fire of the enemy is something new, both for the seasoned veterans of the Eastern Front and the new arrivals from reinforcement units. The average rate of fire on the divisional sector is four thousand artillery rounds and five thousand mortar rounds per day. This is multiplied many times before an enemy attack, however small. For instance, on one occasion when the British made an attack on a sector of only 2 companies they expended 3,500 rounds in 2 hours. The Allies were waging war regardless of expense.Hopefully from the preceding presentation, you can appreciate just how deadly the MG-42s were when:used by well-trained and experienced soldiersdeployed in mutually supporting tactic with interlocking fireAll in all, the MG 42 and to a lesser extent the MG-34 were true force multipliers enabling a small number of soldiers to put down a massive volume of fire that couldn’t have been achieved by dozens of riflemen. Both MGs were capable of inflicting heavy casualties and of forcing large units to a standstill. Without weapons of this capability and flexibility, it was likely that Allied infantry in Europe would have been able to advance much faster and without much casualties. The MG-42 in particular was a masterpiece at both technical and tactical levels. With its proven fearsome capability to suppress enemy infantry and kill in mass in the hand of highly trained and experienced operators. the MG-42 was regarded with both fear and a grudging respect by all those who faced it, as exemplified by Polish resistance fighter Marian S. Mazgai:A unit from the Jedrus company pushed toward the end of the road that went in the direction of Momocicha, but when it reached the top of the elevation that divided it from the enemy, the German machine-gun fire, from a nearby windmill, forced it to hit the ground. I will never forget that heavy German machine-gun fire that almost cost me my life. When the Germans fired at our unit from the windmill as well as from its vicinity, we responded with our fire. I happened to fire a German-made machine gun MG 42 from a fine position. At the same time, I was doing everything possible to discover the German position from which the enemy was firing at us with the same kind of machine guns, MG 42s. According to my humble estimation, model MG 42 was the best machine gun used in World War II. (Mazgai 2008: 211)The MG-42 proved to be so versatile, effective and successful that it formed the basis for multiple derivatives that see service with many armed forces in the present day, including the German army which employs the MG-3. The MG-3 is manufactured under license by other countries and assigned different designations by the military the uses it.I will conclude this answer with a description of what it was like to be an MG-42 gunner.Being an MG-42 gunner was both a curse and blessing and was an onerous job. The gunner was entrusted with an extremely deadly weapons on which the success and survival of his unit literally depended. It was a tremendous responsibility. He had to maintain the weapon ceaselessly to ensure its proper functioning.The physical strains were severe. The relatively heavy weight of the gun, its tripod, its ammunition cans and other accessories an MG-team had to carry could easily weary the men, esp in long and intense combat:Exhausted German infantrymen taking a nap on the Eastern front. Grenades and MG and ammunition boxes could be seen on the round.MG-gunners faced considerable danger because the enemy would try to destroy the MG once it was spotted by returning MG-fire, snipers, mortars or heavy artillery strike. In the HMG role, the gunner was particularly vulnerable because using optical sights meant that the gunner had to position his eye above the line of the mount (shown below),the result being he ran the risk of being shot by snipers or counter MG fire.This danger could be mitigated by using the periscope attachment (shown below) which enabled the gunner to see the view in front of the gun while positioned safely behind cover.Like captured snipers, captured MG-gunners often faced summary execution, particularly so if they had inflicted heavy casualties prior to capture.The fate of many German machine gunners: a fallen MG-gunner in Holland.In the end, despite the skills, courage and resilience of the German soldiers and a wide range of technologically excellent weapons produced by Germany, including the MG-34/42, they were not enough to stop the Allies using sheer and crushing weight of firepower to overcome the Germans. Defeat of the Third Reich was inevitable.Reference(s)1/ MG-34 and MG-42 machine guns - Chris McNab