The Commissioners Court Retired To Executive Session At 10:51 Am: Fill & Download for Free

Here is the full text of the Charte constitutionnel du 4 juin 1814. I must confess that it is very long and so I did not translate it myself from the French, but rather used a translation app. I have checked it over to ensure no great errors have occurred. But I am only human and could easily have missed something, for which I apologise in advance.LOUIS, By the grace of God, King of France and Navarre, To all who will see these presents, greetings.Divine Providence in recalling us to our States after a long absence has imposed great obligations on us. Peace was the first need of our subjects, we took care of it tirelessly; and this peace so necessary for France as for the rest of Europe is signed. A Constitutional Charter was requested by the present state of the Kingdom; we promised it and we publish it. We have considered that, although the whole authority in France resided in the person of the King, our predecessors had not hesitated to modify its exercise according to the difference of times; that this is how the communes owed their liberation to Louis-le-Gros, the confirmation and extension of their rights to S. Louis and Philippe-le-Bel; that the judicial order was established and developed by the laws of Louis XI, Henri II and Charles IX; finally that Louis XIV regulated almost all the parts of the public administration by various ordinances of which nothing had yet surpassed the wisdom. We have had, following the example of the kings our predecessors, to appreciate the effects of the ever increasing progress of enlightenment, the new relations which this progress has introduced into society, the direction given to minds for half a century, and the serious alterations that resulted. We recognized that our subjects' wish for a Constitutional Charter was the expression of a real need; but in giving in to this wish we have taken all the precautions so that this Charter is worthy of us and of the people we are proud to command. Wise men, taken from the first bodies of the state, gathered at commissioners of our council to work on this important work.At the same time that we recognize that a free and monarchical constitution must fulfill the expectations of an enlightened Europe, we have also had to remember that our first duty towards our peoples was to preserve for their own interest the rights and prerogatives of our crown. We hoped that, instructed by experience, they would be convinced that supreme authority alone can give to the institutions which it establishes the strength, the permanence and the majesty with which it is itself invested; that in this way when the wisdom of kings accords freely with the wishes of the people, a Constitutional Charter can be of long duration; but that when violence wrest concessions from the weakness of the Government, public liberty is no less in danger than the throne itself. Finally, we looked for the principles of the Constitutional Charter in the French character and in the venerable monuments of past centuries. Thus we saw in the renewal of the peerage, a truly national institution, and which must link all memories to all hopes, bringing together ancient times and modern times. We have replaced by the Chamber of Deputies these ancient assemblies of the Champs de Mars and Mai, and these chambers of the Third Estate, which have so often given both at the same time proofs of zeal for the interests of the people, of loyalty and respect for the authority of Kings. By thus seeking to reconnect the chain of times which disastrous deviations had interrupted, we have erased from our memory, as we would like to be able to erase them from history, all the evils which afflicted the country during our absence. Happy to find ourselves in the bosom of the big family, we only knew how to respond to the love of which we receive so many testimonies, by pronouncing words of peace and consolation. The dearest wish in our hearts is that all French people live as brothers, and that no bitter memory ever disturbs the security which must follow the solemn act that we grant them today.Sure of our intentions, strong in our conscience, we commit ourselves before the Assembly which listens to us to be faithful to this Constitutional Charter, reserving ourselves to swear its maintenance with a new solemnity before the altars of the one who weighs in the same balance kings and nations.To these causes, we have voluntarily, and by the free exercise of our royal authority, granted and grant, made concession and grant to our subjects both for ourselves and for our successors, and always of the following Constitutional Charter:Public rights of the French.* Article 1. The French are equal before the law, whatever their titles and ranks.* Article 2. They contribute without distinction, in proportion to their fortune, to the charges of the State.* Article 3. They are all equally eligible for civilian and military employment.* Article 4. Their individual freedom is also guaranteed, no one can be prosecuted or arrested except in the cases provided for by law and in the form it prescribes.* Article 5. Everyone professes his religion with equal freedom, and obtains the same protection for his worship.* Article 6. However, the Catholic, Apostolic and Roman religion is the religion of the State.* Article 7. The ministers of the Catholic, Apostolic and Roman religion and those of other Christian cults alone receive salaries from the royal treasury.* Article 8. The French have the right to publish their opinions and have them printed, while complying with the laws which must repress abuses of this freedom.* Article 9. All properties are inviolable, without any exception from those called national, the law making no difference between them.* Article 10. The State can demand the sacrifice of a property for cause of legally established public interest; but with prior compensation.* Article 11. All research of opinions and votes cast until the restoration is prohibited. The same oblivion is ordered from the courts and from the citizens.* Article 12. Conscription is abolished. The mode of recruiting the army of land and sea is determined by law.Forms of the King's Government.* Article 13. The person of the King is inviolable and sacred. Its ministers are responsible. The King alone has executive power.* Article 14. The King is the supreme head of the State, commands the forces of land and sea, declares war, makes treaties of peace, alliance and trade, appoints to all posts of the administration public, and makes the regulations and ordinances necessary for the execution of the laws and the security of the State.* Article 15. Legislative power is exercised collectively by the King, the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies of the departments.* Article 16. The King proposes the law.* Article 17. The bill is brought, at the will of the King, to the Chamber of Peers or to those of Deputies, except for the tax law, which must first be addressed to the Chamber of Deputies.* Article 18. Any law must be discussed and voted on freely by the majority of each of the two Chambers.* Article 19. The Chambers have the right to beg the King to propose a law on any subject whatsoever, and to indicate what they consider appropriate that the law contains.* Article 20. This request may be made by each of the two Chambers, but after having been discussed in a secret committee. It will only be sent to the other House, by the one which has proposed it, after a period of ten days.* Article 21. If the proposal is adopted by the other Chamber, it will be put before the eyes of the King; if it is rejected, it cannot be represented in the same session.* Article 22. The King, alone, sanctions and promulgates the laws.* Article 23. The civil list is fixed for the entire duration of the reign, by the first legislature assembled since the accession of the King.The House of Peers.* Article 24. The House of Peers is an essential part of the legislative power.* Article 25. It is convened by the King at the same time as the Chamber of Deputies of the departments. One's session begins and ends at the same time as the other's.* Article 26. Any assembly of the Chamber of Peers which would be held outside the time of the session of the Chamber of Deputies, or which would not be ordered by the King, is illegal and void as of right.* Article 27. The appointment of the Peers of France belongs to the King. Their number is unlimited; he can vary their dignities, name them for life or make them hereditary according to his will.* Article 28. The Peers entered the Chamber at the age of twenty-five, and voting rights at only thirty.* Article 29. The Chamber of Peers is chaired by the Chancellor of France, and, in his absence, by a peer appointed by the King.* Article 30. The members of the Royal family and the princes of the blood are peers by right of birth, they sit immediately after the President; but they do not have a deliberative voice until they are twenty-five years old.* Article 31. The Princes can only take a sitting in the Chamber by order of the King, expressed for each session, by a message, on pain of nullity of all that would have been done in their presence.* Article 32. All the deliberations of the House of Peers are secret.* Article 33. The House of Peers hears crimes of high treason and attacks on state security, which will be defined by law.* Article 34. No Peer can be arrested except by the authority of the Chamber, and judged only by it in criminal matters.The Chamber of Deputies of the departments.* Article 35. The Chamber of Deputies will be composed of the deputies elected by the electoral colleges, whose organization will be determined by laws.* Article 36. Each department will have the same number of deputies that it has had until now.* Article 37. The Deputies will be elected for five years, and so that the Chamber is renewed every year by fifth.* Article 38. No Deputy may be admitted to the Chamber unless he is forty years old and if he does not pay a direct contribution of 1,000 francs.* Article 39. If nevertheless there were not in the department fifty people of the age indicated, paying at least 1,000 fr. of direct contributions, their number will be supplemented by the most taxed below 1,000 francs, and these cannot be elected concurrently with the former.* Article 40. The electors who concur in the nomination of Deputies cannot have the right to vote if they do not pay a direct contribution of 300 francs, and if they are less than thirty years old.* Article 41. The presidents of the electoral colleges will be appointed by the King, and by right members of the College.* Article 42. At least half of the Deputies will be chosen from among those eligible who have their political domicile in the department.* Article 43. The President of the Chamber of Deputies is appointed by the King from a list of five members presented by the Chamber.* Article 44. The sessions of the Chamber are public; but the request for five members is enough for it to form a secret committee.* Article 45. The Chamber is divided into offices to discuss the projects which have been presented on behalf of the King.* Article 46. No amendment may be made to a law if it has not been proposed or consented to by the King, and if it has not been returned and discussed in the offices.* Article 47. The Chamber of Deputies receives all tax proposals; It is only after these proposals have been admitted that they can be brought to the House of Peers.* Article 48. No tax can be established or collected if it has not been agreed by the two Chambers and sanctioned by the King.* Article 49. The property tax is only granted for one year. Indirect taxes can be for several years.* Article 50. The king convenes each year the two Chambers; he prolongs them and can dissolve that of the Deputies of the departments; but, in this case, he must convene a new one within three months.* Article 51. No body constraint can be exercised against a member of the Chamber during the session, and in the six weeks which will have preceded or followed it.* Article 52. No member of the Chamber may during the session be prosecuted or arrested in criminal matters, except in the case of flagrante delicto, only after the Chamber has allowed his prosecution.* Article 53. Any petition to one or the other of the Chambers can only be made and presented in writing. It is against the law to bring it in person and to the bar.Ministers.* Article 54. Ministers may be members of the Chamber of Peers or of the Chamber of Deputies. They have, moreover, their entry in one or the other Chamber, and must be heard when they ask it.* Article 55. The Chamber of Deputies has the right to accuse the Ministers and to bring them before the Chamber of Peers, which alone has the right to judge them.* Article 56. They can only be accused of treason or concussion. Special laws will specify this type of crime and will determine its prosecution.Of the Judicial Order.* Article 57. All justice emanates from the King; it is administered in its name by judges whom it appoints and institutes.* Article 58. The judges appointed by the King are irremovable.* Article 59. The ordinary Courts and Tribunals, currently existing, are maintained. Nothing will be changed except by virtue of a law.* Article 60. The current institution of Commercial Judges is preserved.* Article 61. Justice of the peace is also preserved. The Justices of the Peace, although appointed by the King, are not irremovable.* Article 62. No one can be distracted from his natural judges.* Article 63. Consequently, extraordinary commissions and tribunals cannot be created. Provost jurisdictions are not included under this name, if their reestablishment is deemed necessary.* Article 64. The debates will be public in criminal matters, unless this publicity is dangerous for order and morals, and, in this case, the court declares it by a judgment.* Article 65. The institution of juries is preserved; changes which longer experience would deem necessary can only be effected by law.* Article 66. The penalty of confiscation of property is abolished and cannot be reinstated.* Article 67. The King has the right to pardon and the right to commute sentences.* Article 68. The Civil Code and the currently existing laws which are not contrary to this Charter remain in force until they are legally derogated from.Special rights guaranteed by the State.* Article 69. Servicemen in active service, retired officers and soldiers, widows, retired officers and soldiers will retain their ranks, honors and pensions.* Article 70. The public debt is guaranteed; any kind of commitment made by the State with its creditors is inviolable.* Article 71. The old nobility takes back its titles; the news retains its own. The King makes nobles at will, but he grants them only ranks and honors, without any exemption from the duties and duties of society.* Article 72. The Legion of Honor is maintained. The King will determine the internal regulations and the decoration.* Article 73. The colonies will be governed by specific laws and regulations.* Article 74. The King and his successors will swear, in the solemnity of their coronation, to faithfully observe this Constitutional Charter.Transitional Articles.* Article 75. The Deputies of the departments of France who sat in the Legislative Body during the last adjournment, will continue to sit in the Chamber of Deputies until replacement.* Article 76. The first renewal of a fifth of the Chamber of Deputies will take place, at the latest, in the year 1816, following the order established between the series.We Order that this Constitutional Charter, placed before the eyes of the Senate and the Legislative Body, in accordance with our proclamation of May 2, will be sent immediately to the House of Peers and that of Deputies.Given in Paris in the year of grace eighteen hundred and fourteen, and of our reign the nineteenth.Signed Louis.

Phew.. this is the longest answer I have written..Constitution of IndiaThis article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)This article relies too much on references to primary sources. (July 2018)This article needs additional citations for verification. (July 2018)Constitution of IndiaConstitution of India.jpgOriginal text of the preambleOriginal title भारतीय संविधान (IAST: Bhāratīya Saṃvidhāna)[a]Jurisdiction IndiaRatified 26 November 1949; 69 years agoDate effective 26 January 1950; 69 years agoSystem Constitutional parliamentary socialist secular republicBranches Three (executive, legislature and judiciary)Chambers Two (Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha)Executive Prime minister-led cabinet responsible to the lower house of the parliamentJudiciary Supreme court, high courts and district courtsFederalism Unitary (Quasi-federal)Electoral college Yes, for presidential and vice-presidential electionsEntrenchments 2Amendments 103Last amended 12 January 2019 (103rd)Location Parliament House, New Delhi, IndiaAuthor(s) B. R. Ambedkar and the drafting committee of the Constituent Assembly of IndiaSignatories 284 members of the Constituent AssemblySupersedes Government of India Act 1935Indian Independence Act 1947Part of a series onConstitution of IndiaEmblem of India.svgPreambleParts[show]Schedules[show]Appendices[show]Amendments[show]Related topics[show]vteThe Constitution of India (IAST: Bhāratīya Saṃvidhāna) is the supreme law of India.[1][2] The document lays down the framework demarcating fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens. It is the longest written constitution of any country on earth.[b][3][4][5] B. R. Ambedkar, chairman of the drafting committee, is widely considered to be its chief architect.[6]It imparts constitutional supremacy (not parliamentary supremacy, since it was created by a constituent assembly rather than Parliament) and was adopted by its people with a declaration in its preamble.[7][full citation needed] Parliament cannot override the constitution.B. R. Ambedkar and Constitution of India on a 2015 postage stamp of IndiaIt was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949 and became effective on 26 January 1950.[8] The constitution replaced the Government of India Act, 1935 as the country's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the Republic of India. To ensure constitutional autochthony, its framers repealed prior acts of the British parliament in Article 395.[9] India celebrates its constitution on 26 January as Republic Day.[10]The constitution declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular,[11] democratic republic, assuring its citizens justice, equality and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity.[12] The original 1950 constitution is preserved in a helium-filled case at the Parliament House in New Delhi. The words "secular" and "socialist" were added to the preamble in 1976 during the emergency.[13]Contents1 Background1.1 Previous legislation2 Constituent Assembly2.1 Timeline of formation of the Constitution of India2.2 Membership2.3 Drafting3 Influence of other constitutions4 Structure4.1 Parts4.2 Schedules4.3 Appendices5 Constitution and government6 Constitution and legislature6.1 Amendments6.2 Limitations7 Constitution and judiciary7.1 Judicial review8 Flexibility9 See also10 Notes10.1 Notes on Article 2111 References12 Bibliography13 External linksBackgroundA smiling Babasaheb Ambedkar and Rajendra PrasadBabasaheb Ambedkar, chairman of the drafting committee, presenting the final draft of the Indian constitution to Constituent Assembly president Rajendra Prasad on 25 November 1949Most of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1857 to 1947. From 1947 to 1950, the same legislation continued to be implemented as India was a dominion of Britain for these three years, as each princely state was convinced by Sardar Patel and V.P.Menon to sign the articles of integration with India, and the British government continued to be responsible for the external security of the country.[14] Thus, the constitution of India repealed the Indian Independence Act 1947 and Government of India Act, 1935 when it became effective on 26 January 1950. India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign democratic republic with the constitution. Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393, and 394 of the constitution came into force on 26 November 1949, and the remaining articles became effective on 26 January 1950.[15]Previous legislationThe constitution was drawn from a number of sources. Mindful of India's needs and conditions, its framers borrowed features of previous legislation such as the Government of India Act 1858, the Indian Councils Acts of 1861, 1892 and 1909, the Government of India Acts of 1919 and 1935, and the Indian Independence Act 1947. The latter, which led to the creation of India and Pakistan, divided the former Constituent Assembly in two. Each new assembly had sovereign power to draft and enact a new constitution for the separate states.[16]Constituent AssemblyMany men in a room1950 Constituent Assembly meetingMain article: Constituent Assembly of IndiaThe constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies.[17] The 389-member assembly (reduced to 299 after the partition of India) took almost three years to draft the constitution holding eleven sessions over a 165-day period.[3][16]B. R. Ambedkar was a wise constitutional expert, he had studied the constitutions of about 60 countries. Ambedkar is recognised as the "Father of the Constitution of India".[18][19] In the constitution assembly, a member of the drafting committee, T. T. Krishnamachari said:"Mr. President, Sir, I am one of those in the House who have listened to Dr. Ambedkar very carefully. I am aware of the amount of work and enthusiasm that he has brought to bear on the work of drafting this Constitution. At the same time, I do realise that that amount of attention that was necessary for the purpose of drafting a constitution so important to us at this moment has not been given to it by the Drafting Committee. The House is perhaps aware that of the seven members nominated by you, one had resigned from the House and was replaced. One died and was not replaced. One was away in America and his place was not filled up and another person was engaged in State affairs, and there was a void to that extent. One or two people were far away from Delhi and perhaps reasons of health did not permit them to attend. So it happened ultimately that the burden of drafting this constitution fell on Dr. Ambedkar and I have no doubt that we are grateful to him for having achieved this task in a manner which is undoubtedly commendable."[20][21]Timeline of formation of the Constitution of India6 December 1946: Formation of the Constitution Assembly (in accordance with French practice).9 December 1946: The first meeting was held in the constitution hall (now the Central Hall of Parliament House). The 1st person to address was J. B. Kripalani, Sachchidananda Sinha became temporary president. (Demanding a separate state, the Muslim League boycotted the meeting.)11 December 1946: The Assembly appointed Rajendra Prasad as its president, H. C. Mukherjee as its vice-chairman and B. N. Rau as constitutional legal adviser. (There were initially 389 members in total, which declined to 299 after partition. Out of the 389 members, 292 were from government provinces, 4 from chief commissioner provinces and 93 from princely states.)13 December 1946: An 'Objective Resolution' was presented by Jawaharlal Nehru, laying down the underlying principles of the constitution. This later became the Preamble of the Constitution.22 January 1947: Objective resolution unanimously adopted.22 July 1947: National flag adopted.15 August 1947: Achieved independence. India split into the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan.29 August 1947: Drafting Committee appointed with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar as its Chairman. The other 6 members of committee were Munshi, Muhammed Sadulla, Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, Khaitan and Mitter.16 July 1948: Along with Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, V. T. Krishnamachari was also elected as second vice-president of Constituent Assembly.26 November 1949: The Constitution of India was passed and adopted by the assembly.24 January 1950: Last meeting of Constituent Assembly. The Constitution was signed and accepted. (with 395 Articles, 8 Schedules, 22 Parts)26 January 1950: The Constitution came into force. (The process took 2 years, 11 months and 18 days - at a total expenditure of ₹6.4 million to finish.)G. V. Mavlankar was the first Speaker of the Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament) after India turned into a republic.MembershipB. R. Ambedkar, Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Vallabhbhai Patel, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi, Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar, Sandipkumar Patel, Abul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Nalini Ranjan Ghosh, and Balwantrai Mehta were key figures in the assembly,[3][16] which had over 30 representatives of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented the Anglo-Indian community,[3] and the Parsis were represented by H. P. Modi.[3] Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a Christian assembly vice-president, chaired the minorities committee and represented non-Anglo-Indian Christians.[3] Ari Bahadur Gurung represented the Gorkha community.[3] Judges, such as Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, Benegal Narsing Rau, K. M. Munshi and Ganesh Mavlankar were members of the assembly.[3] Female members included Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh, Amrit Kaur and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.[3]The first, two-day president of the assembly was Sachchidananda Sinha; Rajendra Prasad was later elected president.[16][17] It met for the first time on 9 December 1946.[3][17][13]DraftingBenegal Narsing Rau, a civil servant who became the first Indian judge in the International Court of Justice and was president of the United Nations Security Council, was appointed as the assembly's constitutional adviser in 1946.[22] Responsible for the constitution's general structure, Rau prepared its initial draft in February 1948.[22][23][24]At 14 August 1947 meeting of the assembly, committees were proposed.[17] Rau's draft was considered, debated and amended by the eight-person drafting committee, which was appointed on 29 August 1947 with B. R. Ambedkar as chair.[3][13] A revised draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the assembly on 4 November 1947.[13]While deliberating the revised draft constitution, the assembly moved, discussed and disposed off 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635.[16][25] Before adopting the constitution, the assembly held eleven sessions in 165 days.[3][16] On 26 November 1949 it adopted the constitution,[3][16][13][24][26] which was signed by 284 members.[3][16][13][24][26] The day is celebrated as National Law Day,[3][27] or Constitution Day.[3][28] The day was chosen to spread the importance of the constitution and to spread thoughts and ideas of Ambedkar.[29]A bespectacled Jawaharlal Nehru bending over a large bookJawaharlal Nehru signing the constitutionThe assembly's final session convened on 24 January 1950. Each member signed two copies of the constitution, one in Hindi and the other in English.[3][16][24] The original constitution is hand-written, with each page decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose.[13][24] Its calligrapher was Prem Behari Narain Raizada.[13] The constitution was published in Dehradun and photolithographed by the Survey of India. Production of the original constitution took nearly five years. Two days later, on 26 January 1950, it became the law of India.[13][30] The estimated cost of the Constituent Assembly was ₹6.3 crore (₹63 million).[16] The constitution has had more than 100 amendments since it was enacted.[31]Influence of other constitutionsUnited KingdomParliamentary government[3]Concept of single citizenship[3]Rule of lawThe legislative speaker and their roleLegislative procedureUnited States[32]Bill of Rights[3][13]Federal structure of government[3]Electoral CollegeIndependent judiciary and separation of powersJudicial reviewPresident as commander-in-chief of the armed forcesEqual protection under lawIrelandDirective principles of state policy[13]AustraliaFreedom of trade between states[16]National legislative power to implement treaties, even on matters outside normal federal jurisdictionConcurrent List[33]Preamble terminologyFranceIdeals of liberté, égalité, fraternité[3][13]CanadaQuasi-federal government — a federal system with a strong central government[16]Distribution of powers between the central and state governments[3][16]Residual powers, retained by the central government[citation needed]Soviet UnionFundamental Duties under article 51-A[3]Mandated planning commission to oversee economic development[3]Other constitutionsThe emergency provision under article 356 (from the Weimar Constitution)[13]Amending the constitution (from South Africa)Due process (from Japan)StructureThe Indian constitution is the world's longest for a sovereign nation.[b][3][4][5] At its enactment, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules.[16] At about 145,000 words, it is the second-longest active constitution – after the Constitution of Alabama – in the world.[34]The constitution has a preamble and 448 articles,[c][13] which are grouped into 25 parts.[d][13] With 12 schedules[e][13] and five appendices,[13][35] it has been amended 103 times; the latest amendment became effective on 14 January 2019.[36]PartsThe constitution's articles are grouped into the following parts:Preamble,[37] with the words "socialist", "secular" and 'integrity' added in 1976 by the 42nd amendment[38][39]Part I[40] – States and union territoriesPart II[41] – CitizenshipPart III – Fundamental RightsPart IV[42] – Directive Principles of State PolicyPart IVA – Fundamental DutiesPart V[43] – The unionPart VI[44] – The statesPart VII[45] – States in the B part of the first schedule (repealed)Part VIII[46] – Union territoriesPart IX[47] – PanchayatsPart IXA[48] – MunicipalitiesPart IXB – Co-operative societies[49]Part X – Scheduled and tribal areasPart XI – Relations between the union and the statesPart XII – Finance, property, contracts and suitsPart XIII – Trade and commerce within IndiaPart XIV – Services under the union and statesPart XIVA – TribunalsPart XV – ElectionsPart XVI – Special provisions relating to certain classesPart XVII – LanguagesPart XVIII – Emergency provisionsPart XIX – MiscellaneousPart XX – Amending the constitutionPart XXI – Temporary, transitional and special provisionsPart XXII – Short title, date of commencement, authoritative text in Hindi and repealsSchedulesSchedules are lists in the constitution which categorise and tabulate bureaucratic activity and government policy.First Schedule (Articles 1 and 4) – Lists India's states and territories, changes in their borders and the laws used to make that change.Second Schedule (Articles 59(3), 65(3), 75(6), 97, 125, 148(3), 158(3), 164(5), 186 and 221) – Lists the salaries of public officials, judges, and the Comptroller and Auditor General.Third Schedule (Articles 75(4), 99, 124(6), 148(2), 164(3), 188 and 219) – Forms of oaths – Lists the oaths of office for elected officials and judges.Fourth Schedule (Articles 4(1) and 80(2)) – Details the allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha (upper house of Parliament) by state or union territory.Fifth Schedule (Article 244(1)) – Provides for the administration and control of Scheduled Areas[f] and Scheduled Tribes[g] (areas and tribes requiring special protection).Sixth Schedule (Articles 244(2) and 275(1)) – Provisions made for the administration of tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.Seventh Schedule (Article 246) — Central government, state, and concurrent lists of responsibilitiesEighth Schedule (Articles 344(1) and 351) – Official languagesNinth Schedule (Article 31-B) – Validation of certain acts and regulations[h]Tenth Schedule (Articles 102(2) and 191(2)) – Anti-defection provisions for members of Parliament and state legislatures.Eleventh Schedule (Article 243-G) —Panchayat Raj (rural local government)Twelfth Schedule (Article 243-W) — Municipalities (urban local government)AppendicesAppendix I – The Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 1954Appendix II – Re-statement, referring to the constitution's present text, of exceptions and modifications applicable to the state of Jammu and KashmirAppendix III – Extracts from the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978Appendix IV – The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002Appendix V – The Constitution (Eighty-eighth Amendment) Act, 2003Constitution and governmentThe executive, legislative and judicial branches of government receive their power from the constitution and are bound by it.[50] With the aid of its constitution, India is governed by a parliamentary system of government with the executive directly accountable to the legislature. The President of India is head of the executive branch, under Articles 52 and 53, with the duty of preserving, protecting and defending the constitution and the law under Article 60. Article 74 provides for a Prime Minister as head of the Council of Ministers, which aids and advises the president in the performance of their constitutional duties. The council is answerable to the lower house under Article 75(3).The constitution is considered federal in nature, and unitary in spirit. It has features of a federation (a codified, supreme constitution, a three-tier governmental structure [central, state and local], division of powers, bicameralism and an independent judiciary) and unitary features such as a single constitution, single citizenship, an integrated judiciary, a flexible constitution, a strong central government, appointment of state governors by the central government, All India Services (the IAS, IFS and IPS) and emergency provisions. This unique combination makes it quasi-federal in form.[51]Each state and union territory has its own government. Analogous to the president and prime minister, each has a governor or (in union territories) a lieutenant governor and a chief minister. Article 356 permits the president to dismiss a state government and assume direct authority if a situation arises in which state government cannot be conducted in accordance with constitution. This power, known as president's rule, was abused as state governments came to be dismissed on flimsy grounds for political reasons. After the S. R. Bommai v. Union of India decision,[52][53] such a course of action is more difficult since the courts have asserted their right of review.[54]The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts introduced the system of panchayati raj in rural areas and Nagar Palikas in urban areas.[13] Article 370 gives special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.Constitution and legislatureMain article: Amendment of the Constitution of IndiaSee also: List of amendments of the Constitution of IndiaAmendmentsAmendments are additions, variations or repeal of any part of the constitution by Parliament.[55] The procedure is detailed in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by each house of Parliament by a two-thirds majority of its total membership when at least two-thirds are present and vote. Certain amendments pertaining to the constitution's federal nature must also be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. Unlike ordinary bills in accordance with Article 245 (except for money bills), there is no provision for a joint session of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to pass a constitutional amendment. During a parliamentary recess, the president cannot promulgate ordinances under his legislative powers under Article 123, Chapter III. Deemed amendments to the constitution which can be passed under the legislative powers of parliament were invalidated by Article 368(1) in the Twenty-fourth Amendment.[55]By July 2018, 124 amendment bills had been presented in Parliament; of these, 103 became Amendment Acts.[56] Despite the supermajority requirement for amendments to pass, the Indian constitution is the world's most frequently-amended national governing document.[57] The constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that many amendments address issues dealt with by statute in other democracies.In 2000, the Justice Manepalli Narayana Rao Venkatachaliah Commission was formed to examine a constitutional update. The government of India establishes term-based law commissions to recommend legal reforms, facilitating the rule of law.LimitationsMain article: Basic structure doctrineIn Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, the Supreme Court ruled that an amendment cannot destroy what it seeks to modify; it cannot tinker with the constitution's basic structure or framework, which are immutable. Such an amendment will be declared invalid, although no part of the constitution is protected from amendment; the basic structure doctrine does not protect any one provision of the constitution. According to the doctrine, the constitution's basic features (when "read as a whole") cannot be abridged or abolished. These "basic features" have not been fully defined,[50] and whether a particular provision of the constitution is a "basic feature" is decided by the courts.[58]The Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala decision laid down the constitution's basic structure:[59]Supremacy of the constitutionRepublican, democratic form of governmentIts secular natureSeparation of powersIts federal character[59]This implies that Parliament can only amend the constitution to the limit of its basic structure. The Supreme Court or a high court may declare the amendment null and void if this is violated, after a judicial review. This is typical of parliamentary governments, where the judiciary checks parliamentary power.In its 1967 Golak Nath v. State of Punjab decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the state of Punjab could not restrict any fundamental rights protected by the basic structure doctrine.[60] The extent of land ownership and practice of a profession, in this case, were considered fundamental rights.[61] The ruling was overturned with the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1971.[61]Constitution and judiciaryThe judiciary is the final arbiter of the constitution.[62] Its duty (mandated by the constitution) is to act as a watchdog, preventing any legislative or executive act from overstepping constitutional bounds.[63] The judiciary protects the fundamental rights of the people (enshrined in the constitution) from infringement by any state body, and balances the conflicting exercise of power between the central government and a state (or states).The courts are expected to remain unaffected by pressure exerted by other branches of the state, citizens or interest groups. An independent judiciary has been held as a basic feature of the constitution,[64][65] which cannot be changed by the legislature or the executive.[66]Judicial reviewJudicial review was adopted by the constitution of India from judicial review in the United States.[67] In the Indian constitution, judicial review is dealt with in Article 13. The constitution is the supreme power of the nation, and governs all laws. According to Article 13,All pre-constitutional laws, if they conflict wholly or in part with the constitution, shall have all conflicting provisions deemed ineffective until an amendment to the constitution ends the conflict; the law will again come into force if it is compatible with the constitution as amended (the Doctrine of Eclipse).[68]Laws made after the adoption of the constitution must be compatible with it, or they will be deemed void ab initio.In such situations, the Supreme Court (or a high court) determines if a law is in conformity with the constitution. If such an interpretation is not possible because of inconsistency (and where separation is possible), the provision which is inconsistent with the constitution is considered void. In addition to Article 13, Articles 32, 226 and 227 provide the constitutional basis for judicial review.[69]Due to the adoption of the Thirty-eighth Amendment, the Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency which infringe fundamental rights under article 32 (the right to constitutional remedies).[70] The Forty-second Amendment widened Article 31C and added Articles 368(4) and 368(5), stating that any law passed by Parliament could not be challenged in court. The Supreme Court ruled in Minerva Mills v. Union of India that judicial review is a basic characteristic of the constitution, overturning Articles 368(4), 368(5) and 31C.[71]FlexibilityAccording to Granville Austin, "The Indian constitution is first and foremost a social document, and is aided by its Parts III & IV (Fundamental Rights & Directive Principles of State Policy, respectively) acting together, as its chief instruments and its conscience, in realising the goals set by it for all the people."[i][72] The constitution has deliberately been worded in generalities (not in vague terms) to ensure its flexibility.[73] John Marshall, the fourth Chief Justice of the United States, said that a constitution's "great outlines should be marked, its important objects designated, and the minor ingredients which compose those objects be deduced from the nature of the objects themselves."[74] A document "intended to endure for ages to come",[75] it must be interpreted not only based on the intention and understanding of its framers, but in the existing social and political context.The "right to life" guaranteed under Article 21[A] has been expanded to include a number of human rights, including the right to a speedy trial,;[3][76] the right to water;[3][77] the right to earn a livelihood,[3] the right to health,[3] and the right to education.[78]At the conclusion of his book, Making of India's Constitution, retired Supreme Court of India justice Hans Raj Khanna wrote:If the Indian constitution is our heritage bequeathed to us by our founding fathers, no less are we, the people of India, the trustees and custodians of the values which pulsate within its provisions! A constitution is not a parchment of paper, it is a way of life and has to be lived up to. Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and in the final analysis, its only keepers are the people."[79]— Khanna, Hans Raj (2008). Making of India's constitution (2nd ed.). Lucknow: Eastern Book Co (published 1 January 2008). ISBN 978-81-7012-108-4. OCLC 294942170.See alsoflagIndia portal iconPolitics portalConstitution Day (India)Constitutional economicsConstitutionalismHistory of democracyList of national constitutionsMagna CartaRule according to higher lawUniform civil codeNotesThe Constitution of India was originally written in Hindi and English, so, both Hindi and English are its 'original' languages.The Constitution of Yugoslavia briefly held this position from 1974 until it split up in 1990.Although the last article of the constitution is Article 395, the total number in March 2013 was 465. New articles added through amendments have been inserted in the relevant location of the original constitution. To not disturb the original numbering, new articles are inserted alphanumerically; Article 21A, pertaining to the right to education, was inserted by the 86th Amendment Act.The Constitution was in 22 Parts originally. Part VII & IX (older) was repealed in 1956, whereas newly added Part IVA, IXA, IXB & XIVA by Amendments to the Constitution in different times (lastly added IXB by the 97th Amendment).By 73rd & 74th Amendment, the lists of administrative subjects of Panchayat raj & Municipality included in the Constitution as Schedule 11 & 12 respectively in the year 1993.Scheduled Areas are autonomous areas within a state, administered federally and usually mainly populated by a Scheduled Tribe.Scheduled Tribes are groups of indigenous people, identified in the Constitution, who are struggling socioeconomicallyOriginally Articles mentioned here were immune from judicial review on the ground that they violated fundamental rights. but in a landmark judgement in 2007, the Supreme Court of India held in I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu and others that laws included in the 9th schedule can be subject to judicial review if they violated the fundamental rights guaranteed under Article 14, 15, 19, 21 or the basic structure of the Constitution {(ambiguous)} – I.R. Coelho (dead) by http://L.Rs. v. State of Tamil Nadu and others(2007) 2 S.C.C. 1These lines by Granville Austin from his book The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation at p. 50, have been authoritatively quoted many timesNotes on Article 21Art. 21 – "No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law"ReferencesOriginal edition with original artwork - The Constitution of India. New Delhi: Government of India. 26 November 1949. Retrieved 22 March 2019."Preface, The constitution of India" (PDF). Government of India. Retrieved 5 February 2015.Krithika, R. (21 January 2016). "Celebrate the supreme law". The Hindu. N. Ram. ISSN 0971-751X. OCLC 13119119. 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Retrieved 14 October 2008.Part IPart IIPart IVPart VPart VIPart VIIPart VIIIPart IXPart IXAhttp://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend97.pdfMenon, N.R. Madhava (26 September 2004). "Parliament and the Judiciary". The Hindu. Retrieved 21 November 2015.M Laxmikanth (2013). "3". Indian Polity (4th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. p. 3.2. ISBN 978-1-25-906412-8.Krishnakumar, R. "'Article 356 should be abolished'". Frontline (Vol. 15 :: No. 14 :: 4–17 July 1998). Retrieved 9 November 2015.Rajendra Prasad, R.J. "'Bommai verdict has checked misuse of Article 356'". Frontline (Vol. 15 :: No. 14 :: 4–17 July 1998). Retrieved 9 November 2015.Swami, Praveen. "Protecting secularism and federal fair play". Frontline (Vol. 14 :: No. 22 :: 1–14 Nov. 1997). Retrieved 9 November 2015."Pages 311 & 312 of original judgement: A. K. Roy, Etc vs Union Of India And Anr on 28 December, 1981". Retrieved 23 August 2014.name="amendments"Krishnamurthi, Vivek (2009). "Colonial Cousins: Explaining India and Canada's Unwritten Constitutional Principles" (PDF). Yale Journal of International Law. 34 (1): 219. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.Dhamija, Dr. Ashok (2007). Need to Amend a Constitution and Doctrine of Basic Features. Wadhwa and Company. p. 568. ISBN 9788180382536. Retrieved 17 June 2014.aDvantage. "Doctrine of Basic Structure – Constitutional Law". Law, Lawyers and Legal Resources. Retrieved 26 January 2016.Jacobsohn, Gary J. (2010). Constitutional Identity. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 52. ISBN 9780674047662.Dalal, Milan (2008). "India's New Constitutionalism: Two Cases That Have Reshaped Indian Law". Boston College International Comparative Law Review. 31 (2): 258–260. Retrieved 5 March 2015.Mehta, Pratap Bhanu (2002). Hasan, Zoya; Sridharan, E.; Sudarshan, R. (eds.). Article – The Inner Conflict of Constitutionalism: Judicial Review and the 'Basic Structure' (Book – India's Kiving Constitution: Ideas, Practices, Controversies) ((2006)Second Impression (2002)First ed.). Delhi: Permanent Black. p. 187. ISBN 81-7824-087-4. Retrieved 9 November 2015.Bhattacharyya, Bishwajit. "Supreme Court Shows Govt Its LoC". the day after (1–15 Nov 2015). Archived from the original on 5 May 2016. Retrieved 10 November 2015.National Comionmission to Review the Working of the Constitution. "A Consultation Paper on the Financial Autonomy of the Indian Judiciary". Chapter 1. New Delhi (26 September 2001). Retrieved 5 November 2015.Chakrabarty, Bidyut (2008). Indian Politics and Society Since Independence: Events, Processes and Ideology (First ed.). Oxon(UK), New York (USA): Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-415-40867-7. Retrieved 5 November 2015.Sorabjee, Soli J. (1 November 2015). "A step in the Wrong Direction". The Week. Retrieved 12 November 2015.Venkatesan, V. (10–23 March 2012). "Three doctrines". Frontline. Vol. 29 no. 05. ISSN 0970-1710. Retrieved 26 July 2018.Jain, Mahabir Prashad (2010). Indian Constitutional Law (6th ed.). Gurgaon: LexisNexis Butterworths Wadhwa Nagpur. p. 921. ISBN 978-81-8038-621-3. OCLC 650215045.Lectures By Professor Parmanad Singh, Jindal Global Law School.Jacobsohn, Gary (2010). Constitutional Identity. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0674047662. OCLC 939085793.Chandrachud, Chintan (6 June 2015). "India's deceptive Constitution". The Hindu. N. Ram. ISSN 0971-751X. OCLC 13119119. Retrieved 26 July 2018.Raghavan, Vikram (2010). "The biographer of the Indian constitution". Seminar. Retrieved 13 November 2015.Dharmadhikari, Justice D. M. "Principle of Constitutional Interpretation: Some Reflections". (2004) 4 SCC (Jour) 1. Retrieved 6 November 2015.McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheaton) 316, 407 (U.S. Supreme Court 1819). TextMcCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheaton) 316, 415 (U.S. Supreme Court 1819). TextGaur, K. D. (2002). Article – Law and the Poor: Some Recent Developments in India (Book – Criminal Law and Criminology). New Delhi: Deep & Deep. p. 564. ISBN 81-7629-410-1. Retrieved 9 November 2015.Narain, Vrinda. "Water as a Fundamental Right: A Perspective from India" (PDF). Vermont Law Review. 34:917: 920. Retrieved 9 November 2015.[permanent dead link]Khosla, Madhav (2011). "Making social rights conditional: Lessons from India" (PDF). International Journal of Constitutional Law. 8 (4): 761. doi:10.1093/icon/mor005. Retrieved 10 November 2015.[permanent dead link]Khanna, Hans Raj (2008). Making of India's constitution (2nd ed.). Lucknow: Eastern Book Co (published 1 January 2008). ISBN 978-81-7012-108-4. OCLC 294942170.BibliographyKhanna, Justice H.R (2015). Making of India's Constitution (2nd Edition 2008, (Reprinted 2015) ed.). Eastern Book Company. ISBN 978-81-7012-188-6.Austin, Granville (1999). The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-01-9564-959-8.Austin, Granville (2003). Working a Democratic Constitution: A History of the Indian Experience (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-01-9565-610-7.Baruah, Aparajita (2007). Preamble of the Constitution of India : An Insight & Comparison. Eastern Book Co. ISBN 978-81-7629-996-1.Basu, Durga Das (1965). Commentary on the constitution of India : (being a comparative treatise on the universal principles of justice and constitutional government with special reference to the organic instrument of India). 1–2. S. C. Sarkar & Sons (Private) Ltd.Basu, Durga Das (1984). Introduction to the Constitution of India (10th ed.). South Asia Books. ISBN 0-8364-1097-1.Basu, Durga Das (1981). Shorter Constitution of India. Prentice-Hall of India. ISBN 978-0-87692-200-2.Das, Hari Hara (2002). Political System of India. Anmol Publications. ISBN 81-7488-690-7.Dash, Shreeram Chandra (1968). The Constitution of India; a Comparative Study. Chaitanya Pub. House.Dhamija, Dr. Ashok (2007). Need to Amend a Constitution and Doctrine of Basic Features. Wadhwa and Company. ISBN 9788180382536.Ghosh, Pratap Kumar (1966). The Constitution of India: How it Has Been Framed. World Press.Jayapalan, N. (1998). Constitutional History of India. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 81-7156-761-4.Khanna, Hans Raj (1981). Making of India's Constitution. Eastern Book Co. ISBN 978-81-7012-108-4.Rahulrai, Durga Das (1984). Introduction to the Constitution of India (10th ed.). South Asia Books. ISBN 0-8364-1097-1.Pylee, M.V. (1997). India's Constitution. S. Chand & Co. ISBN 81-219-0403-X.Pylee, M.V. (2004). Constitutional Government in India. S. Chand & Co. ISBN 81-219-2203-8.Sen, Sarbani (2007). The Constitution of India: Popular Sovereignty and Democratic Transformations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-568649-4.Sharma, Dinesh; Singh, Jaya; Maganathan, R.; et al. (2002). Indian Constitution at Work. Political Science, Class XI. NCERT."The Constituent Assembly Debates (Proceedings):(9th December,1946 to 24 January 1950)". The Parliament of India Archive. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 22 February 2008.External linksConstitution of Indiaat Wikipedia's sister projectsDefinitions from WiktionaryMedia from Wikimedia CommonsNews from WikinewsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from WikisourceTextbooks from WikibooksResources from WikiversityOriginal as published in the Gazette of IndiaOriginal Unamended version of the Constitution of IndiaMinistry of Law and Justice of India – The Constitution of India PageConstitution of India as of 29 July 2008Constitutional predilections"Constitution of India". 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