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Why have all scientific inventions been made only by men and none by women? Are there any famous women scientists, who have contributed significantly to new inventions?“All” scientific inventions? What planet do you live on?Many people have no idea what kinds of obstacles women have faced in the past when they tried to work outside the home, get an education, or become researchers or teachers or engineers. The obstacles have become smaller in some nations; but prejudices and problems specific to women have not disappeared.First, the obstacles; then, the amazing accomplishments by women in spite of those obstacles.A few things that you should take into account when asking why women have not done more science and technology:When people see only first initial and last name (and that is usually how research articles are cited), they usually assume the author is a man (even when the author is a woman). Women’s contributions are thus less visible. People sometimes assume my work in psychology and statistics, published as R. M. Warner, was written by a man.During most of the past there has been extreme discouragement of women’s involvement in science, technology, and other intellectual activities. Books about the history of women in science document this thoroughly.As an extreme example, the mathematician/ philosopher/ astronomer Hypatia - Wikipedia was murdered around 415 AD (by some accounts, Hypatia and the Church's Involvement in Her Tortured Death, she was dragged through the streets and flayed alive - partly for being a pagan, but also for daring to be a female scholar.Don’t forget that Paul admonished people not to suffer a woman to teach!All the way back to Aristotle, there have been beliefs that women were inherently intellectually deficient. This attitude is not completely dead (and it seems to be implicit in this question). For recent commentary see: Women's intellectual aptitude would blow Aristotle's mindThere have been bizarre and sexist medical claims about women, for example, that excess intellectual development would atrophy the uterus. See, for example: Sexism in Medicine. If your husband and potential employers did not ridicule and discourage you enough, your doctor would do it.One reason women like Florence Nightingale (who pioneered medical statistics and hospital design and administration, in addition to nursing) took to their beds as “sick” is that it was the only way to escape the typical demands of society (for example, the demand to marry). (The Mother of All Hospital Administrators)Up until about 150 years ago, women were usually denied admission to universities and medical schools and any kind of university employment. As they began to gain access, they were still routinely unacknowledged and often unpaid assistants.From https://www.usnews.com/education/articles/2009/03/11/historic-firsts-in-womens-education-in-the-united-states1840 —Catherine Brewer becomes the first woman to earn a bachelor's degree, graduating from Wesleyan College in Macon, Ga.1849 — Elizabeth Blackwell becomes the first woman to graduate from medical school when she finishes at the top of her class at Geneva Medical School in Geneva, N.Y.After these pioneers, it took a long time for women to be accepted into universities in substantial numbers. As late as the 1930s, even though the numbers of women in college or university had increased, higher education for women was still seen as problematic: Women's education in the United States - Wikipedia...The 1930s also saw tremendous changes in women’s education at the college level. In 1900, there were 85,338 female college students in the United States and 5,237 earned their bachelor's degrees; by 1940, there were 600,953 female college students and 77,000 earned bachelor's degrees…. The basic assumption in the 1930s was that women should marry. There was also the perception that college educated women were less likely to marry, either because they “waited too long” or because the college experience which broadened their minds deluded them into believing “marriage should be between equals.”In the early days of teaching by women in the USA, married women (and God forbid, pregnant women) were not allowed even to teach; therefore, teaching and research ruled out marriage and family. I found this in a search on Google for “were female teachers allowed to marry”Were female teachers allowed to marry?Until the Sex Disqualification Removal Act was passed in 1919, no married women were allowed to work as teachers. The act should, in theory, have meant greater equality for women entering the profession, but in the 1920s, working women were frowned upon as there were so many men on the dole.As late as WW II, many schools would not hire female teachers who married and some fired single women if they got married:Marriage bar - WikipediaAround the time of WW ll 87% of school boards would not hire married women and 70% would not retain a single woman who married …Discrimination against married female teachers in the US was not terminated until 1964 with the passing of the Civil Rights Act.In some societies female children have been denied access even to basic education and literacy (and this continues to be true today in some places). One of the best ways to improve economic and social conditions in poorer nations is to improve education for women!Obstacles have become somewhat less in current times (in some nations), however, the obstacles to women’s participation in science and technology are still substantial.Many women have been told things similar to the things I was told growing up in the 1960s: “Don’t beat the boys at chess and math”. “Go to Slippery Rock State and be a kindergarten teacher”. (Please don’t misunderstand, I respect the work that kindergarten teachers do; it’s just that so many of us were told that doors were closed to other options.) I got my doctorate from Harvard and authored a comprehensive statistics textbook and numerous journal articles.In the more recent past (1992), stereotypes about the abilities and interests of women gave us the Teen Talk Barbie doll:Teen Talk Barbie was introduced at the 1992 American International Toy Fair and became available for sale for about $25 in July that year… The dolls contained a voice box programmed with a random assortment of four phrases out of 270 possibilities, including "Will we ever have enough clothes?"… Want to go shopping?", "Okay, meet me at the mall"…and "Math class is tough."Educators including the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics objected to the "Math class is tough" phrase as detrimental to the effort to encourage girls to study math and science and particularly in association with the phrases about shopping; the American Association of University Women criticized it in a report about girls receiving a relatively poor education in math and science.Mattel … later apologized to the American Association of University Women, withdrew the math class phrase from those to be used in future dolls, and offered an exchange to purchasers who had a doll with that phrase.Not a great message for little girls. However, little girls are still exposed to these messages.In my view, under these conditions, it is astonishing how many women defied the obstacles and disapproval and made outstanding contributions.Here are two lists of inventions / discoveries made by women, excerpted from two web pages:From: BBC 100 Women: Nine things you didn't know were invented by womenNine things you didn't know were invented by womenComputer software - Grace HopperAfter joining the US Navy during the Second World War, Rear Admiral Grace Hopper was assigned to work on a new computer, called the Mark 1. It wasn't long before she was at the forefront of computer programming in the 1950s. She was behind the compiler, which could translate instructions into code that computers can read, making programming quicker and ultimately revolutionising how computers worked. Hopper also helped popularised the term "de-bugging" that we still use on computers programmes today, after a moth was removed from inside her machine. "Amazing Grace", as she was known, continued working with computers until she retired from the navy as its oldest serving officer, aged 79.Caller ID and call waiting - Dr Shirley Ann Jackson Dr Shirley Ann Jackson is an American theoretical physicist, whose research from the 1970s is responsible for caller ID and call waiting. Her breakthroughs in telecommunications have also enabled others to invent the portable fax, fibre optic cables and solar cells. She is the first African-American woman to gain a PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the first African-American woman to lead a top-ranked research university.Windscreen wiper - Mary Anderson On a winter's day of 1903, Mary Anderson was visiting New York City when she noticed that her driver was forced to open his window, just to the clear the snow from his windscreen. Every time the window was open, the passengers in the car got colder. Anderson started drawing her solution of a rubber blade that could be moved from inside the car, and in 1903 was awarded a patent for her device. But the invention proved unsuccessful with car companies, who believed it would distract drivers. Anderson never profited from her invention, even when the wipers later became standard on cars.Space station batteries - Olga D Gonzalez-Sanabria It might not have the catchiest name on this list, but the long cycle-life nickel-hydrogen battery has helped power the International Space Station, so it's pretty important. Olga D Gonzalez-Sanabria, who is originally from Puerto Rico, developed technology which helped create these batteries in the 1980s and is now director of engineering at Nasa's Glenn Research Centre.Dishwasher - Josephine Cochrane A frequent entertainer, Cochrane wanted a machine that would wash her dishes faster than her servants, and be less likely to break them. Her machine, which involved a motor turning a wheel inside a copper boiler, was the first automatic dishwasher to use water pressure. Cochrane's alcoholic husband had left her with masses of debt after his death and this motivated her to patent her invention in 1886 and open her own production factory.Home security system - Marie Van Brittan Brown A nurse, who was often home alone, Marie Van Brittan Brown came up with an idea that would make her feel safer. Together with her husband Albert, Van Brittan Brown developed the first home security system in response to the rising crime rates and slow police responses of the 1960s. The device was complicated, with a camera powered by a motor which moved up and down the door to look through a peephole. A monitor in her bedroom also came equipped with an alarm button.Stem cell isolation - Ann Tsukamoto Her patent was awarded in 1991 and since then Tsukamoto's work has led to great advancements in understanding the blood systems of cancer patients, which could lead to a cure for the disease. Tsukamoto is currently conducting further research into stem cell growth and is the co-patentee on more than seven other inventions.Monopoly - Elizabeth Magie A man named Charles Darrow is often credited with creating the most popular board game in history, but the rules were in fact invented by Elizabeth Magie. Magie wanted to demonstrate the problems with capitalism with an innovative game in which players traded fake money and property. Her design, which she patented in 1904, was called The Landlord's Game. The game of Monopoly that we know today was published in 1935 by the Parker Brothers, who discovered that Darrow was not the sole creator and had, for just $500 (£385), bought Magie's patent and, well, monopolised the game.The car heater The car heater, which directed air from over the engine to warm the chilly toes of aristocratic 19th-century motorists, was invented by Margaret A. Wilcox in 1893. She also invented a combined clothes and dish washer, which someone should please build immediately.The fire escape This device, so vital both to public safety and the smoking habits of urban hipsters, was invented in 1887 by Anna Connelly.The life raft One day in 1882, Maria Beasely looked out at the sea and said, "People should, like, stop dying in huge transportation disasters." And then she invented life rafts. Beasely also invented a machine for making barrels, and it made her rich.Residential solar heating “Solar One", the first solar-heated home. Physicist and solar-power pioneer Dr. Maria Telkes teamed up with an equally badass lady, the architect Eleanor Raymond, to build the first home entirely heated by solar power in 1947.The medical syringe Oh, the wonders of modern medicine. In 1899, Letitia Geer invented a medical syringe that could be operated with only one hand. Remember her the next time your doctor injects you with only one hand.The modern electric refrigerator In 1900, Parpart also received a patent for a vastly improved street-cleaning machine, which she marketed and sold to cities across America, because she was incredibly badass.The ice cream maker Nancy Johnson invented the ice cream freezer in 1843, patenting a design which is still used to the current day, even after the advent of electric ice cream makers. Thank you, Nancy Johnson. Thank you.The computer algorithm Ada Lovelace, whose father was Lord Byron, was encouraged by her scientist mother from a young age to become a fucking champion of mathematics. Lovelace worked with Charles Babbage at the University of London on his plans for an "analytic engine" (i.e. old-timey computer) to develop ways to program the machine with mathematical algorithms, essentially making her "the first computer programmer".More telecommunications technology than you could shake a stick at The theoretical physicist Dr Shirley Jackson was the first black woman to receive a Ph.D. from MIT, in 1973. While working at Bell Laboratories, she conducted breakthrough basic scientific research that enabled others to invent the portable fax, touch tone telephone, solar cells, fiber optic cables, and the technology behind caller ID and call waiting.The dishwasher Saving untold marriages over the last century and a half, the dishwasher was invented by Josephine Cochrane in 1887. She marketed her invention to hotel owners, scandalously going to meetings without a husband, brother, or father to escort her, and eventually opened her own factory.CCTV Marie Van Brittan Brown's system for closed-circuit television security, patented in 1969, was intended to help people ensure their own security, as police were slow to respond to calls for help in her New York City neighbourhood. Her invention forms the basis for modern CCTV systems used for home security and police work today.The paper bag as you know it Margaret Knight received her patent for a machine that could produce square-bottomed bags in 1871, after a long legal battle with a fellow machinist, Charles Anan, who tried to steal her work by arguing that such a brilliant invention could not possibly have been invented by a girl. That gentleman has thankfully been forgotten by history. Also, when Knight was 12 years old, she invented a safety device for cotton mills which is still used today.Central heating Every time you feel grateful that you don't have to run around your house in the winter, desperately adding fuel to each room's individual fireplace to fight back the bitter, bitter cold, think of Alice Parker, who invented a system of gas-powered central heating in 1919. While her particular design was never built, it was the first time an inventor had conceived of using natural gas to heat a personal home, and inspired the central heating systems of the future.ALSO: excerpts from the list athttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_womenDiseasesHIVFrançoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montaigner discovered HIV, the cause of AIDS. [1]Pharmaceuticals[edit]AciclovirGertrude B. Elion contributed to the development of aciclovir, an antiviral drug used for the treatment of herpes simplex virus infections, chickenpox, and shingles.Artemisinin and DihydroartemisininTu Youyou discovered artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin, both now standard treatments for malaria. Artemisinin is isolated from the plant Artemisia annua, sweet wormwood, a herb employed in Chinese traditional medicine.[3]AzathioprineAzathioprine is an Immunosuppressive drug used in rheumatoid arthritis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and in kidney transplants to prevent rejection first synthesized by George H. Hitchings and Gertrude B. Elion in 1957 .[4][5][6]MercaptopurineMercaptopurine is a medication for cancer and autoimmune diseases including acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL), chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis. It was discovered by Gertrude B. Elion and George H. Hitchings.[7]PyrimethaminePyrimethamine, sold under the trade name Daraprim, is an anti-parasitic medication used to treat a variety of conditions including toxoplasmosis and isosporiasis. Pyrimethamine was initially developed by Nobel Prize winning scientist Gertrude Elion as a treatment for malaria. [8][9]AZTGertrude Elion made foundational contributions to the development of AZT, one of the first antiretroviral medications used in the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS.[10]Vitamin EKatharine Bishop and Herbert McLean Evans co-discovered Vitamin E while studying the reproductive cycle of rats.PediatricsApgar scoreInvented in 1952 by Virginia Apgar.<to identify infants at high risk>Disposable diapersCloth diapers in the United States were first mass-produced in 1887 by Maria Allen.In 1946, Marion Donovan used a shower curtain from her bathroom to create the "Boater", a plastic cover to be donned outside a diaper. First sold in 1949 at Saks Fifth Avenue's flagship store in New York City, patents were later issued in 1951 to Donovan, who later sold the rights to the waterproof diaper for $1 million.[13]Donovan also designed a paper disposable diaper, but was unsuccessful in marketing it.[14]In 1947, Scottish housewife Valerie Hunter Gordon started developing and making Paddi, a 2-part system consisting of a disposable pad (made of cellulose wadding covered with cotton wool) worn inside an adjustable plastic garment with press-snaps. She initially used old parachutes for the garment, making over 400 in 1948 using her sewing machine at the kitchen table. She applied for a patent in April 1948, and it was granted for the UK in October 1949. Initially, the big manufacturers were unable to see the commercial possibilities of disposable nappies. Her husband had unsuccessfully approached several companies until he had a chance meeting with Sir Robert Robinson. In November 1949 Valerie Gordon signed a contract with Robinsons of Chesterfield who went into full production. In 1950, Boots UK agreed to sell Paddi in all their branches. In 1951 the Paddi patent was granted for the US and worldwide. Playtex and several other international companies tried unsuccessfully to buy out Paddi from Robinsons. Paddi was very successful for many years until the advent of 'all in one' diapers.[15]In 1956, Hugo Drangel's daughter Lil Karhola Wettergren elaborated her father's original idea by adding a garment (again making a 2-part system like Paddi). However she met the same problem with the purchasing managers, who declared they would never allow their wives to "put paper on their children."Child carriersSnugli and Weego were invented by nurse and peacekeeper Ann Moore first in the 1960s.PertussisA pioneering female American doctor, medical researcher and an outspoken voice in the pediatric community, the supercentenarian Leila Alice Denmark (1898–2012) is credited as co-developer of the pertussis (whooping cough) vaccine.Astronomy and astrophysicsHarvard Stellar Classification SchemeThe first classification of stars based on their temperature, created by Annie Jump Cannon, used in publications up to 1924.PulsarsRapidly rotating neutron stars discovered by Jocelyn Bell Burnell in 1967.The Galaxy Rotation ProblemA major piece of evidence for the presence of dark matter in the Universe, discovered by Vera Rubin from observations of galactic rotation curves in the 1970s.Stars luminosityHenrietta Swan Leavitt was an American astronomer who discovered the relation between the luminosity and the period of Cepheid variable stars at the beginning of 20th century.Radio astronomyRuby Violet Payne-Scott was an Australian pioneer in radiophysics and radio astronomy as well as the first female radio astronomer[16] discovering Type I and Type III solar radio bursts.PhysicsRadiationsMarie Curie (born Maria Salomea Skłodowska) was the first woman to receive a Nobel prize for her works on radiations and, up until today,[when?] the only woman to receive two Nobel prizes (among them, one Nobel prize in chemistry for discoveries on Polonium and Radium). She is the sole laureate to be recognized within two distinct scientific areas.Classical mechanicsEmilie du Châtelet (born Gabrielle Émilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil) translated Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica from Latin to French during the 18th century. She carried out physics experiments, popularizing the work of Leibniz. She demonstrated that the kinetic energy of an object was proportional to its mass and the square of its velocity, and postulated a conservation law for the total energy of a system.ChemistryKevlarA powerful para-aramid synthetic fiber, developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in 1965.Nuclear shellMaria Goeppert Mayer, a German immigrant to the US who studied at Johns Hopkins during the Great Depression, persisted in her studies even when no university would employ her and became a chemical physicist. Her most-famous contribution to modern physics was discovering the nuclear shell of the atomic nucleus, for which she won the Nobel Prize in 1963.PoloniumThe discoveries of elements radium and polonium were made by Polish chemist Marie Curie through the deep study of their nature and their compounds.ScotchguardThis stain repellent and durable water repellent was co-invented by chemists Patsy Sherman and Samuel Smith while working for 3M.Langmuir–Blodgett filmThe technique for making Langmuir–Blodgett film, which involves immersing a substrate into a solution to deposit a monolayer of molecules onto a substrate, was co-invented by Katharine Burr Blodgett and Irving Langmuir while working for General Electric.GeologyEarth's inner coreDiscovered in 1936 by Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann.Solar energyhouse solar heatingHungarian-American MIT inventor Mária Telkes and American architect Eleanor Raymond created, in 1947, the Dover Sun House, the first house powered by solar energy.Nine coding languages were invented by women: ARC assembly language by Kathleen Booth in 1950, Address by Kateryna Yushchenko in 1955, COBOL by Grace Hopper along with other members of the Conference on Data System Languages in 1959, FORMAC by Jean Sammet in 1962, Logo by Cynthia Solomon in 1967 with members of her team, CLU by Barbara Liskov in 1974, Smalltalk by Adele Goldberg, Diana Merry, and four main other team members at Xerox PARC in 1980, BBC BASIC by Sophie Wilson in 1981, Coq by Christine Paulin-Mohring along with eight development team members of the Lab in 1991. More generally speaking, women have strongly impacted the data processing domain especially women in computing.MathematicsDaubechies waveletIngrid Daubechies introduced the Daubechies wavelet and contributed to the development of the CDF wavelet, important tools in image compression.You can't hear the shape of a drum.In 1966 Mark Kac asked whether the shape of a drum could be determined by the sound it makes (whether a Riemannian manifold is determined by the spectrum of its Laplace-Beltrami operator). John Milnorobserved that a theorem due to Witt implied the existence of a pair of 16-dimensional tori that have the same spectrum but different shapes. However, the problem in two dimensions remained open until 1992, when Carolyn S. Gordon with coauthors Webb and Wolpert, constructed a pair of regions in the Euclidean plane that have different shapes but identical eigenvalues (see figure on right). [28]Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theoremIn mathematics, the Cauchy–Kowalevski theorem (also written as the Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem) is the main local existence and uniqueness theorem for analytic partial differential equations associated with Cauchy initial value problems. A special case was proven by Augustin Cauchy (1842), and the full result by Sophia Kovalevskaya (1875). [29] [30]Kovalevskaya topIn classical mechanics, the precession of a rigid body such as a top under the influence of gravity is not, in general, an integrable problem. There are however three (or four) famous cases that are integrable, the Euler, the Lagrange, and the Kovalevskaya top.[31][32] The Kovalevskaya top[33][34] is a special symmetric top with a unique ratio of the moments of inertia which satisfy the relation.QR algorithmIn numerical linear algebra, the QR algorithm is an eigenvalue algorithm: that is, a procedure to calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix. The QR algorithm was developed in the late 1950s by John G. F. Francis and by Vera N. Kublanovskaya, working independently.[35][36][37] The basic idea is to perform a QR decomposition, writing the matrix as a product of an orthogonal matrix and an upper triangular matrix, multiply the factors in the reverse order, and iterate.Navier–Stokes equationsOlga Ladyzhenskaya provided the first rigorous proofs of the convergence of a finite difference method for the Navier–Stokes equations. Ladyzhenskaya was on the shortlist for potential recipients for the 1958 Fields Medal[38], ultimately awarded to Klaus Roth and René Thom. [39]Braid Groups are LinearRuth Lawrence's 1990 paper, "Homological representations of the Hecke algebra", in Communications in Mathematical Physics, introduced, among other things, certain novel linear representations of the braid group — known as Lawrence–Krammer representation. In papers published in 2000 and 2001, Daan Krammer and Stephen Bigelow established the faithfulness of Lawrence's representation. This result goes by the phrase "braid groups are linear."[40]Recursion TheoryRózsa Péter was one of the founders of recursion theory, a branch of mathematical logic, of computer science, and of the theory of computation that originated in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing degrees. The field has since expanded to include the study of generalized computability and definability. In these areas, recursion theory overlaps with proof theory and effective descriptive set theory. [41][42]Hilbert's tenth problemHilbert's tenth problem is the tenth on the list of mathematical problems that the German mathematician David Hilbert posed in 1900. It is the challenge to provide a general algorithm which, for any given Diophantine equation (a polynomial equation with integer coefficients and a finite number of unknowns) can decide whether the equation has a solution with all unknowns taking integer values. Hilbert's tenth problem has been solved, and it has a negative answer: such a general algorithm does not exist. This is the result of combined work of Martin Davis, Yuri Matiyasevich, Hilary Putnam and Julia Robinson which spans 21 years, with Yuri Matiyasevich completing the theorem in 1970.[43] The theorem is now known as Matiyasevich's theorem or the MRDP theorem.Optimal designIn the design of experiments, optimal designs (or optimum designs[44]) are a class of experimental designs that are optimal with respect to some statistical criterion. The creation of this field of statistics has been credited to Danish statistician Kirstine Smith.[45][46]Three-gap theoremThe three-gap theorem states that if one places n points on a circle, at angles of θ, 2θ, 3θ ... from the starting point, then there will be at most three distinct distances between pairs of points in adjacent positions around the circle. When there are three distances, the larger of the three always equals the sum of the other two.[47] Unless θ is a rational multiple of π, there will also be at least two distinct distances.This result was conjectured by Hugo Steinhaus, and proved in the 1950s by Vera T. Sós, János Surányi (hu), and Stanisław Świerczkowski. Its applications include the study of plant growth and musical tuning systems, and the theory of Sturmian words. [48]Noether normalization lemmaThe Noether normalization lemma is a result of commutative algebra, introduced by Emmy Noether in 1926.[49] It states that for any field k, and any finitely generated commutative k-algebra A, there exists a nonnegative integer d and algebraically independent elements y1, y2, ..., yd in A such that A is a finitely generated module over the polynomial ring S:=k[y1, y2, ..., yd]..Noether's theoremNoether's (first)[50] theorem states that every differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law. The theorem was proven by mathematician Emmy Noether in 1915 and published in 1918,[51] although a special case was proven by E. Cosserat & F. Cosserat in 1909.[52] The action of a physical system is the integral over time of a Lagrangian function (which may or may not be an integral over space of a Lagrangian density function), from which the system's behavior can be determined by the principle of least action.Noether's theorem is used in theoretical physics and the calculus of variations. A generalization of the formulations on constants of motion in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics (developed in 1788 and 1833, respectively), it does not apply to systems that cannot be modeled with a Lagrangian alone (e.g. systems with a Rayleigh dissipation function). In particular, dissipative systems with continuous symmetries need not have a corresponding conservation law.Noether's second theoremIn mathematics and theoretical physics, Noether's second theorem relates symmetries of an action functional with a system of differential equations.[54] The action S of a physical system is an integral of a so-called Lagrangian function L, from which the system's behavior can be determined by the principle of least action.isomorphism theoremsIn mathematics, specifically abstract algebra, the isomorphism theorems are three theorems that describe the relationship between quotients, homomorphisms, and subobjects. Versions of the theorems exist for groups, rings, vector spaces, modules, Lie algebras, and various other algebraic structures. In universal algebra, the isomorphism theorems can be generalized to the context of algebras and congruences.The isomorphism theorems were formulated in some generality for homomorphisms of modules by Emmy Noether in her paper Abstrakter Aufbau der Idealtheorie in algebraischen Zahl- und Funktionenkörpernwhich was published in 1927 in Mathematische Annalen. Less general versions of these theorems can be found in work of Richard Dedekind and previous papers by Noether.Lasker–Noether theoremIn mathematics, the Lasker–Noether theorem states that every Noetherian ring is a Lasker ring, which means that every ideal can be decomposed as an intersection, called primary decomposition, of finitely many primary ideals (which are related to, but not quite the same as, powers of prime ideals). The theorem was first proven by Emanuel Lasker (1905) for the special case of polynomial rings and convergent power series rings, and was proven in its full generality by Emmy Noether (1921).The Lasker–Noether theorem is an extension of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, and more generally the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups to all Noetherian rings. The Lasker–Noether theorem plays an important role in algebraic geometry, by asserting that every algebraic set may be uniquely decomposed into a finite union of irreducible components.Albert–Brauer–Hasse–Noether theoremIn algebraic number theory, the Albert–Brauer–Hasse–Noether theorem states that a central simple algebra over an algebraic number field K which splits over every completion Kv is a matrix algebra over K. The theorem is an example of a local-global principle in algebraic number theory and leads to a complete description of finite-dimensional division algebras over algebraic number fields in terms of their local invariants. It was proved independently by Richard Brauer, Helmut Hasse, and Emmy Noether and by Abraham Adrian Albert.Geometry and TopologyMaryam Mirzakhani (in Persian: مریم میرزاخانی), previously a mathematician professor at Stanford University, is known for her work in topology and geometry (including geometry of Riemann surfaces). She is the first and, to date, the only woman to receive the Fields Medal, awarded on August 12, 2014.Number Theory[edit]Sophie Germain is a mathematician, physicist and French philosopher, also the first woman to win a prize from the French Academy of Sciences, for her work on a theory of elasticity of bodies. Her proof of Fermat's Last Theorem, though unsuccessful, was used as a foundation for work on the subject in the twentieth century. She is well known for the arithmetic theorem that bears her name, for her exchanges with the mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss.Wireless transmissionTorpedoes Radio guidance deviceAustrian-American Hollywood actress Hedy Lamarr, together with musicist and author George Antheil, developed a radio guidance system for Allied torpedoes which used spread spectrum and frequency hopping technology to defeat the threat of jamming by the Axis powers.[55] Though the US Navy did not adopt the technology until the 1960s, the principles of their work are now incorporated into modern Wi-Fi, CDMA and Bluetooth technology.BiologyDNA structureRosalind Franklin was a British molecular biologist who was instrumental in the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in 1951. At King's College London where she applied X-ray diffraction to the study of biological materials, she performed several X-ray radiographs of the DNA.The Cori cycle (lactic acid cycle)Gerty Cori, together with Carl Ferdinand Cori, discovered the Cori cycle, the metabolic pathway in which lactate produced by anaerobic glycolysis in the muscles moves to the liver and is converted to glucose, which then returns to the muscles and is metabolized back to lactate.[56]RadioimmunoassayRosalyn Sussman Yalow developed the radioimmunoassay, an immunoassay that uses radiolabeled molecules in a stepwise formation of [immune complexes at the Veterans Administration Hospital in the Bronx, New York. This technique is used to accurately measure levels of substances such as hormones which are found in small concentrations in the body. [57]Transposable elementsBarbara McClintock discovered transposable elements (also known as transposons and jumping genes), DNA sequences which change their position within the genome. Transposons make up a large fraction of the DNA in eukaryotic cells (44% if the human genome [58] and 90% of the maize genome [59][60]) and play an important role in genome function and evolution. .[61] In Oxytricha, which has a unique genetic system, these elements play a critical role in development.[62]Nerve growth factorRita Levi-Montalcini and colleague Stanley Cohen discovered nerve growth factor, a neurotrophic factor and neuropeptide primarily involved in the regulation of growth, maintenance, proliferation, and survival of certain target neurons. This discovery was recognized with the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1986. [63]Gap genesChristiane Nüsslein-Volhard and colleague Eric Wieschaus were the first to describe gap genes, genes involved in the development of segmentation in Drosophila embryogenesis. This work was foundational to our understanding of the genetic control of embryonic development.[64]TelomeraseElizabeth Blackburn, Carol W. Greider, and Jack W. Szostak co-discovered the enzyme telomerase, which replenishes the telomere, a structure found at the ends of chromosomes which protects the DNA in the rest of the chromosome from damage.[65]Grid cellsMay-Britt Moser, together with Edvard Moser and their students Torkel Hafting, Marianne Fyhn and Sturla Molden, discovered grid cells, cells which contribute to the brain's positioning and navigation system. The grid cells of a freely moving animal fire when the animal is near the vertices of a hexagonal grid in the environment.[66]PsychologyMyers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers invented this psychological test, where participants answer an introspective self-report questionnaire. The result takes the form of 16 types, indicating the psychological preferences of the participant.For some addition lists of inventions by women, see:18 Inventions By Women That Changed The WorldInventions By WomenFor a few more women scientists, see these (in no particular order, and with apologies to the many eminent women not included):Maria Mitchell - WikipediaRachel Carson - WikipediaJane Goodall - WikipediaCelebrating the life of Alice Hamilton, founding mother of occupational medicineOk, I am finished ranting. These lists of distinguished women are not complete. Women have accomplished far more (in invention and science, and in many other intellectual domains) than is acknowledged.I wish I had known more about this when I was in high school. Fortunately, when I went into college and graduate school (CMU and Harvard) I was encouraged to believe I could do as much as any other student.Edit: This was just announced, another situation in which a man took credit for a woman’s discovery; her work was acknowedged decades later. Female scientist finally honored for "breakthrough" donates $3M award.