City Of Lodi Council Communication: Fill & Download for Free

EDWIN LUTYENS and HERBERT BAKER were considered primarily the two architects who shaped the colonial architecture phase in Delhi, The main aim and intention for construction during that period was to express the achievements possible under the British Raj and act as a stamp of the autocratic ruleCriteria for Site SelectionA site was recommended by respective committee members to aptly act as an imperial capital with a compelling appearance while being approached on a line of rising ground. Lord Harding chose Raisina hill because of two major factors :1) The eastern and southern boundaries were studded with the remains and monuments of bygone empiresShajahanabad, Firoz shah Kotla, the Qutub, as well the safdarjung, tombs of Lodis, Jantar Mantar were visible from this place.2) All natural and historical wonders of the city were to be included within this planned layoutThe city was governed by three major visual corridorsJama MasjidIndraprasthaSafdarjung tombsThe RESIDENTIAL ALLOCATION was presented with hierarchyWithin the hexagonal grids areas were located on criteria of race, occupational rank and socio-economic status.The North-East axis forms the cities main business avenue.South-West of station –residences of local administrators and European clerks.To the West, between Talkatora Gardens and Paharganj- Residences of Indian clerks.Vicinity of Raisina Acropolis- housing for council and other higher officials.North And South of Kingsway- Senior gazzetted officers.East avenue around the hexagon –Indian Princes(princes Park).S-W of Viceroys palace- The Club. Adjoining land was reserved for Golf and Race course.IMAGE ELEMENTS OF LUTYEN'S DELHI*PATHS -Avenues spread out in descending hierarchy starting from Kingsway and Queensway.Continuity of spatial hierarchy, façade identity, visual scope, usage, paving and planting, formality and activity lend it a unified city image.*NODES - Roundabouts were placed at the path intersections. They functioned as origins and destinations for avenues.*LANDMARKS - Were essentially located at important foci. E.g.: Teen Murti house, the club, the old monuments etc. They express the character of Lutyens Delhi and form its associative image ability.* EDGES - The ridge forms its western edge, while the Lodhi Gardens and other greens also mark its boundary. Other parks separated Imperial Delhi forming a green belt that virtually ringed the capital city.BUNGALOW AREAAn area of low density development comprising of government and privately leased bungalow (originally reserved for senior gazetted officers).They were surrounded by walls enclosing large gardens, with high proposition of trees and shrubbery, contributed in forming a thematic unit with the residential districtMaximum ground coverage of 16% and an F.A.R(Floor Area Ratio) of 23 allowed dwelling units of 7000-8000 sq. ft. in area with a maximum height of 25 feet.Social hierarchy was used to establish thematic contrast . Physical elements within were used to convey the status of the residentsSocial hierarchy was used to strengthen the image.The closer the road/ path is to the Government house the greater is its width.Status was communicated by elevations, size of compound and dwelling, width and name of road and area, quantity and type of vegetation, size of gates and nameplates etc.For more detailed info, check Archinomy

International RelationsTrick to Remember G-20 Countries--GURU JI SITA AB SSC FCI ME kaam karti hainG- GermanyU- USAR- RussiaU- U.KJ- JapanI- IndiaS- Saudi ArabiaI- IndonesiaT- TurkeyA- AustraliaA- ArgentinaB- BrazilS- South KoreaS- South AfricaC- CanadaF- FranceC- ChinaI- ItalyM- MexicoE- European unionTrick to Remember ASEAN Countries---Those who pass MBBS watch PTV and buy LIC policy.MBBS PTV LICM- MalaysiaB- BruneiB- BurmaS- SingaporeP- PhillipinesT- ThailandV- VietnamL- LaosI- IndonesiaC- CambodiaTotal= 10 countriesOPEC Countries:NIKE VISA QUILAN- NigeriaI- IndonesiaK- KuwaitE- EcuadorV- VenezuelaI- IranS- Saudi ArabiaA- AlgeriaQ- QatarU- U.A.EI- IraqL- LibyaA- AngolaSCOTRUCK 2 Indiahence member of shanghai cooperation organisation areT-TajikistanR-RussiaU-UzbekistanC-ChinaK-Kyrgystan and KazakhstanIndiaMnemonic for G7 economies:- All G7 countries are wealthy nations. So, they all drink JUICE & have GF (girlfriend).So, its JUICE GF :J- JapanU- USAI- Italy (not India, plz pay attention)C- Canada (not China, plz pay attention)E- England (United Kingdom)G- GermanyF- FranceNote: (i) European Union is also a part of this group which is represented by above mentioned European Countries.(ii) Intially, it was G6, when formed in 1975. Later, in 1976, Canada was added. And again in 1997, Russia was added. So, it became G8. But, due to annexation of Crimea in 2014, Russia was suspended and hence it became G7.Chronology: G6 ➖ G7 ➖ G8 ➖G7.SAARC Countries--MBBS PAINM- MaldivesB- BangladeshB- BhutanS- Sri lankaP- PakistanA- AfganistanI- IndiaN- Nepal6 Members of Mekong-Ganga Cooperation (Very Imp) :LIMCa TVL- LaosI- IndiaM- MyanmarCa- Cambodia (not China, Pay attention)T- ThailandV- VietnamUN always faces the challenges of world. hence they are FACERSF - FrenchA - ArabicC - ChineseE - EnglishR - RussianS - Spanishthese are official languages of UNHeadquarters of International.Rule 1: If the name of any Organization starts with "World or International" and ends with "Organization", their headquarters will be in "Geneva, Switzerland".[ W_O & I_O ] ---- Geneva, Switzerland[ W_O]World Health OrganisationWorld Intellectual Property OrganizationWorld Meteorological OrganizationWorld Trade Organization[ I_O]- Except IMOInternational Labour OrganizationInternational Committee for Red Cross OrganizationInternational Standardization Organization [ISO] ----originally International Organization for StandardizationUnited Nation Conference on Trade And DevelopmentRule 2: Trick for Organizations whose headquarters are in LondonI Am a Common man in LondonI - International Maritime Organization (IMO)Am - Amnesty InternationalCommon - Commonwealth of NationsCommon - Commonwealth Telecommunication OrganizationRule 3: If any Organization is related to "International Money or Monetary organization", its headquarters will be in Washington DC.International Monetary fundWorld BankRule 4: If any Organization is related to "Industrial Development/ Petroleum/ Atomic", its headquarter will be in "Vienna, Austria"United Nations Industrial Development OrganizationInternational Atomic Energy AgencyOrganization of the Petroleum Exporting CountriesRule 5: For Headquarters of Organizations located in Newyork, remember - "UN Child Emergency in New york"UN Child Emergency in New yorkUnited Nations OrganizationUnited Nation International Children Emergency FundRule 6: If any Organization is related to the term "Economic & Educational", its headquarter will be located in ParisOrganization for Economic Co-Operation DevelopmentUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganizationTrick to Remember the Headquarters of some other International OrganizationsASIAN Development Bank [ ADB ]--MANila, Philippines [ ASIAN MANila ]Association of South East Nations [ ASEAN ]-- JAKarta, Indonesia [ ACE JACK ] --Remember Playing cardsFOOD Agriculture Organisation [ FAO ]--Rome, ITALY [ FOOD IDLY ]International COURT of JUSTICE-- The HAGUE, Netherlands [ Remember COURT given JUSTICE HANGUE ]South Asian Association For Regional Cooperation [ SAARC ]--Khatmandu, NepalHISTORYBuddhas eight fold path --- VISAL CEM (vishal cement)right View, Intention, Speech, Action, Livelihood, Concentration, Effort, Mindfulness ( view, intention , mindfulness also called as faith , thought remembrance)Code of conduct of BuddhaCLIP no Violenceno Corruptionno Liesno usage of Intoxicants, andno to covet the Property of othersMahavira principles and vowsThe three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are:KFC- right Knowledge- right Faith- right Conduct.1) Human being start to use C.B.I in sequence..means COPPER,BRONZE and IRON.2) HSBC stands for Harappa,Suktagandor,Banawali ,Chahundaro..! are places shows different -2 stages of growth of Harappa civilization.3) GPRS Harappa civilization’s important places Gujrat,Punjab,Rajasthan, Sind.Ruling Dynasties of Ancient History:HASINA MASHUKA AA.HA- Haryanka DynastySI- Sishunga DynastyNA- Nanda DynastyMA- Maurya DynastySHU- Shunga DynastyKA- Kanwa DynastyAA- Andhra DynastyDelhi Sultanate :Sab Khao Tamatar Sab Lo MazeS = Slave (Mamluk)K = KhiljiT = TughlaqS = SayyidL = LodiM = MughalsBehtar Hota Agar Ja Sakte Agra BhiB= Babur 1526 – 1530H = Humayun 1530 – 1540 1555 – 1556A = Akbar 1556 – 1605J = Jahangir 1605 – 1627S = Shah Jahan 1628 – 1658A = Aurangzeb 1658 – 1707B = Bahadur Shah ZafarAs we know C.P.F(Central Police Force) ,read it like Courage,Peace,Faith.. represent by tri-color respt. From saffron to green..As 'CAB'...(means taxi)..remember it like..C for CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY,A for ADVISOR,B for B.N RAO..means b.n rao was advisor to constituent assembly who prepare draft of constitution.Countries located around the Adriatic Sea (in clockwise direction): "Incredibly Slimy Cockroach Bit My Aunt" (Italia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania).Seven Hills Of Rome : "Can Queen Victoria Eat Cold Apple Pie?" (Capitoline, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, Aventine, and Palatine.Arrival Of European companies in chronological order:Putra ADa Dad FaSa.P = Portuguese (1498)A = Angrej( English) (1600)D = Dutch (1602)D = Dennis (1616)F = French (1664)S = Swedish (1731)Buddhist councils in sequenceRAVA PAKA1-First Buddhist council (c. 400 BCE) - RAjigriha2-Second Buddhist council (c. 4th century BCE) - VAisali3-Third Buddhist council (c. 251 BCE) - PAtaliputra4-The Fourth Buddhist Councils - KAshmirDalhousie made annexations only on weekends i.e. Saturday and Sunday.(Sat and SUN)Sat- SataraS- SambhalpurU- UdaipurN- Nagpurand then JhansiRemember Who fought 1st Anglo-Mysore warMEN vs Hyder ali·M-Maratha·E-English·N- NizamsRemember Kings who followed Buddhism“Bapu Ka hath”· B– Bimbisara· A-Ashoka· P– Prasanjeet· U-Uday sen· Ka- Kaniska· Hath-Harsha vardanaPolityFormation of states in Chronological Order:AaM GuNaH Hi Meg ManTri Si GArMi de sakta haiA = Andhra Pradesh (1953)M = Maharashtra (1960)Gu = Gujarat (1960)Na = Nagaland (1963)H = Hariyana (1966)Hi = Himanchal Pradesh (1971)Meg = Meghalaya (1972)Man = Manipur (1972)Tri = Tripura (1972)Si = Sikkim (1975)G = Goa (1987)Ar = Arunanchal Pradesh (1987)Mi = Mizoram (1987)States With Bicameral SystemKAMBUJTJ – Jammu & KasmirU - Uttar PradeshM - MaharastraB – BiharA – Andhra PradeshK – KarnatakaT - TelanganaRemember the WritsCPM Head Quarters· ‘C’ for Certiorari· ‘P’ for Prohibition,· ‘M’ for Mandamus,· ‘H’ for Habeus Corpus· ‘Q’ for Quo WarrantoLanguages added to 8th schedule under 92nd amendmentB.D.M.S meansBODODOGRIMAITHILISANTHALIRemember Sessions of Lok SabhaB.M.W· Budget (February to May),· Monsoon (June to September)· Winter (November to December).CAMPASCabinet Mission, had members nameP for Pathic lawrenceA for A.V.Alexendarand S for Strafford CrippsEconomicsDirect and Indirect Taxes :a) Indirect Tax:ExCuSe ME SPEx= Excise DutyCu = Customs DutySe = Service TaxM = Motor vehicle taxE = Electricity , Entertainment TaxS = Sales TaxP = Passenger taxb) Direct Tax:WEALTH and PROPERTY gives INCOME as GIFT .Mnemonic for 7 different fields of Rainbow Revolution :AFSPA Fauran HataoAFSPA is u all kno Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act. Irom Sharmila is fighting to remove it.AFSPA Fauran Hatao :A- AgricultureF- ForestryS- SugarcaneP- PoultryA- Animal HusbandryF- Fishery (Fauran)H- Horticulture (Hatao)8 Core Industries of India :CCC FRENSC- CoalC- Crude OilC- CementF- FertilizersR- Refinery ProductsE- ElectricityN- Natural GasS- SteelFive year plans:(Important Facts From First To Eleventh Five Year Plan)1. First five year plan (1951 -56)SIPCOTS - Social ServiceI - IndustryP - PowerCo - CommunicationT - Transport2. Second Five Year Plan (1956 -61)MADRASM - Mahalanobis ModelA - Atomic Energy CommissionD - Durgapur Steel Company, Tata Inst Of Fundamental ResearchR - Rourkela Steel Company, Rapid IndustrialisationA - AgricultureS - Socialistic Pattern Of Society3. Third Five Year Plan (1961-66)SADS - Self RelianceA - AgricultureD - Development Of Industry4.5. Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79)PSTMP - Poverty EradicationS - Self RelianceT - Twenty Point ProgrammeM - Minimum Need Programme6. Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85)MAILM - ManagementA - Agriculture ProductionI - Industry ProductionL - Local Development Schemes7. Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90)EFGHE - Employment GenerationF - Food grain Production Was DoubledG - Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (1989)H - Hindu Rate Of Growth8. Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97)LPGL - LiberalizationP - PrivatizationG - Globalization9. Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002)ESPNE - Employment For Women, SC's And ST'sS - Seven Basic Minimum ServiceP - Panchayat Raj Institutions, Primary Education, Public Distribution SystemN - Nutrition Security10.11. Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007 -2012)TEACHERST - Telecommunications (2G)E - Electricity, Environment ScienceA - AnemiaC - Clean WaterH - Health EducationE - Environment ScienceR - Rapid GrowthS - Skill DevelopmentGeographyCountries around Caspian Sea :TARIK (Date)T- TurkmenistanA- AzerbaijanR- RussiaI- IranK- KazakhstanCountries bordering Red Sea :DESSEY :D- DjiboutiE- EritreaS- Saudi ArabiS- Sudan (not somalia: pay attention and keep rem)E- EgyptY- YemenCountries collectively called as Horn of Africa:SEED :S- SomaliaE- EthiopiaE- EritreaD- DjiboutiCountries bordering Black Sea ::So, its GURR BuTG- GeorgiaU- UkarineR- RussiaR- RomaniaBu- BulagariaT- TurkeyCountries bordering Baltic Sea are :RuDe Germany SELL Poland & Finland :Ru- RussiaDe- DenmarkGermanyS- SwedenE- EstoniaL- LatviaL- LithuaniaPolandFinlandRUSSIA is the only country which borders three different land locked seas :BBCBlack SeaBaltic SeaCaspian SeaRivers north west India"In June Cars Run Bit Slow"IndusJhelumChenabRaviBeasSatlujCities Of Australia When Moving In Clockwise DirectionB.S.C M.A. PhDB risbaneS ydneyC anberraM albourneA delaideP erthD arwinLength of Boundary India Shares In Decreasing OrderBACHPANBangladesh China Pakistan NepalSeven Sister States:ATM ANa Money MilegaA = Arunachal PradeshT = TripuraM = MeghalayaA = AssamNa = NagalandM = ManipurMi = MizoramImportant fold mountains:U ARe A HimalayaU - Ural MountainA - Alps MountainR - Rocky MountainA - Andes MountainH- Himalaya.All important tributaries of Ganga:GoRa Ghaghara K BaG M PunYa SoTa :GoRa Ghaghara K BaG M ---- These are left bank tributariesPunYa SoTa---- These are right bank tributariesGo- GomatiRa- RamgangaGhagharaK- KoshiBa- BagmatiG- GandakM- MahanandaPun- PunpunYa- YamunaSo- SonTa- TamsaAll important tributaries of Godavari :ShiBa KaKa Sab TIPPu --- Left bank tributariesShi- ShivanaBa- BangangaKa- KadvaKa- KadamSab- SabariT- TaliperuI- IndravatiP- PranhitaPu- PurnaSiPra MaMa Ki DaNa---- Right bank TributariesSi- SindphanaPra- PravaraMa- MajiraMa- ManairKi- KinnerasaniDa- DarnaNa- NasardiTropic of Cancer Passes through eight states:West Me Gujarat Rajasthan, Mujhe Jharkhand Chahiye Tha.W- West BengalM- Madhya PradeshG- GujaratR- RajasthanM- MizoramJ- JharkhandC- ChhattisgarhT- TripuraFive Great lakesHOMES· H for Huron.· O for Ontario.· M for Michigan.· E for Erie.· S for Superior.Lakes according to their flow from West to East“Super Man Helps Every One”· S is for Superior.· M is for Michigan.· H is for Huron.· E is for Erie.· O is for Ontario.OceansPAISA· P-Pacific· A-Arctic· I-Indian· S-Southern Ocean(Antarctic Ocean)· A-AtlanticTaxonomy“Keep Pots Clean, Otherwise Family Gets Sick.”· Kingdom· Phylum· Class· Order· Family· Genus· SpeciesNational aquatic animal ganges dolpjin is found in 7 states they are BMWRAJUB - BiharM - Madhya PradeshW - West bengalR - RajasthanA - AssamJ - JharkandU - Uttar PradeshKyotowe all know that those supporting the cause for curtailing pollution are a MINORITYHence under KYOTO NCMs(national commission for minorities) has been set upand sponsored by HPN-NitrogenC-carbon dioxideM-MethaneS-Sulphur hexaflourideH-HydroflourocarbonP-perflouro carbonthese are gasses monitored under kyoto protocolUKUK is made of WINESW- WalesIN- Ireland northE- EnglandS- ScotlandFor Tropical( Kharif) CropsCo Ba Ma ki Tu Jo Ri (Cobama ki Tujori)Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Tur, Jowar, RiceFor Temperate ( Rabi) Crops):Whe Ba G Ra M ( Vibha Garm)Wheat , Barley , Gram, Rapeseed, MustardTropical Evergreen Trees:R E M A (Rema)Rosewood, Ebony, Mahogany, AiniSemi Evergreen:C H K (check)cedar, hallock, KailTropical Deciduous Dry:P A K ka T A B ela ( Pak ka Tabela)Palas, amaltas, Khair, Tendu, Axlewood , BelTropical Deciduous Moist:SSS AT ( Three Sat)Sandalwood, Sal, Shisham, Amla, TeakConventions and Protocols:Ramsar Convention- wetlandsBonn Convention- On migratory birdsVienna Convention- Ozone layerMontreal Protocol- Ozone layerMinamata Convention- MercuryGeneva Protocol- Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of WarfareStockholm Convention- Persistant Organic pollutants(POP)Rotterdam Convention- Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain hazardous Chemicals and PesticidesBasel Convention- Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their DisposalReports published by International Institutions:. World Bank(WB)Ease of Doing BusinessWorld Development ReportLogistics Performance IndexEase of Living Index[WB- Warren Buffett. THE Warren BuffettSince he's a business tycoon-> so DOES his BUSINESS EASILY due to his great influence; EASILY LIVES HIS life since money can buy happiness; transports goods to customers easily(LOGISTICS) buy buying ships,aeroplanes,ola cab, uber cab that PERFORM exceptionally well, since too much money dawg!, no one disappoints him ; all this purchase helps him in creating jobs hence less poverty-> WORLD DEVELOPS]IMF(International Monetary Fund)World Economic OutlookGlobal Financial Stability ReportFiscal Monitor[IMF-> I M Fucked.So what do I do to change my situation? LOOK for ECONOMIC opportunities that could get me quick money(start playing poker). Once I get good at it, my FINANCIAL condition becomes STABLE and I start purchasing shit I don't need to impress people that I don't like. Too much transactions without paying taxes creates doubt in governments mind, so they start MONITORING my FISCAL transcations hence catching me because they can and making me pay my debts just like lannisters]. World Economic Forum(WEF)Global Competitiveness ReportTravel and Competitiveness ReportGender Gap IndexGlobal Risk ReportGlobal Information Technology Report[WEF-> WifeWives vs Wives -> COMPETITION between various wives in terms of getting at the top of economic ladder,dressing sense etcImagine anyone's wife. Let it be Genelia.Genelia loves TRAVELLING to new places with his hubby Ritesh Deshmukh but since he is always busy in politics and making movies, she decides to travel alone. She goes to rural households, encounters the GENDER GAP prevailing in rural household(4 boys to 1 girl and girl child getting less food as compared to girls) and also sees the vast RISKS involved in maintaing a poor house with no chimney->harmful gases inhaled. She decides to complain about it and passes the INFORMATION to TECH-giants like Google to spread awareness about it.]. International Energy Agency(IEA)World Energy OutlookSouth Asia Energy OutlookWorld Energy Investment[IEA-> Energy Agency->ONGCWhat does ONGC do? ONGC LOOKS to exploit new ENERGY resources to create Indian optimus prime and bumblebee.They go to SOUTH ASIA as too much terrorism in west and middle east. Plus they love momos.They found yellow metal cake(uranium) instead of oil(ENERGY) and started INVESTING in South Asia and start mining in their fields]. International Labour Organisation(ILO)World Employment DataSocial Outlook ReportBasic Needs Approach[ILO-> Labours Organisation.Labours of different organisation organise and form union, hence their number increase and too much DATA on their EMPLOYMENT stats(chaiwala,panwala) as they are from different company, shops, paan waa, chai wala etc.By organising their union they can demand for their rights more effectiveley and become more SOCIALLY active and LOOK out for each other. What kind of rights they demand? Since they are poor so they only demand small BASIC NEEDS of life like food,electricity to be met and then they can think about the pretentious needs of prevailing upper middle-class.]. World Wide Fund(WWF)Living Planet Report[WWF->wrestling.Since the wrestlers are the most fit with their 6-pack abs so they are sent first to space exploration to look for a LIVING PLANET and fight with them bare handed first, bazooka later.]Key for any answer on Environment in mains → MC-FACTRM: Mitigation (Kyoto/Paris/Mitigation CO2/GHG/Ozone/Montreal/Kigali/HCFCs/HFCs/Euro/Bharat Emission norms/Aviation climate deal/Fly Ash reuse)C: Capacity Building (National Solar Mission/Green Grid/Green Corridor/Sendai Framework)F: Finance (GCF/GEF/CDM/CC/Climate International Fund (WB)/BioFin/Addis Ababa Action Agenda (SDG)/Carbontax Green Bonds/Green Masala bonds/Coal Cess/Polluters Pay Principle/CAMPA Fund)A: AdaptationNAPCC (National Action Plan for Climate Change) → SEHWAG HK· S: National Solar Mission· E: National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency· H: National Mission on Sustainable Habitat· W: National Water Mission· A: National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture· G: National Mission for a Green India· H: National Mission for the Himalaya Ecosystem· K: National Mission on Strategic Knowledge Climate ChangeEnergy Conservation Building Code (GRIHA)Urban Waste Management/RecyclingPower Production from waterElectronic VehicleIncentives for use of Public transportsWater use efficiency through pricingAfforestation - GM/Drought resistance cropsC: Commitment (NDCs (Paris)/ SDGs/BRoSM/Basel/Rotterdam/ Stockholm (PoP)/Minamata/ RE TargetT: Technology Transfer - CDM/GEFR: Review -> Periodic Review (Update Target/Check Progress/Course Correction/ Capability & Capacity Building)PATNA : To remember Missiles under integrated program.PrithviAgniTrishulNagAkash

There was no exact name of Punjab in ancient times Actually it would not be wrong to say that India itself was Punjab in those days. For knowing Punjab we have to first know the history of Punjab which is not only the history of Punjab but also the History of India or more accurately we can say History of mankind. Punjab is perhaps the most ancient land where civilization was developed. Indus valley Civilization was bloomed in regions of Punjab and has been found in many palces like Mohanjodaro, Harappa, Rakhigarh and Ropar etc. Besides the aforementioned sites, hundreds of ancient settlements have been found throughout the region, spanning an area of about 100 miles. These ancient towns and cities had advanced features such as city-planning, brick-built houses, sewage and draining systems, as well as public baths. The people of the Indus Valley also developed a writing system, that has to this day not been deciphered. From this we can say that Punjab in ancient times was known as the Sapt-Sindhu, or land of the seven rivers. . The aforementioned seven rivers were the Vitsta and Vitamasa (Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Parusni and Iravati (Ravi), Vipasa (Beas), and the Satudri (Sutlej).it is believed by most Scholars that the earliest trace of human habitation in India traces to the Soan valley between the Indus and the Jhelum rivers. This period goes back to the first inter-glacial period in the second Ice Age, from which remnants of stone and flint tools have been found.According to Vedas the area was divided into so many small janpadas and gaṇa/ sangha (societies.) The latter are loosely translated to being oligarchies or republics. These political entities were represented from the Rig Veda to the Astadhyayi by Panini. Some of the early Janas of the Rig Veda can be strongly attributed to Punjab, they are associated with the Porusni, Asikni, Satudri, Vipas, and Saraswati. The rivers of Punjab often corresponded to the eastern Janapadas. Rig Vedic Janas such as the Druhyus, Anus, Purus, Yadus, Turvasas, Bharatas, and others were associated in Punjab and the Indo-Gangetic plain. Other Rig Vedic Janapadas such as the Pakhthas, Bhalanasas, Visanins, and Sivas were associated with areas in the north and west of Punjab.A map of India during the Vedic period, including the Punjab region.A great battle, referred to as the Mahabharat in ancient texts, was fought in Punjab on a battlefield known as Kurukshetra. This was fought between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Duryodhana, a descendant of Kuru (who was the son of king Samvaran), had tried to insult the Panchali princess Draupadi in revenge for defeating his ancestor Samvaran.Many Janapadas were mentioned from Vedic texts and are confirmed by Ancient Greek historical sources. Most of the Janapadas that had exerted large territorial influence, or Mahajanapadas. There was a large level of contact between all the Janapadas of ancient India with descriptions being given of trading caravans, movement of students from universities, and itineraries of princesPre-Islamic Punjab was also a centre of learning for Ancient India, and many ashrams and universities. The most notable of the universities is that at Takhsh-Shila, which was dedicated to the study of the "three Vedas and 18 branches of knowledge".Mauryan EraAlexander's invasionAlexander took his troops and razed several cities, fought a battle at Massaka which turned into a massacre, and conducted the battle at Aornos rock. Somewhere in this region, Alexander visited a city called Nysa which was in legend founded by a god. After crossing the Indus, Alexander was welcomed by the native ruler of Takshashila, known to the Greeks as Taxila, and other allies. When Alexander had reached Malloi and Oxydrakai in 325 B.C, the people had claimed that they always lived freely, directly contradicting with Persian accounts of rule over the region. After this, Alexander's first opponent was the Raja Porus. Porus and Alexander had fought a battle on the Hydaspes, which was the last major battle of Alexander's campaign. The armies had met in June, when the monsoon had begun, and it was the first time Alexander and his troops had encountered Elephants in battle. After the defeat of Porus in Greek sources, most armies that he had encountered had come to submit, with very few refusing to do so such as the people of Sangala who were massacred.Supposedly after the disheartened and homesick attitude of his troops, Alexander had returned home through Malois.Maurya EmpireThe Mauryan Empire around 265 BCE. Prior to Alexander's invasion, much of the region was ruled by the Mahajanapada of the Nanda Empire as well as other smaller Janapadas. Chandragupta Maurya, with the aid of Kautilya, had established his empire around 320 B.C. With the help of the small Janapadas of Punjab and Sindh, he had gone on to conquer much of the North West. He then defeated the Nanda rulers in Pataliputra to capture the throne. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, Seleucus when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus and offered a marriage, including a portion of Bactria, while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephantsChandragupta's rule was very well organised. The Mauryans had an autocratic and centralised administration system, aided by a council of ministers, and also a well-established espionage system.Mauryan rule was advanced for its time, and foreign accounts of Indian cities mention many temples, libraries, universities, gardens, and parks. A notable account was that of the Greek ambassador Megasthenes who had visited the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra. The Gupta Empire ruled during a period known as India's Golden age.Chandra Gupta's reign was an unsettled one, but under his son, Samudra Gupta, the empire reached supremacy over India The Empire was organised along the lines of provinces, frontier feudatories, and subordinate kings of vassal states that had sworn fealty to the Empire. In the case of Punjab, the local Janapadas were semi-independent but were expected to obey orders and pay homage to the empire.After the death of Skanda Gupta, the Empire suffered from various wars of succession. The last major Gupta King was Buddha Gupta; after him, the Empire had split into various branches across India. Nevertheless, by the sixth century, the Huns had established themselves and Toramana and his son Mihirakula, who has been described to be a Saivite Hindu, had ruled over the approximate areas of Punjab, Rajputana, and Kashmir. Several accounts, including those by Chinese pilgrims, make reference to the cruelty of the Huns. There had been several alliances throughout this time that had checked the advance of the Huns, but it was not until 533-534 that Raja Yashovarman of Mandasor firmly defeated them.Empire of HarshaAfter the disintegration of the Gupta Empire, Northern India was ruled by several independent kingdoms which carried on the traditions of the Gupta Empire within their own territories. Harshavardhana, commonly called Harsha, was an Indian emperor who ruled northern India from 606 to 647 from his capital Kanauj. Harsha's grandfather was Adityavardhana, a feudatory ruler of Thanesvar in eastern Punjab. Under his son Prabhakarvardhana, the dynasty emerged as a major stateIslamic EraEarly Islamic EraArab armies had earlier tried to penetrate deep into South Asia but were defeated by the South Indian Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty, Despite repeated campaigns, in 698 and 700, Arabs also failed to occupy the Kandahar-Ghazni-Kabul route to the Khyber Pass. Two small Hindu states of Zabul and Kabul in southern Afghanistan stubbornly defended this strategic area between the river Sindh and Koh Hindu Kush. Bhima Deva Shahi was the fourth king of the Hindu Kabul Shahis. As a devout Brahmin, in his old age, he committed ritual suicide in his capital town of Waihind, located on the right side of river Sindh, fourteen miles above Attock.As Bhimadeva had no male heir, Jayapala succeeded the Shahi throne, which had included areas spanning from Punjab to Kabul in Afghanistan.Jayapala was defeated at Peshawar by Mahmud of Ghazni and the Shahis lost all territory north of river Sindh. Anandapala and Trilochanapala, his son and grandson respectively, resisted Mahmud for another quarter of a century but Punjab was finally annexed to the Sultanate of Ghazni, around 1021. After the Muslim attacks, many Punjabi scholars of Sanskrit had fled to schools and universities in Benares and Kashmir, which were at the time unaffected by Islamic invasion. Al Biruni wrote: "Hindu sciences have fled far away from those parts of the country that have been conquered by us, and fled to places which our hand cannot yet reach, to Kashmir, to Benares, and other places." These places were later to face the same depredations.Delhi SultanateIn the late 12th century, Muhammad of Ghori began a systematic invasion of India. Between 1175 and 1192, the Ghurid dynasty had occupied the cities of Uch, Multan, Peshawar, Lahore, and Delhi. In 1206, the Ghurid general Qutb-al-din Aybeg and his successor Iltutmish founded the first of the series of Delhi Sultanates. Each dynasty would be an alternation of various inner-Asian military lords and their clients, constantly vying for power. These sultanates would make Delhi a safe haven for Muslim Turks and Persians who would flee the eventual Mongol invasions.The Khalji dynasty was the second dynasty of the Delhi sultanates, ruling from 1290 to 1320. This dynasty was a short-lived one, and extended Islamic rule to Gujarat, Rajasthan, the Deccan, and parts of Southern India.The first gesture to bring the people into Islam was to destroy major Hindu temples. This was done to loot riches and to signify the defeat of the Hindu rulers and their gods. Sometimes these destroyed temples were replaced by Mosques in order to show victory to both Hindus and rival Muslims. Examples are the mosque of Quwwat-al-Islam which incorporated stones and iron pillars from Hindu structures, and the Qutb Minar, which highlighted the presence of Islam. The dynasties of the Delhi sultanates stressed allegiance to the Caliphate and supported the judicial authority of the Ulama.The Khalji dynasty was succeeded by the Tughluq dynasty, which had ruled from 1320 to 1413.After the death of the last Tughluq ruler Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, the nobles are believed to have chosen Daulat Khan Lodi for the throne. In 1414, Lodi was defeated by Khizr Khan, the founder of the Sayyid dynasty of the Sultanate. Khizr Khan professor to rule as the viceroy of Timur and his successor Shah Rukh. Under the Sayyid dynasty, Punjab, Dipalpur, and parts of Sindh had come under the rule of the Sultanates. The rule of the Sayyids experienced another revolt under the rule of their general Bahlul Lodi, who had at first occupied much of Punjab, yet failed to capture Delhi. In his second attempt, Bahlul Lodi captured Delhi and founded the Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi sultanates. The Lodi dynasty reached its peak under Bahlul's grandson Sikander Lodi. Various road and irrigation projects were taken under his rule, and the rule had patronised Persian culture. Despite this, there was still persecution of the local Hindu people as many temples, such as that of Mathura, were destroyed and had a system of widespread discrimination against Hindus.Mughal EmpireMughal conflicts with SikhsThe Sikh religion began around the time of the conquest of Northern India by Babur Shah, the founder of the Mughal Empire. The later Muslim Emperor Jahangir, however, saw the Sikhs as a political threat. He ordered Guru Arjun Dev to be put to death after he had refused to change the passage about Islam in the Adi Granth. When the Guru refused, Jahangir ordered him to be put to death by torture. Guru Arjan Dev's death led to the sixth Guru Guru Hargobind to declare sovereignty in the creation of the Akal Takht and the establishment of a fort to defend Amritsar. Jahangir then jailed Guru Hargobind at Gwalior, but released him after a number of years when he no longer felt threatened. The succeeding son of Jahangir, Shah Jahan, took offence at Guru Hargobind's declaration and after a series of assaults on Amritsar, forced the Sikhs to retreat to the Sivalik Hills. The ninth Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, moved the Sikh community to Anandpur and travelled extensively to visit and preach in defiance of Aurangzeb, who attempted to install Ram Rai as new guru. Guru Tegh Bahadur aided Kashmiri Pandits in avoiding conversion to Islam and was arrested by Aurangzeb. When offered a choice between conversion to Islam and death, he chose to die rather than compromise his principles and was executed. Guru Gobind Singh assumed the guruship in 1675 and established the Khalsa, a collective army of baptised Sikhs, on 13 April 1699. The establishment of the Khalsa united the Sikh community against various Mughal-backed claimants to the guruship.Banda Bahadur (also known as Lachman Das, Lachman Dev and Madho Das), (1670–1716) met Guru Gobind Singh at Nanded and adopted the Sikh religion. A short time before his death, Guru Gobind Singh ordered him to conquer Punjab and gave him a letter that commanded all Sikhs to join him. After two years of gaining supporters, Banda Singh Bahadur initiated an agrarian uprising by breaking up the large estates of Zamindar families and distributing the land to the peasants. During the rebellion, Banda Singh Bahadur made it a point to destroy the cities in which the Muslims had been cruel to the supporters of Guru Gobind Singh. He executed Wazir Khan in revenge for the deaths of Guru Gobind Singh's sons after the Sikh victory at Sirhind.He ruled the territory between the Sutlej river and the Yamuna river, established a capital in the Himalayas at Lohgarh and struck coinage in the names of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh.In 1716, he was defeated by the Mughals at his fort at Gurdas Nangal. The captured Sikhs were beheaded, their heads stuffed with hay, mounted on spears and carried on a procession to Delhi en route to the Qutb Minar. Banda Singh was told to dismount, as the Muslims placed his child in his arms and bade him to kill it. Refusing the command, his child was ripped open and fed to him, as the Muslims had dismembered his limbs after refusing to convert to Islam.Durranis and MarathasIn 1747, the Durrani kingdom was established by the Pakhtun general, Ahmad Shah Abdali, and included Balochistan, Peshawar, Daman, Multan, Sindh, and Punjab. The first time Ahmad Shah invaded Hindustan, the Mughal imperial army checked his advance successfully. Yet subsequent events led to a double alliance, one by marriage and another politically, between the Afghan King and the Mughal Emperor. The battle of Panipat was the effect of this political alliance. After the victory of Panipat, Ahmad Shah Durrani became the primary ruler over Northern India. The influence of Durrani monarch continued in Northern India up to his death. In 1757, the Sikhs were persistently ambushing guards to loot trains. In order to send a message, and prevent such occurrences from recurring, Ahmad Shah destroyed the Shri Harimandir Sahib and filled the Sarovar (Holy water pool) with cow carcasses.In 1758 the Maratha Empire's general Raghunathrao attacked and conquered Lahore and Attock driving out Timur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali, in the process. Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subahs on the eastern side of Attock were under Maratha rule. In Punjab and Kashmir, the Marathas were now major players.In 1761, following the victory at the Third battle of Panipat between the Durrani and the Maratha Empire, Ahmad Shah Abdali captured remnants of the Maratha Empire in Punjab and Kashmir regions and had consolidated control over them.In 1762, there were persistent conflicts with the Sikhs. Sikh holocaust of 1762 took place under the Muslim provincial government based at Lahore to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the Sikh holocaust of 1746, and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states. The rebuilt Harminder Sahib was destroyed, and the pool was filled with cow entrails, again.Sikh RuleIn 1799, a process to unify Punjab was started by Ranjit Singh. Training his army under the style of the East India Company, it was able to conquer much of Punjab and surrounding areas. The use of the suzerain-vassal polity as established by previous rulers had been instrumental in establishing the political control of the Sikhs. During this time, there was an increase in the population of Sikhs as well. In towns and cities, there was an increase in the population of urban Sikhs, while the same happened with an increase in rural Sikhs. This had also likely led to some of the ideological differences between Sikhs around this time.The invasions of the Muslim Zaman Shah, the second successor of Ahmad Shah Abdali had served as a catalyst. After the first invasion, Singh had recovered his own fort at Rohtas. During the second invasion, he had emerged as a leading Sikh chief. After the third invasion, he had decisively defeated Zamah Shah. This had eventually led to the takeover of Lahore in 1799. In 1809, Singh signed the Treaty of Amritsar with the British; in this treaty, Singh was recognised as the sole ruler of Punjab by the British and was given freedom to fight against the Muslims of surrounding areas.Within ten years of Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the Empire was taken over by the British who had already more or less exerted indirect or direct influence throughout the Subcontinent. At Lahore, there were increasing levels of nobles vying for power. A growing instability, allowed the British to come in and take over control of the area. After the British victories at the battles of the Sutlej in 1845–46, the army and territory of the boy Raja Duleep Singh was cut down. Lahore was garrisoned by British troops, and given a resident in the Durbar. In 1849, the British had formally taken control.British RajThe British Brigadier-General R. E. H. Dyer fired upon protesters at Jallianwalla Bagh in 1919, killing between 300–1000 people. The act served to rally the Indian Independence movement.The Punjab ruled under the British was larger than that under Ranjit Singh. The colonial rule of Punjab had instated a system of bureaucracy and measure of the law. Replacing the 'paternal' system of the ruling was replaced by 'machine rule' with a system of laws, codes, and procedures. For purposes of control, the British established new forms of communication and transportation. These included post systems, railways, roads, and telegraphs. Irrigation projects between 1860 and 1920 brought 10 million acres of land under cultivation. Despite these developments, colonial rule was marked by exploitation of resources. For the purpose of exports, the majority of external trade was controlled by British export banks. The Imperial government exercised control over the finances of Punjab and took the majority of the income for itself.To the agrarian and commercial class was added a professional middle class that had risen the social ladder through the use of the English education, which opened up new professions in law, government, and medicine.By the 1870s there had been communities of Muslims of the Wahabi sect, drawn from the lower classes, that intended to use jihad to get rid of the non-Muslims by force. A highlight of religious controversy during this time was that of the Ahmaddiya movement. Mirza Gulam Ahmad in his Burahin-i-Ahmaddiyawhich was meant to rejuvenate Islam on the basis of the Quran, had attempted to refute both Christian missionaries, and Hindus and Sikhs. In another work, Ahmad argued that Guru Nanak was a Muslim. He interpreted Jihad as a peaceful method, and declared himself to be the Messiah. This was met with significant controversy.[55]In the first and second decades of the early 20th century, the idea of Hindu and Muslim separation had become an active political tone. Muslims were told to remain aloof of the Indian National Congress, the main body seeking Indian Independence, because there was a general fear that representation based on elections and employment based upon competition was not in their interest. The All India Muslim League's demand for separate electorates for Muslims was granted at Amritsar in 1909. The Muslim league also demanded separate electorates in every province, even in those without Muslim majority populations, which was also granted by the Indian National Congress in 1916.An important event of the British Raj in Punjab was the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre of 1919. The British brigadier-general R.E.H Dyer marched fifty riflemen of the 1/9th Gurkhas, 54th Sikhs, and 59th Sikhs into the Bagh and ordered them to open fire into the crowd that had collected there. The official number of deaths given by the British was given as 379 people dead, but there are reported to be greater than 1000 killed.There had been many Indian Independence movements in Punjab at the time as well. Notably, the actions of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru on 17 December 1928 in which the trio was responsible for killing J.P Saunders in revenge for the latter's murder of Lala Lajpati Rai. They were also responsible for the bombing of the Legislative Assembly in Delhi on the 8th of April in 1929. The three believed that the nonviolent movement was a failure. Nevertheless, the use of violence in the Indian Independence movement became unpopular after the execution of the trio on the 23 March 1932.Independence and PartitionIn 1947, the Punjab Province of British India was divided along religious lines into West Punjab and East Punjab. The western part was assimilated into the new country of Pakistan while the east stayed in India. This led to riots. The Partition of India in 1947 split the former Raj province of Punjab; the mostly Muslim western part became the Pakistani province of West Punjab and the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became the Indian province of Punjab. Many Sikhs and Hindus lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and so partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence. Several small Punjabi princely states, including Patiala, also became part of India.The undivided Punjab, of which Punjab (Pakistan) forms a major region today, was home to a large minority population of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus unto 1947 apart from the Muslim majority.Indian Punjab since independencePunjabi SubahAfter independence, the Akali Dal, a Sikh-dominated political party active mainly in Punjab, sought to create a Sikh State but idea was not very popular. However, there was push in many regions of India for reorganization of states based on language. In Punjab, instead of religion, the Akalis launched the Punjabi Suba movement aimed at creation of a Punjabi-majority subah ("province") in the erstwhile East Punjab state of India in the http://1950s.In 1966, it resulted in the formation of the Punjabi speaking -majority Punjab state, the Haryanvi-Hindi-majority Haryana state and the Union Territory of Chandigarh. Some Pahari majority parts of the East Punjab were also merged with Himachal Pradesh as a result of the movement.So we can infer from this that Punjab is not only a state of India it is india itself and was known as Sapt Sindu in very ancient times. Earlier it was divided into many janpadas Purus, Yadus Bhartas were main rulers. King pauras was who fought with Alexender was a Puru king. However under Gupta Empire and Harshvardhna Empire it was organised much. after Islamic invasions the region got the name Punjab as the place of Five rivers.Hope you will like the content.Main Sourse Wikipedia