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Education system in India can be dated centuries back because it was in India, that great scholars and sages through scriptures imparted knowledge on various subjects like philosophy, religion, medicine, literature, mathematics, sociology, etc. Today, India education comprises of one of the largest higher and secondary education system in the world. This has been made possible by a large number of schools, colleges and universities that are offering diverse courses. Moreover, the distance learning courses and online degrees are also helping in the democratization of the Indian education system.India is known as the talent-pool of the world, where intelligent, educated people are very easy to find, and this fact has definitely given a boost to India education.he greater majority of Korean high school students write a college scholastic ability test with a view to studying further. Standards are high and some students start preparing as early as in kindergarten years. The 5 sections of the test investigate knowledge of English, Korean and Maths, and also elective subjects such as Social Sciences, Physical Sciences and the Humanities.Kindergarten is optional in South Korea and most parents prefer to keep their little ones at home as long as possible. However, at age 6 their child must move on to 6 years compulsory chodeung-hakgyo elementary education. There they learn subjects like English, Fine Arts, Korean, Maths, Moral Education, Music, Physical Education, Practical Arts, Science and Social Studies, usually all presented by a single teacher. Some parents send their children to private hagwon schools after hours, where English may be better taught.Places in secondary schools are awarded by lottery and everybody gets an equal chance. The transition to 3 years of middle school can be difficult because studies are taken far more seriously. Discipline is stricter too with uniforms, haircuts and punctuality strictly enforced. This time though, specialist teachers move between classrooms teaching core subjects, including English, Korean, Maths, as well Social Science and Pure Science. Optional programs include Art, Ethics, History, Home Economics, Music, Physical Education, Technology, and Hanja Chinese Characters.At university, students encounter unfamiliar standards of excellence and whole families become involved in helping them to pass. At examination times, businesses even open for shorter hours in recognition of this fact. A student who passes though, has a qualification that meets top international standards, and of which he or she may be justifiably proud. Korea - living proof of the power of a knowledge-based economy.In India, education comes most naturally and people who can afford it just flow along with the education system in India. And now, with many government policies targeting to bring the whole of India under the literacy bracket, education in India is bound to touch the lives of every single person in India. This is a huge effort because India has one of the largest populations in the world and most of them are below poverty line. So education for each one of them could be a tedious task, but not an impossible one

In some ways, it always has been. In ancient Rome, rhetoric, law, mathematics and physics, astronomy, primitive chemistry and architecture were all studied by men who wanted to enter those professions. The same was true of military science, or that which passed for such in that time. The medieval schools maintained study in the fields of law, religion, philosophy, mathematics, etc., as well as language and rhetoric, and all were all connected with professional practices, although such study was heavily wedded to the Church, and most all educated men and some women (nuns) were almost all clerics. This gradually began to change during the Renaissance, and more and more people did not take orders and worked in secular professions as educated individuals. Literacy was highly prized among these, as this was a tiny minority; the ability to calculate mathematical formulas was also valued highly, as building and construction became more and more sophisticated. To do these things required more than basic instruction, more than what we today would call a “grammar school education.” Much of the study, though, was associated with apprenticeships, a process by which an interested person would work closely with a professional, reading as he might, and observing and learning as he grew older. Schools improved in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and they expanded their fields of study to some degree; however, most education was reserved for the aristocratic class, and even basic literacy was not commonplace.In the late eighteenth century the notion of formal schooling into what would be the equivalent of secondary education today began to evolve, and, again, it was dominated by clerical instruction, with the Catholic and Protestant faiths leading the ranks of educated instructors. As more and more diverse areas of education developed, encompassing natural science and medicine, the study of legal histories, and military science, in a manner of speaking, along with the development of knowledge in physics and chemistry as well as biology all had practical social applications, it became recognized that even more education was required to study and understand the growing compass of knowledge. Language and literature, principally Greek and Latin texts, along with biblical texts, were gradually worked into the curriculum, as well, and eventually history would become a part of a student’s program, as would the study of trade and economics, as well as the usual elements of the curriculum associated with martial matters. A professional individual in this era would have a broad and general knowledge of a great deal, would be likely to speak at least two languages fluently, play music, have a working knowledge of physical science, and a good grasp of geography, among other areas of learning.By the mid-twentieth century, a university education was widely recognized as the best pathway to professional employment. To a great extent it didn’t much matter what one’s degree was in, what one’s major was, as the general education foundational courses were broad and deep enough, that specialization was a secondary consideration. By the late 1960s, however, an evolution in thinking was begun in business and industry. Medical schools wanted students who had majored in the life sciences; law schools were looking for majors in history or the relatively new field of political science, economics, or similar fields; engineering schools expanded from the handful of specialty institutes and elite universities and grew out of the non-academically affiliated schools where they had resided for years; non-medical degrees in optometry, dentistry, podiatry, and similar fields, some of which did not require even a BA degree earlier in the century, were adopted by university based professional schools; even nursing moved from hospital-associated schools to university campus programs, and “criminal justice,” originally called “police science,” were now part of academic programs. Business, which had previously been associated almost exclusively with accounting—actually a science of sorts—expanded to include marketing, finance, sales, and a host of other lesser strains of the commerce fields. Even education developed a professional degree track and curriculum of its own, including its own doctorate-level degree. Other sometimes more traditional fields such as theology expanded their academic programs; while new fields such as psychology (formerly part of philosophy), sociology, anthropology, and numerous others developed broadly, found their own departments within universities, even though many traditional academics felt these were majors in search of a profession. In the meantime, the study of literature and history became more codified, more centered on theory and approach rather than appreciation and understanding of the literary text, and language largely descended into a study of conversational or reading instruction in a language other than the student’s native tongue. In the meantime, literacy seemed to have leveled off, to some extent, and even eroded, as the breadth and quality of general education requirements declined.By the mid-1980s if not before, it was pretty much understood that for a person to advance in the professional world, a collegiate degree would be required. The emphasis on college had already devalued the high school diploma to the point where it was little more than a milestone in most peoples’ education. What had once been a significant accomplishment in a person’s life was now merely a stepping-stone on the way to something else. Gradually, the college (B.A.) degree started down that same pathway, as the general education requirements for all graduates were even more “dumbed down,” reduced and truncated; specialization in professional emphasis areas of study grew and expanded. Grammar declined, mathematical understanding reduced, and a basic knowledge of most sciences was also on the wane. Business and industry started making a college degree a minimal requirement for employment, usually in an applied field such as business, itself, or in an applied science; eventually, most professions would want at least one graduate degree in a specialized field. Even elementary school teachers were encouraged to have a MEd or MA in Education as a qualification to teach in most inner city schools.The result is that today, almost every profession, even entry-level positions, require a college diploma, at the least. Store managers and used car salespeople must have degrees; even many skilled labor positions require at least a two-year degree for a person to secure a job.When I left college in 1971 and entered employment as a regional manager for a chattel mortgage company, I confessed during my interview that I had had no business courses and wasn’t very good in math. My employer said that he had no interest in hiring a business major. He was looking for someone with a liberal arts degree, in fact. He explained, “People don’t do business with you because you’re good at business,” he said. “People do business with you because they like you. You can have the worst product in the world, and people will still buy it if they like you. You get people to like you by talking to them about what interests them. You need to know about movies, books, music, theater, cars, boats, sports, children, fashion, and you need to know enough about it to talk with them about it. You let them talk, and you respond, and they’ll like you. You can sell ice cream to Eskimos if you can do that.” I asked him about contracts, interest rates, and so forth, all of which were part of my job functions, and he said, “Hell, son. I can teach you all you need to know about that in five minutes. All you need to know is how to figure the rule of twelve-seventy-eighths. The rest is boilerplate, anyway. Nobody needs a college degree in that. People need college degrees in shit that matters. You think a great architect is made because he knows physics? Hell, no. He is made because he understands people and what they think is beautiful and functional. You think a great car salesman knows anything about engines and transmissions. Nope. He understands status and pride in ownership. Study people. Know people. Read, write, go to plays and concerts, learn to play goddamn golf and fish, and you’ll do fine. Leave business to the people who don’t know anything else.”He may have had a point.

The results of WWI had a huge effect on the Jewish ‘problem’ in Romania. Romania gained the territories of Transylvania, Bessarabia and North Bukovina. Each region presented it’s own ethnic challenges to the Romanian state. In terms of the Jews, the 230,000 pre-war population had increased to 767,000 post war. (5% of the population)The ideologies of Cuza and Paulescu had come to the fore. In Cuza’s case it took a different form with the addition of a religious element. The argument against the Jews was biological, theological, economical, sociological and historical. The only solution according to Cuza was to ‘eliminate the Yids.’He spoke of the importance of purity of race, of blood, of the Christian religion and placed importance on general mobilisation in order to eliminate the enemy.‘Immediate action: the elimination of the Yids from every field – and setting them in an empty land in which they too, create their own culture.’Paulescu too expanded on the religious argument by speaking of the battle between ‘Godly Christianity’ and ‘Devilish Judaism.’What differed however to previous years where anti-Semitic ideas were prevalent was that that mobilisation that Cuza spoke of started to take effect with Corneliu Codreanu and the Iron Guard movement. Anti-semitic ideas were manifesting further than they ever had previously. Codreanu’s movement was a student movement which not only challenged the Jews but the older generation.In Codreanu’s ‘For My Legionnaires’ which can be classed as the Romanian ‘Mein Kampf’ a few specific issues are raised which I will discuss in this piece. The Jewish domination of education, the Jewish domination of urban areas, and the Jewish domination of leftist movements (The Red Menace)It is in fact the access and attainment of educational, rather the lack of it that laid the foundations for fascism in Romania.EDUCATION – Jewish OverrepresentationIn terms of education, Codreanu quotes Cuza:‘The duty of the universities is towards their nation, for which they must prepare leaders in all fields and these must be necessarily ethnically native. For it is intolerable that a nation educate for itself alien leaders in it’s universities.’The importance of the university in creating ‘native’ elites was heavily emphasised by nationalists. The university also became the centre of political activity where members of the ‘’new generation’ fought for their goals. Prior to WWI Jews were already barred from teaching positions and the civil service. This led to them attaining degrees in medicine for instance. In Bucharest 34% of medical students were Jewish, and in Iasi the figure was even higher at 45%. This ‘problem’ was addressed by increasing the tuition fees for ‘foreign’ students as Jews still found themselves classed as.After the union of 1918 the challenge for the Romanian authorities was the expansion of higher education. University education had prior been the realm of the urban population. The Romanian administration wanted to turn this around. There was a strong emphasis on both the Romanising of elementary schools, secondary schools and universities and increasing access and opportunity for ethnic Romanians usually at the expense of it’s minority populations such as the Jews, Hungarians and Germans. This was coupled with trying to force demographic shifts due to Romanians being predominately rural, while it’s minorities as mentioned were predominately urban. Thomas Hegarty sums this up as:‘Romania’s swollen bureaucracy, in alliance with the nationalist intelligentsia for whom it provided employment, attempted to compensate for the thinness of ethnic Romanian urban civil society with an interventionist strategy of cultural activism.’In 1913 the university student population was 8,632. By 1929 this number had increased to 31,154. 38% of students studied law. 26% philosophy, 16% sciences, 7% veterinary medicine, 5% theology, 4% pharmacy, 1% medicine. Bucharest and Iasi were still the largest universities post war. The state however struggled immensely especially with student ratios. For instance in terms of law there were 121 students for every one teacher and 55 for theology. This resulted in a miniscule 8% of law students actually completing their studies. Medical schools had four times the number of students by 1924 but no new laboratories nor teachers. Classrooms, heating, cafeterias and dorms were also poorly equipped and underfunded. Between 1914 and 1930 the Romanian population had increased by 252% but the student population had increased by 432%.The students were extremely dissatisfied and understandably so. It is from this backdrop that the ethnic factors began to become more of an issue. Romanians were 72% of the population, but with this cultural activism Romanians comprised 80% of the student body. Romanians however felt that they were underprivileged.In 1929 this was the ethnic makeup of the various universities.24,144 Romanians4,295 Jews624 Hungarians433 Germans253 Russians219 BulgariansJews were 4% of the population yet comprised 14% of the student body. The larger Hungarian and German minorities represented just 1.4% and 1.3% of students respectively. The minority Magyars and Germans also used to go to their local universities (Cluj and Cernauti) while the Jews were present in all the universities.The proportion of Jews by department between 1921 and 1933 was as follows:Law – 16.5%Letters – 11.2%Science – 11.8%Medicine – 26.8%Theology – 0% (restricted)Pharmacy – 51.1%Veterinary Medicine – 0% (restricted)Land reform also hadn’t really emancipated the peasant class who were still pitted against the Jews who were urbanised. They were thus viewed as privileged from the start. The other ethnic groups such as the Russians in Bessarabia, Germans in Bukovina, and Hungarians in Transylvania were also urban, but due to their fewer numbers they had little importance in comparison to the Jews in relation to the competition over university resources, and the national idea of ethnic Romanians becoming the educational and social elite. They had been excited about the prospects of education and social mobility but increasingly found that the reality wasn’t meeting their initial expectations. This attempt at cultural activism had failed miserably. The demand thus was for minorities to be restricted in particular the Jews.Emil Racovita (rector at Cluj University)‘The youth from the countryside has been driven into higher education. Without appropriate buildings, staff and materials the Romanian university can’t educate and train 35,000 students. The University cannot mould this youth into a class of intellectuals that are useful to society and themselves. The villages have been ravished of their most intelligent and progressive, to subject their bodies to urban physiological misery, their minds to imperfect training, and their souls to the pessimist urges of a life full of suffering.’Professors and administrators were stating that university access needed to be limited, because the education being received by students was substandard.One of the more astute arguments at the time came from Iosif Gabrea who focused on the lack of variety of what was being taught and studied. Why were 38% of students studying law when law didn’t comprise 38% of jobs. Not only was there competition at the university for resources, but competition for jobs that didn’t exist. 87% of the population lived off agriculture yet there was no study of it. These types of arguments unfortunately weren’t prevalent.What did happen was the demand for ‘numerus clausus’ which was the limiting of Jewish students to Romanian universities. It’s under these circumstances that Corneliu Codreanu and his cadres came to dominate university life and create a popular movement which would later be known as the Iron Guard.Jews and BolshevismThe left in Romania had a very brief period of prominence from 1917-1920 and it was enough to permanently effect the psyche of some Romanians. The standard equation was of the Jew and the Bolshevik. Jews had been involved in the Russian revolution and Hungarian revolution, and there was a deep fear of Bolshevism in Romania especially in terms of the newly acquired territories in particular Bessarabia. 4,500 students from Bessarabia were attending Romanian universities and they were largely viewed with suspicion.Professor Grigore T Popa (University of Bucharest)‘Áll the Besserabians were socialists, striving for social justice and for the progress of man in the eyes of humans. For this reason our nationalists’ eyes regarded the Russian caps with hostility.’The irony when one looks at the Romanian pre-WWI Anti-semitic arguments regarding the Jews is that the argument was Jews were incapable of assimilation. This argument contined to be expressed in regards to the Wallachian and Moldavian Jews. For the new territories the argument at this time is that they were too assimilated in other non-Jewish cultures to be Romanised. In Bessarabia they were too Russian and therefore Bolsheviks. In Bukovina they were too attached to the previous Austrian rule, and Germanised. In Transylvania they were deemed more Magyar than the Magyars. The problems of integration wasn’t limited to the Jews but to all the new minorities that came under Romanian control, and tried resisting Romanisation.French General Petin on Besserabia (1917):‘For Russians, Bulgarians, Turks and Germans the arrival of the Soviets marks the possible opening of a new era. Only the Jewish elements observe a prudent silence not knowing what to prefer: the anti-Jewish Romanians or an invasion by the Bolsheviks who do not respect the Jews any more than the others.’The Romanian administration more or less confirmed this:‘The population is almost unanimously hostile towards us.’The problem with Bukovina was as mentioned that assimilation by the Austrians had been too successful:‘The Austrians sought by all means at their disposal to erase all traces of the past and to smother the national consciousness of the native population. They tended to erase the distinction between foreigners and natives. They all melt into an exotic Bukovinian species having German as the language of conversation.’In Transylvania the Romanians were generally anti-Magyar and the pro-Magyar Jews were deemed extra heinous. Romanians weren’t treated well by the Magyars and the annexation of Transylvania had a redressing the ‘wrong’ feel. Onisfur Ghibur, whose role was to design school courses stated:‘Romanism has become free and its own master. What role belongs to school and education? The oppression of the Magyar language and history, instead of the Magyar language the French, English and Italian languages will be taught. Romanian language, history and geography will serve the purpose of consolidating a new state and founding a nation.’In terms of leftism in Romania it saw its peak between 1917 and 1920. Government posters claimed that only Jews were Bolsheviks. Nicolae Iorga who had been rabidly anti-Jewish took a different view of the various strikes and demonstrations that were taking place.‘It was difficult to distinguish between the socialism that was emerging and the penetration of communism.’Following the war working class living standards had fallen and the peasants were up in arms. The Romanian state had chosen to favour the civil servants and granted them salary increases. This led to price increases in the state and a decline in the conditions of the peasant class.In December 1918 workers demonstrated in Bucharest in support of a printers strike and were fired upon. Close to a hundred demonstrators were killed in cold blood. Iorga was appalled:‘Romanian blood reddened the unspeakably dusty streets of a totally savage capital.’The state preferred the ‘red menace’ argument and the legitimate protests were discounted by nationalists as being Jewish organised.60,000 Ukrainian Jewish refugees escaping across the border from ‘White Russian’ pogroms were labelled Bolshevik agents. While true that they likely preferred the Red Army who weren’t killing Jews, the suggestion that they were Red agents was far-fetched at best.Besserabian Jews comprised 44% of the total number of university students from the region. The argument that Besserabians were left leaning had foundation. The Besserabians at Iasi university for instance organised themselves formally into the ‘Circle of Besserabian Students’ and were socialist in their outlook. This comprised of Jews, Bulgarians, Russians and Romanians.Codreanu’s views of the Jews were influenced by this reality:‘Marxist theories were in vogue. The intellectuals were fraternising with the mortal enemy of the Romanian people.’Codreanu and Student PoliticsCodreanu was dismayed at what he felt was the Jewish Bolshevism which engulfed campus in Iasi.‘Thousands of students in meeting after meeting in which Bolshevism was propagated, attacked army, justice, the church and crown.’In 1921 he resorted to a few individual acts of vandalism of Jewish publication offices and attacked Jewish newspaper editors on campus who he deemed enemies of the nation. He managed to gain a few followers, but found himself expelled after assaulting a Jewish student in June 1921. This was to prove a turning point as his law professor the renowned Anti-semite Andrea Cuza vouched for him. The Minister of Instruction Constantin Angelescu did the same. His reinstatement gave him some notoriety. He was elected President of the Law Association which had the largest number of students in the university. His seminars were built on the ‘Jewish problem’ and he proved very successful in countering the left leaning groups at the university. He had started to build a cadre of ‘nationalists.’In alliance with Cuza he and his followers tried to force the university to exclude Jews. This failed which lead Codreanu to tell his followers that they needed to form an organisation that wasn’t simply limited to their university or universities. They needed to mobilise the masses against the Jews. Under this framework the LANC was formed with Cuza as the head, and nationalist students as its vanguard. Codreanu stated that the Jews had:‘Taken hold of the cities, destroyed the native middle class, and were endeavouring to become the leadership class as one can see from their large scale invasion of universities.’The objective then was:‘To eliminate the Kikes from all branches of activity especially the universities.’What then followed was mass protests on all Romanian campuses not just in Iasi. Students begun demanding the removal of Jews.Ion Mota:‘Misery, dampness, a housing shortage, overcrowded dormitories for the Romanians. Carefree leisure, terrible increase, lack of worries for the foreigners, in medical school, four times as many Kikes. The medical students broke the chain that was choking us. They chased the Kikes out of the dissection room.’On December 22nd delegates from all the universities demanded that Jews be removed for it ‘served the higher interests of the fatherland.’ They called for the expulsion of Jews who had arrived in the country after 1914 and called for sanctions against the ‘Jewish’ press.When this wasn’t heeded nationalist students resorted to ‘lock-outs’ of Jewish students. Through force and intimidation they prevented Jewish students from attending classes and exams.Romania’s universities and the State was obliged to recognise the rights of Jews, especially with the Minorities Act that they would later sign as a condition for the territories they had acquired. Thus they didn’t legally acquiesce to the demands of LANC. However they didn’t repress the LANC on campus either, despite full knowledge of their actions, and in Cuza’s case membership. The Jews were effectively left to hang out to dry. The state was also trying other underhand tactics to reduce Jewish influence. One infamous method was failing Jewish students who were taking their baccaleurete. Jews who in previous years had been passing their exams with flying colours were now failing their exams in huge numbers. (80% in 1926) while native Romanians begun passing exams with higher numbers. This eventually led to one student David Fallik attacking one of the examiners.Fallik was then shot dead by one of Codreanu’s supporters, Neculai Totu. His defence lawyer stated:‘David Fallik has been killed by the bullet of Totu, and so will die all the countries enemies by innumerable bullets which will be fired against filthy beasts.’Totu was acquitted of murder and declared a patriot and hero by politicans such as Octavian Goga who also happened to be Romania’s best living poet. He demanded protection for ‘our future intellectual generation.’ Physical attacks on Jews and Jewish property was on the increase, and little to nothing was done to combat it.Codreanu’s movement enjoyed widespread support from intellectuals such as Nae Ionesco who wrote the forward to Mihai Sebastians’ ‘Two Thousand Days.’ His movement found support from those who agreed wholeheartedly with the ideas and methodology, but also from those who sympathised with their cause but disagreed with the violent aspect.One famous Anti-semitic voice who opposed the movement was Nicolae Iorga who resigned from his chair in protest against the movements demands for ‘numerus clausus.’ He would later be murdered by the Iron Guard.Many professors admired the movement. Sextil Puscariu the former rector of Cluj University praised the movement which by this time numbered 15,000 for grouping together for the sake of national preservation.‘In our country which we gained from so many sacrifices, we no longer have air to breathe, the invasion of the foreign element stifles us.’There was little opposition in academia nor in the press. One journalist Mihail Sevastos however expressed his outrage:‘There has been no pogrom in Romania, but stores, printing presses, publishing houses, synagogues have been devastated. The Jews have been beaten in the streets and in public places, and thrown of trains. They have been shot with revolvers. The struggle has taken place mainly in the universities where Romanian students have expelled their Israelite colleagues by sheer strength. Here it is precisely the students that play the role that the dregs of society used to have in Russia.’Along with popular support what was even more crucial was acquittals of nationalists. This gave them the belief that their ideology was not only respected but protected. Lucien Wolf added to Sevastos’s list of violations by including Jewish children being attacked at schools and Jews being forcefully removed from cafes and theatres. What was more revealing though was the acquittal of students who in 1923 had been proven to have intended to murder several Jewish rabbis, bankers and journalists. Ion Mota murdered the man who revealed the plot to the police. He was acquitted on the basis that ‘betrayal of the nationalists deserved punishment.’Codreanu himself was arrested for murdering a police officer, and two others.‘Romanians! He who for over a year has mocked and beaten everything Romanian for Judas’s silver has received his punishment.’Thousands protested his arrest. What took place at the trial was mindboggling with the prosecutor stating:‘No-one has the right to take the law into their own hands, but anarchy has penetrated the university because of the large number of foreigners. Like everyone I say Romania for the Romanians.’No surprises then Codreanu found himself acquitted, and that too for the murder of a police officer. If his movement didn’t feel they had impunity before, they certainly did now. They were immune in the courts, enjoyed mass support, the support of the intellectual class and were praised in the press.There is the suggestion that the Bratisanu government did desire a fair trial but public opinion was with Codreanu.Codreanu would eventually in 1927 break away from the LANC and form the League of the Archangel Michael. He wanted to remove the influence of the ‘elders.’ He diversified and started to reach out to the Romanian peasantry. His cells included females (fortress), and even had what was termed ‘Little Brotherhood of the Cross’ which was for youths under the age of 14. As the number of youth grew in the organisation they went to the rural areas where they found ‘unity and harmony.’ The promise to free the villagers from ‘their slavery to the Kikes’ and make them ‘masters of their country’ was well received. All they needed was to have faith and they would be rewarded with justice and glory. Codreanu stated that he was doing God’s work and that him and his followers had God in their souls.Anti-semitic attacks prior to Codreanu hitting the rural areas had been mainly urban. This was about to change.Borsa, a rural town of 12,000 in Maramures where many Jews worked as lumberjacks found 128 houses burnt to the ground. Danila a follower of Codreanu initiated the attacks which involved chasing the Jews to the forest armed with axes. Danila claimed to be rescuing the Christians from the Jewish yoke. Danila was acquitted.Chillingly this was just a taste of things to come.