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Airplanes don’t know, and don’t have to.Pilots have to know, and the science and art of navigation has been developed entirely for that purpose.Navigation in aviation means knowing where you are at this moment, and how to go from here to there.▲The navigational challenge: how do you get to the airport?Navigation first started with pilotage: the pilot looks at the ground features below and identifies them on a map to tell him/her where she is.▲Look down and……▲…follow the railroad tracks!▲Advertisement of Strandard Oil Company for their aerial markers.▲Early rooftop markings for pilots, in 10-foot letters.▲Pre-World War II rooftop marking▲Early rooftop neon signsMarking Aerial HighwaysBy the end of the Second World War, the US was well along the way to laying out markers on the ground for aerial navigation:THE United States system of air markers —which consists of orientation symbols painted on roofs and sides of buildings and on highways and water towers—may become a world-wide boon to private pilots as a result of recommendations recently adopted by the International Civil Aviation Conference at Chicago.The conference, adopting a committee report setting forth the standard American marker as a model for other countries, said such air guides should be placed wherever necessary to determine aircraft position, and specified that “every city and town may be marked.”The air marker, which is now recognized as standard for this country and is expected to serve as the pattern for an international system, is more complete than markers erected before the war.The major difference is that symbols for latitude and longitude have been added.Today’s air marker includes the name of the town in which it is located—or the nearest town, if the marker is outside city limits—latitude and longitude in degrees and minutes, an arrow pointing true north, and another arrow pointing toward the nearest airport having paved runways.Special symbols may be added to direct pilots to air parks.Letters and symbols, with a few exceptions, are chrome yellow on a black background.Ten feet is the minimum height for letters on roofs of buildings and ground markers must be at least 20 feet high.The United States already has far more air guides for private flyers than other countries but is only “off to a good start” toward providing an adequate system of markers throughout the country.The CAA-sponsored program to install air markers began in 1935, and 30,000 markers were completed by December, 1941.The program to erect air markers was halted soon after Pearl Harbor when the Army ordered all markers removed along the east, west, and gulf coasts.Nearly 2,500 markers—representing six years’ work—were blacked out in six weeks with labor crews provided by the Army.But the wartime setback was not without benefit to the marker program.The fact that the War Department thought the markers would help invaders landing on the coasts did more than anything else to sell the nation on their value.With the air marking program discontinued at the outset of the war, the Army found—as early as the spring of 1942—that many pilots flying near training bases were getting lost and cracking up.Consequently, a call went out to CAA for air markers in 50-mile areas around the training fields.Air markers went up in 50-mile areas around Alabama’s Maxwell Field, Thunderbird and Falcon Fields in Arizona, Langley Field in Virginia, and scores of other training fields in Texas, North Carolina, Florida, and other states.The program calls for markers in every town and village.Cities require several markers, at least one on each side of the city.A projected goal of 100,000 markers throughout the country is “far too conservative” to meet the needs of private pilots.Air markers mean to private flyers what the nation’s highway signs mean to automobile drivers—there can’t be too many.In order to speed the installation of aerial highway signposts, she gives technical assistance to interested local groups on request.Complete directions for erecting markers are contained in the CAA Air Marking Bulletin No. 12, available on request.WPA funds were formerly allocated for the national air marking program, but no federal funds are now available.Financing is now a function of state aeronautical associations and local groups—Rotary clubs, pilot clubs, and business groups.CAA is now marking the roofs of its hundreds of range and communications station buildings in accordance with the new system as a maintenance job, and state and local groups are undertaking their own programs with the CAA extending technical assistance when needed.Amelia Earhart was the original sponsor of the federal air-marking program.She and Phoebe Omlie, another aviation pioneer now with CAA, devised the pro-gram and Miss Earhart sold it to the Government on the theory that private flying must be made safe before it could become popular with the average citizen.Thus, in 1935, a nation-wide air marking program was launched under sponsorship of the old Bureau of Air Commerce.WPA labor and funds were used as were contributions of state aeronautical commissions, committees, and local groups.Some 30,000 markers were sprinkled through all states in the six years preceding Pearl Harbor at an average cost of about $100 per marker.They went a long way toward eliminating the wide-spread practice of buzzing railroad depots to peer at the names of towns placed under eaves, a direct cause of numerous crack-ups, injuries, and deaths.As a result of intensive studies during the past three years, post-war signposts will be much better than pre-war.Inclusion of latitudes and longitudes enable pilots to “pinpoint” their locations and make it possible for the air marking system, as known in the United States, to be used internationally. An improved type of block lettering has been devised for increased visibility.International orange and white, and a variety of other colors, including silver, have been used for markers in the past.But chrome yellow on black, which can be seen from 3,000 feet, has been proved to have greater visibility than any other color combination and is suitable for more different backgrounds of varying terrain.When terrain tends to obscure colors, whitepainted crushed stone or concrete markers are favored.Chrome yellow on black was chosen following a series of tests and flight observations during which nearly all color combinations were checked in different areas of the country.In planning a suitable distribution air markers, the CAA divided the cot try into “grids,” each 15 miles square markers to be placed near the con of each grid so that a flyer cannot out of sight of a marker any considerable length of time.The original “grid” plan has been modified somewhat, as it I became apparent that the most travellled routes require more markers and that very large cities should have as many a dozen.While painted rooftop markers are “the best possible type” from a visibility standpoint, other types are more suitable for certain sections of the country.The rooftop marker is best in mild climates where there is not much snow.In northern sections, where snows may last a long time, markers should be painted on the sides rather than the tops of buildings so that they are not obscured by snow.Markers in regions with heavy snowfall may also be painted on sides of silos, grain elevators, or water towers.Letters and arrows formed of crushed rock and painted white are recommended for mountain sides.In desert areas, letters should be made of metal strips with enamel coating and mounted on posts a few feet above the ground so that sand drifts will not obscure them.Air markers may also be placed on highways in areas where there is not too much snow, and a large number of these highway markers have already been installed.They are not considered as satisfactory as rooftop markers, however. Another variation of the air marker is formation of letters and symbols with small shrubs on lawns, road intersections and cloverleaf drives.In climates where shrubs lost their leaves in winter they should be evergreen. In all cases, ground markers must have letters at least 20 feet in height, while 10 feet is the minimum for rooftop markers.Many markers erected before the war were too small. If the name of a town is long, it is better to abbreviate the name than to reduce the size of the letters.Width of the letters should be one-eighth of the height.Wider letters may blur, however. In selecting a rooftop, the following factors should be considered: the roof should be in good condition; it should be a prominent roof near the center of the community or near a main highway or road; the view should not be obstructed by overhanging trees or tall adjacent buildings; it should be located where it will not be obstructed by smoke.These rules also apply to highway air markers.The CAA will advise as to a suitable location for markers, but no CAA approval of the site is necessary.All air markers installed before the war now need repainting, and latitudes and longitudes should be added.The 2,500 markers which were blacked out need replacement and more than 70,000 new ones must be installed.Maintenance of markers is not expected to be a serious problem.Rooftop markers need repainting about every three years, depending on weather conditions.Highway markers must be repainted whenever necessary, and CAA recommends that they be inspected at least twice a year for signs of wear.Ground markers of crushed stone bound together with cement require only an occasional repainting with a white cement and skimmed milk mixture.Other ground markers, constructed of loose aggregate, should be repainted at least once a year.Pruned shrub markers require constant care and upkeep.CAA has made no recommendations as to how communities shall maintain their markers, but it is suggested that civic groups may volunteer for the job.CAA flight surveys to check condition of all markers may soon be authorized.In many states, plans for extensive air marking systems are well advanced—work has already been started on some.The Army last fall removed its ban on markers on the east and gulf coasts and only the area 150 miles inland along the west coast is now subject to the restrictions.Although labor and equipment shortages are hindering installations elsewhere to some extent, there is much enthusiasm for the program.State aeronautical commissions in Tennessee, Alabama, South Carolina, Minnesota, Nebraska, Illinois, West Virginia, and Connecticut have their programs ready and some work started. In Massachusetts, North Carolina and Missouri—states which have no aeronautical commissions—committees have planned state-wide programs in which cities will participate by placing their own markers.The Civil Air Patrol is backing the program in North Carolina, and the CAP in Texas has begun a project to mark 500 Texas towns.Chambers of commerce in the state are also cooperating.Pennsylvania has a well-advanced program.In many other states, legislation providing funds and working methods is under way.Illuminated air markers are included in the post-war sky-sign program.These will be much more expensive to construct, maintain, and operate, but they will be the last word in aerial signposts.Two general illumination systems are applicable: direct light, in which markers are outlined by exposed incandescent lamps or gaseous-discharge tubes, placed along the center line of letters and symbols; and reflected light, in which case either floodlight projectors with spread lenses or industrial reflectors are arranged to give a uniform distribution of light over the entire surface of the markers.The direct light method is more effective than floodlighting because it gives greater brilliance.Either method may be used for roof markers, while reflected light is considered best for ground markers.Oil companies have installed a very few illuminated markers—a general installation program is not an immediate prospect.Incidentally, while the exact origin of air markers is somewhat clouded, Mrs Noyes believes the idea originated with large oil companies.Several years before the national air marker program was launched, several oil companies began to mark all the towns where they had gas stations.The Standard Oil Company of Ohio constructed many markers, while Standard Oil of California and the Richfield Oil Company had large pre-war air marking programs on the west coast—and did their own obliterating after the Army’s ban was imposed.To aid groups planning air marker installations, CAA has designed a set of three plywood templates with which unskilled laborers can lay out any letter of the alphabet or any figure from 10 to 20 feet in height.Templates are available to interested groups.The air marking bulletin tells how to use the templates, how to mix paint, how to select the site, and gives other pointers needed by groups embarking on air marking programs.Air markers now offer the simplest, cheapest, and most effective guides for private flyers and it is anticipated that they will be needed for a number of years.Eventually, radio aids may be perfected for the private pilot so that the system of air markers will no longer be required—but that day, according to CAA, is a long way off.How far the international marker program will be extended in the immediate future is a question that will have to go unanswered until a final agreement is approved by all nations concerned.This should be on the books by mid-1945.▲Giant shrubbery marker, 1945▲Metal marker in the desert, 1945In the early days of flying, towns had their names painted on big white letters on top of their water tanks, so pilots passing over could read those from up above and know where they were.Today. getting from here to there is no longer a matter of raising a wet finger to determine the direction of the wind and flying from bonfire t0 bonfire through the dark night.Since aerial navigation began with pilotage, here is something for aviation fans.An Ode to Pilotage(The following clearly does not apply to commercial airline aviation, since they have heavy-duty equipment, heavy-duty procedures, and heavy-duty training in the usage of that equipment, and therefore airliners never get lost.)Pilotage, the most basic navigational technique available to pilots, is the technique that falls into disuse soonest after pilots discover the ability of VORs to lead them by the hand from one place to another.Pilotage involves drawing a line from your departure airport to your destination on a sectional chart and marking checkpoints along the line.Once you launch, you hold a predetermined—or adjusted—compass course as you monitor your progress across the ground and over your checkpoints.It is the technique that falls into disuse soonest after pilots discover the ability of VORs to lead them by the hand from one place to another.There are, nevertheless, times when the old ways are necessary, and even times when they are better than the new ones.VORs do not serve well in mountainous terrain, for instance.Sometimes they are too widely spaced or in the wrong places: the airport at which you want to land may be far from a VOR, or you may be making a trip into a foreign country where a VOR, or even an ADF, is as much a bemusing oddity as a navigational aid.Or weather may force you down to an altitude so low that radio reception is lost or undependable.Pilotage is indispensable for low-level flying in weather—although it is also most difficult under those conditions.On the other hand, in the sense that they enable a pilot to fly in a straight line where VORs may lead him on a zigzagging course, it can serve as free area navigation.There’s another thing that one forgets too easily: that is the pleasure of attending to the ground as you fly.Most pilots are inclined to fly higher and higher, because high altitudes offer a number of attractions: generally better fuel efficiency, higher speeds, smoother and cooler air, better radio reception and, to the extent that they use it, better visibility for pilotage.But flying high is also quite boring.Peter Garrison, a private pilot who writes for many aviation publications, writes:There is a certain point at which scenery ceases to give pleasure, and it isn’t too far up.From 7,000 or 8,000 feet above the ground, even great scenic chestnuts like the Grand Canyon are stale.From 500 or 1,000 feet, however, even flat, monotonous farmlands become a fascinating panorama, and the sight of cows grazing, and of the web of their paths to and from water, gives a benign satisfaction.Just be sure you know the location of all the tall towers.At that low an altitude, time passes quickly.When your attention is riveted by the passing scene, you forget to be bored.Nothing makes an airplane faster than a good distraction, and the few miles an hour you lose by descending from the empyrean are dwarfed by your feeling of surprise when you find yourself at your destination after a flight that seems to have only just begun.The best of both worlds, actually, is to combine pilotage with the radios, but not to allow yourself to become completely dependent on the avionics.You might, for instance, plan a flight to make a straight course from departure to destination, passing over or near one or two VORs on the way, but otherwise relying on pilotage.Non-directional beacons or AM radio station transmitters can also be used, if you have an ADF, to help keep you on course.You don’t have to fly over them; it’s sufficient to keep track of your progress by verifying when you pass to the right or left, and to get some sense of your position by comparing your heading with the bearing of the ADF needle.Though you can time the swing of the needle as you pass abeam a station and compute the station’s distance, a little bit of practice gives you a feel for “close,” “medium” and “far” in terms of fast, medium and slow needle swings.More precision than that is rarely necessary, unless you’re completely lost.Pilotage requires almost continuous attention.The whole point is to know exactly where you are on the map at all times, and to do this you constantly have to compare the chart with the terrain below.If you let ambiguities or doubtful identifications creep in, you can quickly get lost.If you can’t find enough landmarks, or if cloud cover obscures the scenery, you have to fall back on dead reckoning.Dead reckoning takes its ominous name from the word “deductive”; it ought really to be “ded” reckoning. It is a supremely rational style of navigation.It argues that if you know your speed, your direction and the time you have been maintaining them, then you know where you are and, conversely, that to get somewhere it is sufficient to know your speed and direction, and then to navigate entirely by the clock.Pilots are sceptical of dead reckoning, but only because they don’t use it enough.The story of Lindbergh dead reckoning for 20 hours across the Atlantic and making his landfall in Ireland precisely where he had planned is somewhat overworked—it was as much luck as anything else—but the principle is sound, and ferry pilots daily repeat his trick, with more meaningful success because they know the winds with greater certainty than Lindbergh did.One feels astonished to make a perfect landfall after 10 hours without a navigational fix, but there is no reason to.Direction, speed and time determine position absolutely.Dead reckoning only supplements pilotage, however; visual navigation begins and ends with pilotage, and only fills in its gaps with dead reckoning.In hazy weather, where slant visibility may be only a mile or two, a ground track must be held with great accuracy or a landmark may slide by unnoticed.The same is true when flying at very low altitude: 1,000 or 2,000 feet above the ground, a pilot can see only a few miles to either side of his course, and landmarks that might be obvious from a higher altitude may not be recognizable.But if the pilot knows ground-speed, flies a heading precisely and keeps up with timing—the sine qua nons of dead reckoning—the chances of the next check-point being visible are best.Direction, speed and time determine position absolutely.Dead reckoning only supplements pilotage, however; visual navigation begins and ends with pilotage, and only fills in its gaps with dead reckoning.In hazy weather, where slant visibility may be only a mile or two, a ground track must be held with great accuracy or a landmark may slide by unnoticed.The same is true when flying at very low altitude: 1,000 or 2,000 feet above the ground, a pilot can see only a few miles to either side of his course, and landmarks that might be obvious from a higher altitude may not be recognizable.But if the pilot knows ground-speed, flies a heading precisely and keeps up with timing—the sine qua nons of dead reckoning—the chances of the next check-point being visible are best.Picking landmarks that fence you in is important in places where there aren’t a lot of strong features on the ground.In Alaska, northern Canada or South America, occasional roads and rivers may be the only recognizable features in the landscape.In order to find a destination, it may be necessary to aim well to one side of the course, fly until reaching a certain river or road, and then turn to follow it.The more you intend to rely on pilotage and the less on radio, the more sense it makes to alter your straight course to take advantage of natural pathways.When you’re planning a cross-country for your private license, you may be encouraged to draw a straight line from origin to destination and to pick landmarks near the line to navigate by.Sometimes, however, it’s better to be humbler, and let the landmarks draw the line themselves.Especially in mountain flying, a detour—even a large detour—to bring you near some unmistakable landmark is preferable to the efficiency of a straight line on which you may get lost.Some aerial pathways serve better than others.Highways and railroad tracks are usually unambiguous; rivers are less so, al-though a large river may be as good as an interstate.Valleys in the mountains can be very poor; the topological coloration on charts implies that a valley will appear very clearly defined when in reality it might be barely discernible.Mountain peaks also make mediocre landmarks, unless they are isolated; among a group of peaks, differences in height may be disguised by differences in distance.Landmarks are even harder to find if you use a chart with too small a scale.Except under the best conditions—such as following a coastline—sectional charts are vastly preferable for pilotage to world and oversee charts. The clock is no less important than the compass in navigation.During long legs, it’s wise to note on the map the time of passage of each landmark, and to look ahead at future landmarks and note the time you expect to pass them.If you lose track of your position, you will then at least have a record of your last definite fix.When you are using landmarks that lie athwart your track, like highways or rivers, it’s surprisingly easy to lose track of your lateral position.I had a striking demonstration of that last fall, during a vacation in South America.On a flight from Lima, Peru to Bogota, Colombia, we crossed the Andes just north of Lima, briefly received a couple of radio beacons in eastern Peru, and then dead reckoned for about three hours over the headwaters of the Amazon.It was extremely hazy, and the slant visibility was three or four miles at best.Visibility hardly mattered, however, because there were few identifiable features below anyway.There was only jungle, broken here and there by rivers that seemed determined to mimic all other rivers.Sometimes dark rainsqualls swung across our path. In this situation there was only one way to proceed: hold heading, keep track of time, and wait for something recognizable to appear.The uncertainty seemed endless, but finally—and this is the common, though not inevitable outcome of navigating through seemingly featureless wastes—an unmistakable landmark appeared, a little town called Putumayo with an airstrip, an island and a hook in the river all its own.We had enough fuel to take us all the way up to the Caribbean, if need be, so no matter how ineptly I had navigated, we eventually would have figured out where we were.When the conditions for pilotage are particularly bad, it’s always essential to have some sure-fire landmark somewhere ahead. In the United States, that sure-fire landmark is almost always available in the form of a radio beam.Visual navigation is one of the basic skills that we allow to rust when technology frees us from dependence on them.But technology is never entirely reliable, and at any rate, a skill is a skill; we should not let something so hard-won slip away.Those skills are the foundations of our training in navigation.Besides, it’s good to renew one’s acquaintance with a landscape that, between air pollution and creeping urbanization, is becoming harder and harder to find.❑

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Common namesBermuda grass, bermudagrass, coast cross, costcross, Bahamas grass, dhoub, kiri-hiri, devil's grass, African couch, Indian couch, star grass, kweek grass [English]; herbe des Bermudes, gros chiendent, chiendent pied de poule [French]; grama, grama brava, grama común, grama de España, grama rastrera, gramilla blanca, gramilla brava, gramilla Italiana, hierba Bermuda, paja de la virgen, palo delgado, pasto Argentina, pasto bermuda, pasto de gallina, pasto de las Bermudas, pata de perdiz, pelo de conejo, zacate agrarista, zacate agujilla, zacate alicia, zacate de Bermuda, zacate de conejo, zacate de gallina [Spanish]; capim Bermuda, grama Bermuda, grama-seda [Portuguese]; kweekgras [Afrikaans]; handjesgras [Dutch]; Hundszahngras [German]; rumput bermuda, rumput minyak, rumput grinting [Indonesian]; gramigna rossa [Italian]; দূর্বা [Bengali]; 百慕达草 [Chinese]; αγριάδα [Greek]; יבלית [Hebrew]; दूब घास [Hindi]; バーミューダ グラス, バミューダグラス, ギョウギ シバ [Japanese]; ಗರಿಕೆಹುಲ್ಲು [Kannada]; കറുക [Malayalam]; அறுகு [Tamil]; cỏ chỉ, cỏ chỉ trắng, cỏ chỉ mùa khô, cỏ chỉ mùa mưa, cỏ gà [Vietnamese]SpeciesCynodon dactylon Pers. [Poaceae]SynonymsCapriola dactylon (L.) Kuntze, Cynodon coursii A. Camus, Cynodon dactylon var. densus Hurcombe, Cynodon polevansii Stent, Digitaria stolonifera, Panicum dactylon L.Feed categoriesCereal and grass forages Forage plantsRelated feed(s)Guinea grass (Megathyrsus maximus) Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana)DescriptionBermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon Pers.) is a major tropical grass found in all tropical and subtropical areas. It is highly tolerant to drought and heavy grazing and therefore extremely valuable for pasture. It is also used for cut-and-carry, hay and deferred feed. It is of moderate nutritional value. Many varieties and hybrids have been developed for different cultivation conditions.MorphologyBermuda grass is a highly variable, hardy, long-lived perennial grass, and one of the most used warm-season forages in the world (Hacker et al., 1998). This stoloniferous and rhizomatous grass forms dense leafy mats that can reach 10-40 cm (-90 cm) high (FAO, 2012; Ecocrop, 2012). Bermuda grass densely roots at the nodes. The root system mostly develops within 0-25 cm depth but can go as deep as 70-80 cm in sandy soils. The underground biomass is mostly rhizomatous. Creeping stolons spread rapidly and may be as long as 20 m, but are generally 0.5-1.5 m. Culms are numerous (8-40), usually prostrate but flowering culms can be erect or geniculated, and may be 10-90 cm high (Ecoport, 2012; Quattrocchi, 2006). Bermuda grass is a leafy species. Leaf blades are blue green, 2-20 cm long, and 2-6 mm wide, smooth on the lower surface and somewhat pubescent at the upper one (Cook et al., 2005).VarietiesThere are many varieties of Bermuda grass. Seeded varieties result from the selection for desirable traits. Most of the commercial Bermuda grass varieties are products of hybridization between Cynodon dactylon subspecies.Seeded varieties. Common Bermuda grass and Giant Bermuda grass are the main seeded varieties. They correspond to a wide range of genotypes and were selected for their adaptability to different cultivation conditions (Ball et al., 2002). In some usages, "common" has become synonymous with any seed-propagated Bermuda grass (Busey, 1989). Seeded varieties are outstandingly tolerant of drought and heavy grazing, two important traits for tropical forages. Their seeds are commonly mixed to make commercial blends.Hybrids. Work on hybridization started in the 1940s at the Coastal Plain Experimental Station, situated in Tifton, Georgia (USA). In 1943, the first hybrid called Coastal Bermuda grass was released (Stichler et al., 1996). Since then, many others have been created at Tifton: Tifton 44, 68, 78 and 85. Tifton 85, released in the 1990s, is one of the most popular varieties of Bermuda grass. Other varieties such as Midland, Callie, Coastcross-1, Hill Farm Coastcross-1, Coastcross-2, Brazos, Alicia, Grazer, Russell, Lagrange, Zimmerly, Scheffield, Naiser, Luling, Oklan, Guymon, Quickstand and Hardie are all retailed for forage production (Hancock et al., 2010; Ball et al., 2002).The hybrid Coastal Bermuda grass variety has longer and larger leaves, stems and rhizomes. It is more resistant to drought and leaf spot, and it is immune to the root-knot nematode. Coastal Bermuda grass is twice as productive as common Bermuda grass and is easier to eradicate. It is readily grazed when 25-30 cm high. Introduction of this grass in the Southern United States sharply increased herbage production and revolutionized the livestock industry. Tifton 85, one of the most popular hybrids, is taller and leafier than many of the others. It spreads rapidly and has a much higher DM yield and nutritive value. It is more adapted to tropical areas but is less winter hardy than other hybrids (Hancock et al., 2010).UtilizationBermuda grass is a valuable fodder grass that can be grazed (it withstands heavy grazing) or used in cut-and-carry systems. It is useful for hay, silage and pelletizing. It may be used for soil conservation (as a soil binder) and as lawn and turf grass (Ecocrop, 2012; Cook et al., 2005; Hanna, 1992). Its hardiness and tolerance of extended periods of drought or flooding are positive traits, but they may help Bermuda grass to become invasive (US Forest Service, 2012; GISD, 2012).DistributionBermuda grass is thought to have originated around the Indian Ocean Basin, from East Africa to India. It was introduced to all tropical and subtropical areas. It is found as far as 50°N in Europe and down to 37° in the southern hemisphere. Bermuda grass can be found at high altitudes: up to 2600 m in the tropics, and 4000 m in the Himalayas (Ecoport, 2012; FAO, 2012).Map provided by Discover Life. Click here for details, credits and terms of use.Bermuda grass is common in grasslands, lawns and pastures (FAO, 2012). It is dominant in uncultivated areas: roadsides, sea-coast sandy dunes, or along rivers and irrigated land (Ecoport, 2012). It does well on overgrazed and trampled areas (FAO, 2012; Ecoport, 2012; Cook et al., 2005). It grows in areas where average annual temperatures range within 6-28°C, though it does better where daily temperatures are in the range of 17-35°C. It stops growing under 15°C. The foliage is killed at -2 to -3°C but the stand recovers from the rhizomes. Bermuda grass requires 625-1750 mm annual rainfall, but moisture levels as low as 550 mm and as high as 4300 mm are acceptable. Because of its deep rhizome, Bermuda grass is tolerant of both dry and flooding conditions (up to 7 months drought and several weeks under water) (Cook et al., 2005). Though Bermuda grass prefers deep, well-drained fertile soils, it can adapt to a wide range of soils including those that are relatively infertile, with a pH ranging from 4.3 to 8.4 (optimum > 5.5). It responds positively to N and K fertilization (Coblentz et al., 2004). It has some saline soil tolerance (but none for aluminium), hence its ability to be grown on coastal areas or on irrigated land (Ecoport, 2012; FAO, 2012; Cook et al., 2005). Bermuda grass is sensitive to shade and may die under medium and dense shade. It is sensitive to many pests and diseases (including rust, leaf spot and parasites) (Cook et al., 2005; Hanna, 1992).Forage managementBermuda grass has an outstanding spreading ability, the stolons being able to grow more than 7.5 cm/day. It is used to form dense swards, lawns and turf (Ecoport, 2012; FAO, 2012). DM yields are about 5-15 t/ha (FAO, 2012). Bermuda grass is highly responsive to N fertilization and to irrigation, with high input levels producing up to 20 t DM/ha/year (Larbi et al., 1990). Hybrid varieties are not able to produce seeds and are propagated vegetatively by sprigs (pieces of rhizomes) planted in the soil on a 90 cm grid. In fertile varieties, dehulled seeds are sown on a well-prepared, fine bed. Bermuda grass develops quickly and is highly competitive, so that many grass species are rapidly offset. Only strongly competitive legumes such as rhizoma peanut (Arachis glabrata), pinto peanut (Arachis pintoi), perennial soybean (Neonotonia wightii), townsville stylo (Stylosanthes humilis), crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum), white clover (Trifolium repens) and woolly pod vetch (Vicia villosa) can be sown with Bermuda grass (Cook et al., 2005).Pasture and cut-and-carry systemsBermuda grass is one of the most grazing-resistant grasses and can withstand heavy grazing once established. Nitrogen fertilizer increases its tolerance to grazing. Grazing can start once the stand is 30-40 cm high and in full bloom. Cutting/grazing height should be about 5-10 cm in order to keep a good stand density. To maintain quality, grazing pressure should be high, with short rotations under rotational grazing, or controlled with a low sward height under set-stocking management, to avoid excess pre-grazing herbage mass and lowered digestibility (Fike et al., 2003). If livestock does not consume all the pasture, the excess grass can be used to make hay (Cook et al., 2005).Hay and haylageBermuda grass makes good quality hay and haylage. As a fine-stemmed leafy species, Bermuda grass cures quickly. It can be tightly packed in bales and maintain good nutritive value during storage (Hacker et al., 1998). In the USA, Bermuda grass hay is often cubed or pelleted. It should not be cut too late as its nutritive value (protein content) drops with maturity. Six cuts can be taken per year (Cook et al., 2005).Standover and deferred feedIn the USA, Bermuda grass is known to retain its protein content during winter and may be used as deferred feed. After adequate fertilization and a rest period during late summer, standing dormant Bermuda grass is ready to be grazed during autumn and early winter (Lalman et al., 2000). Cattle should be allowed to graze the upper 2/3 of the stand as this part is much leafier and has a higher nutritive value. Livestock grazing the lower third of the grass eat mostly low value fibrous stems (Redmon, 2005; Göhl, 1982).Environmental impactSoil erosion control, reclamation and cover cropAs a hardy pioneer plant with strong root development, Bermuda grass helps binding bare ground in disturbed areas. Its dense root system improves soil structure and recycles nutrients. In Madagascar, dead Bermuda grass has been used as the seeding bed for direct sowing of legumes or rice as it provides nutrients to these crops (Rakotondramanana et al., 2005). Its pioneering habit and its good tolerance of saline soils make it a valuable soil binder in sandy dunes along sea coast or river banks. It is much valued in irrigated areas (FAO, 2012; Quattrocchi, 2006).Bermuda grass has shown promising ability to use swine wastewater rather than mineral N-fertilizer (Burns et al., 2009). It was effective at decontaminating the wastewater in floating vegetated mat systems placed over pig waste lagoons. Common Bermuda grass and Tifton 85 proved to be the most effective at producing biomass from highly contaminated water (Shah, 2010).Weed potentialBermuda grass is a very competitive species. This makes it resistant to weeds but also a threat to crops such as maize, cotton and sugarcane, or in vineyards and plantation crops (Hanna, 1992). It is considered a weed in more than 80 countries. It should not to be used in temporary pastures, for it is difficult to eradicate from arable land (Cook et al., 2005).Nutritional attributesBermuda grass is considered a medium quality forage. Typical chemical composition of fresh Bermuda grass is 9-16% protein, 45-85% NDF and 20-45% ADF (DM basis). Cultivars with higher OM and NDF digestibility and better nutritive value have been developed. Bermuda grass hay is usually of lower quality than the fresh forage: it contains about 10% protein, 75% NDF and 36% ADF (DM basis). Young vegetative Bermuda grass or well N-fertilized grass have higher nutritive values.Potential constraintsErgotismUnder tropical humid climates, Bermuda grass is susceptible to ergot (Claviceps spp.) infestation. The mycotoxin risks associated to ergotism are negligible when forage is grazed or harvested before flowering, but the risk increases after seed heading (ISPB, 2011). The ergot alkaloids have vasoconstrictor and neurotoxic properties that result in necrosis of extremities, staggering, lameness, hyperthermia and sometimes death (Bourke, 2000; Guerre, 2011).HCN poisoningCases of HCN poisoning have been recorded in animals that have grazed Bermuda grass stands too soon after N fertilizer application (Cook et al., 2005; Mislevy et al., 1995).OxalatesThough oxalate content may exceed 1% DM, no symptoms of toxicity have been reported (FAO, 2012; Cook et al., 2005).PhotosensitizationSome cases of photosensitization have occurred in cattle grazing frost-damaged Bermuda grass (FAO, 2012).RuminantsBermuda grass is suitable for all ruminant species as pasture, hay and haylage. OM digestibility for the fresh forage is comprised between 45 and 65% and slightly lower for the hay. Pasture mass below 8 cm can be considered unavailable for the grazing ruminants (Alvim et al., 2001).PastureDairy cowsIn Florida, under tropical conditions, annual stocking rates of 5 or 6 dairy cows/ha have been achieved under low (100 kg/ha) to high (400 kg/ha) N fertilization, resulting in extremely high milk production per ha, from 26 to 32 t milk/ha depending on the supplementation level (Alvim et al., 2001). Intake levels of Bermuda grass ranged from 9-12 kg DM/cow/day with 6 to 8 kg of concentrate, to 13-15 kg of forage DM/cow/day in late lactation with less than 3 kg of concentrate (Fike et al., 2003).Due to its limited digestibility and energy value, Bermuda grass is rarely fed alone to lactating dairy cows, particularly in early lactation and with Holstein cows. With Holstein cows, current concentrate supplementation levels are 9, 6 and 3 kg/day in early, mid and late lactation, respectively, enabling a milk production ranging from 20-22 kg in early lactation to 10-12 kg in late lactation (Alvim et al., 2001; Vilela et al., 2002). Marginal milk response to concentrate ranges from 0.8 to 1.1 kg milk per kg concentrate in the range of 3 to 6 kg (Fike et al., 2003; Cardoso et al., 2009).Beef cattleAverage daily gains of 0.3 to 0.9 kg have been achieved in unsupplemented yearling steers intensively grazing Bermuda grass pastures (Horn et al., 1979; Larbi et al., 1990; Prohmann et al., 2004; Corriher et al., 2007; Burns et al., 2008; Cruz et al., 2009). The daily BW gain is largely affected by Bermuda grass pasture quality, being close to 0.3, 0.7 and 1.0 kg at high pasture availability for low (DM digestibility < 53%), medium (53%< DM digestibility < 60%) and high (DM digestibility > 60%) quality pastures (Guerrero et al., 1984). On medium quality pasture, with 3 kg of concentrate/animal/day, daily BW gain exceeded 1.0 kg (Cruz et al., 2009). In calves grazing high quality Bermuda grass pastures, concentrate supplementation of 15 g/kg BW was sufficient to maximize BW gain (+ 0.65 kg/d) (Vendramini et al., 2007). Average daily gain per animal was 25% lower on steers grazing on Bermuda grass than on alfalfa, but, due to higher biomass productivity, the total number of grazing days per ha was 35% greater on the Bermuda grass than on alfalfa (Cassida et al., 2006). In Florida, in a full year, more than 1000 kg of BW gain/ha was achieved with a input of N and intensive grazing (Burns et al., 2008). In Brazil, 150 to 250 kg of BW gain/ha/month was achievable during the summer season (Prohmann et al., 2004). The DM intake of Angus × Hereford cows under intensive grazing conditions on high quality Bermuda grass averaged 120 g/kg BW0.75 (Horn et al., 1979).Hay and haylageDairy cowsIn lactating dairy cows, the replacement of 10-15% of the alfalfa hay DM in the diet with Bermuda grass hay or haylage had no effect on voluntary intake and milk production (Bernard et al., 2010; Castro et al., 2010). When forage represented 60% of the diet (40% concentrate), the total replacement of alfalfa hay with Bermuda grass hay had no effect on voluntary intake, milk production and DM diet digestibility (Moreira et al., 2001b). However, when Bermuda grass replaced maize silage in the diet there was a reduction in DM intake (-3.3 kg/d), milk yield (-3.5 kg/d) and total diet DM digestibility (-9.3%) (Moreira et al., 2001b). DM intake reached 4.1% BW in Holstein cows or 3.6% BW in Jersey cows with 55% concentrate in the diet (66% of the forage as Bermuda grass hay; West et al., 1997), or 3.2% BW with 40% concentrate (Moreira et al., 2001b).Beef cattleVoluntary intake of Bermuda grass hay fed alone is generally between 2.0 and 2.7% BW (Lippke, 1980; Hall et al., 1990; Galloway et al., 1991a; Galloway et al., 1991b; Sun et al., 1991; Garcés-Yépez et al., 1997; Burns et al., 2007; Burns, 2011), but lower intake levels, between 1.5 and 1.8% BW, have been observed (Ribeiro et al., 2001; Itavo et al., 2002; Cavalcante et al., 2004; Cabral et al., 2006; Silva et al., 2007).An average daily gain of 0.3 kg has been achieved in yearling cattle fed on Bermuda grass hay alone (Lippke, 1980; Garcés-Yépez et al., 1997). Average daily gains of 0.6 kg have been achieved with 10-20% concentrate in the diet (Brake et al., 1989; Garcés-Yépez et al., 1997), and a gain of 0.9 kg was obtained with 40% concentrate in the diet (Garcés-Yépez et al., 1997).Sheep and lactating ewesVoluntary DM intake of castrated male sheep fed only on Bermuda grass hay is close to 2.0-2.4% BW, or 50-55 g/kg BW0.75 (Aumont et al., 1995; Moreira et al., 2001a; Gonçalves et al., 2003). Voluntary intake was 20% lower for mature forage (84 days, 2.0% BW) than for younger grass (28 days, 2.4% BW) (Gonçalves et al., 2003). Average DMI decreased by 0.17 g/kg BW0.75 per day of regrowth (Aumont et al., 1995). In vivo OM digestibility of fresh or Bermuda grass hay decreased with maturity, on average by 1 or 2 percentage points per day (Aumont et al., 1995; Gonçalves et al., 2003). The OM digestibility of Bermuda grass was lower than that of alfalfa hay (51 vs. 58%), but its NDF digestibility was similar. Voluntary DMI and average daily weight gain were 24% and 31% lower for Bermuda grass hay than for alfalfa hay, respectively. Average daily weight gain of male sheep fed only on Bermuda grass hay reached 101 g per day. Voluntary DMI of Bermuda grass hay was as high as that of maize silage fed as the sole forage, without any protein supplementation (Moreira et al., 2001a).Bermuda grass hay could be fed to early lactating ewes as the sole forage, provided that adequate energy and protein were supplied by a concentrate. Total DM intake of early lactating ewes was 2.3 kg DM/d (113 g/kg BW0.75) with a supplementation level of 28% (DM basis), and 2.7 kg DM/d (128 g/kg BW0.75) when the supplementation level was 50% (DM basis) (Araujo et al., 2008).GoatsVoluntary intake of Bermuda grass hay by young goat kids or adult goats was close to that reported in sheep (42 to 56 g/kg BW0.75) (Coleman et al., 2003; Robinson et al., 2006; Patterson et al., 2009). Adult goats fed on Bermuda grass hay showed 50% greater voluntary intake than when fed on tall fescue hay (Festuca arundinacea) even though both forages had a similar chemical composition and DM digestibility, but intake was 25% lower than for goats fed on alfalfa hay (Robinson et al., 2006). Other comparisons between hays showed that Bermuda grass hay was well accepted despite its relatively low DM digestibility (Coleman et al., 2003; Sponheimer et al., 2003).Young meat goats kids fed on Bermuda grass hay alone achieved only low BW gains (20-60 g/d; Packard et al., 2007), or no gain (Patterson et al., 2009), particularly when compared to a complete pelleted diet or concentrate diet (BW gain of 100 to 250 g/d). Supplementing Bermuda grass hay with concentrate supplementation at 1% of BW (250-300 g DM/d) increased BW gain of kids by 70 g/d (Patterson et al., 2009).Llamas and alpacasCompared to goats, voluntary intake of Bermuda grass hay was lower with llamas and much lower with alpacas, though DM digestibility was higher (Sponheimer et al., 2003).PigsBermuda grass can be included in pig diets in spite of its relatively high fibre content. Bermuda grass decreased digestibility of dietary components even at relatively low inclusion rates (10%) in finisher pigs and sows (Gomes et al., 2008b; van Kempen et al., 2002). However, Bermuda grass included at 10 or 15% in pig diets did not alter animal performance (average daily gain) and carcass traits (Gomes et al., 2008a; Coffey et al., 1982). The feed:gain ratio remained similar or increased slightly, indicating that feed intake was higher when pigs were offered Bermuda grass (Gomes et al., 2008a; Coffey et al., 1982). The absence of a growth depression in spite of reduced nutrient digestibility may be due to the effect of the high fibre diet, which decreases energy requirements (Schrama et al., 1998).In Brazil, Bermuda grass has been shown to reduce feed costs. Pigs (post weaning, growing and finishing phases) were fed up to 10% (DM basis) Bermuda grass (Gomes et al., 2008a; Gomes et al., 2008b). In North Carolina, large scale pig production was carried out with pigs grazing mixed pastures of Bermuda grass and crab grass (Talbott et al., 2004). In India, 4-4.5 month-old pigs fed conventional feed and allowed to graze Cynodon dactylon, Stylosanthes humilis, Sehima nervosa and Heteropogon contortus for 3 hours per day had higher daily gain, higher body weight and better feed conversion efficiency than pigs fed the conventional feed only. Higher body weight was observed when the grass was pen-fed rather than grazed (Singh et al., 1998).An experiment aiming at recycling N from pig waste by spreading it on Bermuda grass and then feeding the grass to heavy finishing pigs and gestating sows gave poor results. The digestibility of Bermuda grass was low in pigs adapted to the high fibre diet for 1 week and negative for unadapted animals. It was concluded that pigs could not use N from Bermuda grass grown on pig wastes (van Kempen et al., 2002).RabbitsFresh grassFresh Bermuda grass is used as a supplement to concentrates by traditional rabbit breeders in many tropical countries in Africa (Owen, 1981; Lukefahr, 1998; Mailafia et al., 2010), in Asia (Prawirodigdo, 1985; Ghosh et al., 2008; Banerjee, 2011), and in the Caribbean (Kentor, 1990). It can be distributed in either limited quantities or ad libitum, depending on its availability and on the composition of the concentrate. However, Bermuda grass used as a sole feed did not support maintenance in adult rabbits (Deshmukh et al., 1989), due to the low spontaneous feed intake of Bermuda grass by rabbits: 2.1-2.6 g/100 BW, compared to 5-7 g/100 g BW for most other fresh forages (Deshmukh et al., 1989; Deshmukh et al., 1993).Dried forageIn the 1960-1980s in the USA, the poor performance in rabbits fed dried Coastal Bermuda grass led to investigations on its potential toxicity, but these studies failed to confirm any toxicity and the reasons for the performance issues remain unexplained (University of South Carolina; Champe et al., 1983; Cheeke, 1983).Bermuda grass hay has been used safely as a fibre source at 15-25% in the control diet in many studies on rabbit nutrition (Furlan et al., 2004; Furlan et al., 2006; Molina Hernandez et al., 2008; Scapinello et al., 2004). The inclusion rate was increased without problem up to 32% in a study on the effects of grinding (Gomes et al., 2000, Rocha et al., 2000). Bermuda grass hay included at 15 or 45% as the (almost) sole source of fibre in the replacement of rice hulls in a complete balanced diet did not alter the growth rate (Gierus et al., 1993; Gierus et al., 1997). Compared to Cajanus cajan hay, Bermuda grass hay included in a complete diet resulted in similar growth performance and feed efficiency (Moura et al., 1992).DigestibilityThe following table presents the DM digestibility and digestible energy of Bermuda grass used as sole feed to adult rabbits in 2 studies.Presentation DM digestibility % N digestibility % Digestible energy* MJ/kg DM ReferenceGreen forage 49.3 - 8.65 Deshmukh et al., 1993Green forage 52.6 48.9 8.82 Deshmukh et al., 1993Hay 45 49 8.24 Sponheimer et al., 2003* estimatedHorses and donkeysVoluntary intake of Bermuda grass hay fed alone to horses was 1.7 to 2.1% BW, lower than that of alfalfa hay and Matua bromegrass hay (Bromus willdenowii) (LaCasha et al., 1999), and similar to perennial peanut hay (Arachis glabrata) (Eckert et al., 2010). The in vivo DM digestibility of Bermuda grass hay in horses ranged from 39 to 53% (LaCasha et al., 1999; Sponheimer et al., 2003; Eckert et al., 2010).Tables of chemical composition and nutritional valueBermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), aerial part, fresh Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), hayAvg: average or predicted value; SD: standard deviation; Min: minimum value; Max: maximum value; Nb: number of values (samples) usedBermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), aerial part, freshMain analysis Unit Avg SD Min Max NbDry matter % as fed 31.3 5.9 20.0 49.6 36Crude protein % DM 9.8 2.3 6.3 15.8 44Crude fibre % DM 31.3 2.9 26.5 35.9 27NDF % DM 66.7 13.9 43.0 86.3 17 *ADF % DM 36.7 7.4 20.3 44.7 20 *Lignin % DM 4.7 1.7 3.0 9.0 10 *Ether extract % DM 1.9 0.6 1.1 3.9 23Ash % DM 9.5 1.9 6.5 13.6 39Water-soluble carbohydrates % DM 0.8 0.5 1.2 2Gross energy MJ/kg DM 18.0 0.3 18.0 19.1 4 *Minerals Unit Avg SD Min Max NbCalcium g/kg DM 4.5 1.9 2.5 9.2 18Phosphorus g/kg DM 2.2 0.6 1.4 3.2 18Potassium g/kg DM 15.7 4.4 9.9 22.9 14Sodium g/kg DM 0.4 0.6 0.1 1.5 5Magnesium g/kg DM 1.8 0.8 1.0 3.8 13Manganese mg/kg DM 73 69 78 2Zinc mg/kg DM 44 40 47 2Copper mg/kg DM 8 7 9 2Ruminant nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max NbOM digestibility, ruminants % 58.4 4.9 44.6 65.0 18Energy digestibility, ruminants % 55.8 3.2 54.0 61.4 4 *DE ruminants MJ/kg DM 10.0 0.7 10.0 11.7 4 *ME ruminants MJ/kg DM 8.1 *Nitrogen digestibility, ruminants % 60.0 7.8 48.0 72.6 12The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.ReferencesAlibes et al., 1990; Arieli et al., 1989; Arthington et al., 2005; Aumont et al., 1991; Babayemi et al., 2006; Butterworth, 1963; Caceres et al., 1986; Campos et al., 2010; CIRAD, 1991; Gill, 1970; Holm, 1971; Hussain, 2009; Khanum et al., 2007; Krueger et al., 2008; Mlay et al., 2006; Naik et al., 1998; Nasrullah et al., 2003; Prado et al., 2004; Sultan et al., 2007; Xandé et al., 1989Last updated on 12/09/2013 17:14:10Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), hayMain analysis Unit Avg SD Min Max NbDry matter % as fed 91.5 2.7 85.8 95.7 10Crude protein % DM 10.2 2.2 6.3 14.7 44Crude fibre % DM 29.5 5.1 18.4 41.1 19NDF % DM 73.7 2.7 69.4 78.6 34ADF % DM 35.5 4.8 27.8 43.9 24Lignin % DM 5.9 0.6 4.7 6.9 20Ether extract % DM 2.7 1.7 1.4 7.0 9Ash % DM 8.3 1.6 5.9 12.5 36Gross energy MJ/kg DM 18.3 *Minerals Unit Avg SD Min Max NbCalcium g/kg DM 4.2 4.0 4.4 2Phosphorus g/kg DM 1.9 1.8 2.0 2Potassium g/kg DM 11.2 1Sodium g/kg DM 0.2 1Magnesium g/kg DM 1.8 1Manganese mg/kg DM 124 1Zinc mg/kg DM 25 1Copper mg/kg DM 3 1Iron mg/kg DM 102 1Ruminant nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max NbOM digestibility, ruminants % 53.5 5.0 44.0 62.0 24Energy digestibility, ruminants % 50.1 *DE ruminants MJ/kg DM 9.2 *ME ruminants MJ/kg DM 7.4 *Nitrogen digestibility, ruminants % 58.3 4.7 45.5 65.4 21The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.ReferencesAbate et al., 1986; Arnaud et al., 2005; Brake et al., 1989; Butterworth et al., 1965; CGIAR, 2009; Forster et al., 1994; Galloway et al., 1992; Goetsch et al., 1999; Guardiola et al., 1983; Hall et al., 1990; Jones et al., 1988; Lagasse et al., 1990; Lagasse et al., 1990; Lander et al., 1936; Lanham et al., 1992; Luginbuhl et al., 1989; Mandebvu et al., 1999; Mann et al., 1987; Nsahlai et al., 1996; Rahman et al., 1968; Riddle et al., 1999; Velez et al., 1991; Vieira et al., 2008Last updated on 12/09/2013 17:21:46ReferencesAlfonso, A. ; Valdes, L. 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