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'Is there any relationship between the opioid addiction epidemic among working/middle class Americans, and the uneven gains from the economic recovery following the 2008-09 financial crisis?'.If the 2008-2009 financial crisis and its continuing fallout triggered and/or exacerbated the ongoing US opioid addiction crisis, a striking increase in opioid overdose deaths post-2008 would be expected. However, epidemiological data does not support such a premise. This answers summarizesData showing steady year-on-year increase in opioid overdose deaths from 1999 till date, overdose death rates varying widely from state to state, disproportionately affecting whites, and increasing in tandem as opioid prescribing rates rose from 1999-2010, deaths that the CDC already noted with alarm in 2006-07.How starting in the 1990s aggressive opioid marketing and lobbying gestated the roots of the ongoing opioid epidemic by changing how the US medical system treats pain.Steady Year-on-Year Increase In Opioid Overdose Deaths From 1999 Till DateOpioids prescribed in the US peaked in 2010, decreasing steadily since then (see below from 1) though they're still much higher than in the rest of the world.'CDC analyzed retail prescription data from QuintilesIMS to assess opioid prescribing in the United States from 2006 to 2015, including rates, amounts, dosages, and durations prescribed. CDC examined county-level prescribing patterns in 2010 and 2015. ..The amount of opioids prescribed in the United States peaked at 782 morphine milligram equivalents (MME) per capita in 2010 and then decreased to 640 MME per capita in 2015.’Drug overdose deaths have steadily increased since 1999, doubling already by 2006 in 45 to 54 year olds (see second figure below from 2).Drug overdose deaths vary widely from state to state, with states with rather different economic profiles such as West Virginia, New Hampshire, Ohio, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Maine and Maryland experiencing substantial increases from 2010 to 2015 (see below from 3).Overdose deaths disproportionately affect whites (see below from 2) though overall, black males continue to have the lowest life expectancy (see below from 4).Opioid prescribing rates steadily increased 1999-2010 with overdose deaths rising in tandem (see below from 5).Already in 2006-7, CDC reported alarming increases in opioid-induced overdose deaths (see below from 6).Aggressive Opioid Marketing in the 1990s Changed How The US Medical System Treats PainA little known drugmaker best known in the 1980s for the painkiller MS Contin, Purdue Pharma morphed into a multi-billion dollar behemoth on the back of OxyContin, its 1990s upgrade, whose unprecedented marketing vaulted the Sackler family, owners of Purdue Pharma, into the ranks of the wealthiest Americans today.Well worth the reading, Mike Mariani at the Pacific Standard (7) and Patrick Radden Keefe at the New Yorker (8) methodically and comprehensively unravel the process Purdue Pharma used to relentlessly lobby all manner of doctors from general practitioners to pain physicians alike to expand opioid prescription to those with all manner of chronic pain. US doctors in the incalculably innocent pre-OxyContin era tended to view opioids as 'dangerously addictive', limiting their use to those terminally ill, usually terminal cancer patients.Mariani and Keefe recount how sheer money muscle was used to overturn this restriction in use of prescription opioids to instead render them acceptable to treat an expanding list of pain-related conditions.In practical terms, this meant serious boots on the ground in the form of intense lobbying by the likes of the now-defunct American Pain Foundation (9), and thousands of highly paid and hence extremely motivated sales reps to relentlessly push all manner of doctors to start applying the fifth Vital signs - Wikipedia during their routine examination of patients to elicit information about their pain levels and then palliatively treat them with powerful prescription opioids (10, 11), all while repeatedly assuring them opioids weren't addictive (see below from 12, emphasis mine).'Abbott’s relationship with Purdue and its part in building the OxyContin brand are detailed in previously secret court filings unsealed by a Welch, http://W.Va., state court judge at the request of STAT. The records were part of a case brought by the state of West Virginia against Purdue and Abbott that alleged they inappropriately marketed the drug, causing users to become addicted to the opioid. The case was settled in 2004 when Purdue agreed to pay $10 million to the state. Neither company admitted any wrongdoing.The documents include internal Abbott and Purdue memos, as well as sales documents and marketing materials. They show that Abbott sales reps were instructed to downplay the threat of addiction with OxyContin and make other claims to doctors that had no scientific basis. The sales reps from the two companies closely coordinated their efforts, met regularly to strategize, and shared marketing materials.'Opioid prescribing inducements included direct payments to doctors as well. One 2017 study estimated as many as 1 in 12 US physicians and ~1 in 5 family doctors accepted payments related to opioids during the course of the 29-month study (August 2013-December 2015) (13).Such change in prescribing was based not on carefully conducted scientific studies but one mediated by relentless lobbying and marketing, and came into place within the span of a decade from the mid-1990s to the mid-2000s so much so that in 2012, 13 states had more opioid prescriptions than even people (see below from 14, 15). Clearly, change in prescribing (demand) went hand in glove with carpeting of the entire country with a surfeit of opioids (supply).Investigative reporting suggests regulator-opioid maker revolving door also helped grease the wheels.A Los Angeles Times report by Harriet Ryan, Lisa Girion, Scott Glover (16) uncovers how Dr. Curtis Wright, the FDA bureaucrat who led its medical review of Purdue Pharma's OxyContin application in 1995 left the FDA shortly after it approved it and within 2 years began working for Purdue.A piece in the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel by John Fauber suggests (see below from 17, emphasis mine) beefing up pain advisory councils with opioid maker-friendly voices also helped smooth the way in expanding usage of opioids in pain treatment,'Federal health industry regulators and executives of companies that make pain drugs have held private meetings at expensive hotels at least once a year since 2002 through an organization funded by the drug companies, according to emails obtained through public records requests and provided to the Journal Sentinel/MedPage Today.Each year a handful of drug companies have paid up to $35,000 each to send a representative to meetings of IMMPACT, where they could discuss clinical trial testing procedures with officials from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and other government agencies. IMMPACT's stated goal is to improve the design of clinical trials conducted to develop new pain treatments.’Such meetings appear to have favored opioid makers even as recently as 2013 (see below from 18, emphasis mine).'The Food and Drug Administration is under enormous pressure to change its mind about a powerful new prescription painkiller. Forty-two public health groups are urging the FDA to withdraw its support of Zohydro. The drug is similar to Oxycontin, except it comes in significantly higher doses. The FDA approved Zohydro last year, despite its own advisory panel voting against it. And critics are, among other things, raising questions about that approval process.’As late in the US opioid crisis as January 2016, a federal government pain advisory panel of 18 had at least 5 with financial ties to opioid makers, connections that came to light (see below from 19),'...after the committee last month bashed a federal plan to recommend doctors scale back on prescribing painkillers for chronic pain. The guidelines by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention are intended to curb deadly overdoses tied to powerful but highly-addictive opioid drugs, including Percocet and Vicodin.'The Center for Public Integrity - Wikipedia also uncovered evidence of opioid maker lobbying of Congress and state legislatures (20), efforts estimated by Mother Jones to be 8X that of the gun lobby and 200X that of those advocating stricter opioid prescription rules (21).Raw numbers reflect the spectacular success of such unprecedented marketing and lobbying. In 1996, annual OxyContin sales were $48 million. For OxyContin's inaugural marketing alone, Purdue doubled its sales force to 600 and spent $207 million, so much so that already by 2000, OxyContin sales grew 23-fold to ~$1.1 billion (22).Already by 2001, OxyContin had become the most frequently prescribed brand name opioid for treating moderate to severe pain in the US, with so much overprescribing that the US GAO issued a 58-page report warning about it all the way back in December 2003 (23).In recent years, other opioid makers such as Insys Therapeutics Inc. (24) and Mallinckrodt Pharmaceuticals (25) have also come under the public spotlight for their aggressive sales practices, tactics that also applied to antidote makers such as Reckitt Benckiser (26).Like a burst dam, such intense marketing and lobbying ended up transforming how US doctors treat pain, replacing wholesale old true and tried methods that erred on the side of caution to an approach where it suddenly became acceptable to treat any and all pain with extremely powerful opioids (1, 5, 27, 28), a change that a 2016 study (29) suggests had US family doctors and general practitioners at the forefront.Could one seriously argue that from the years 1996 onwards, physical pain and/or existential angst increased so much among the US population as to justify such an increase in opioid sales and consumption? Obviously not. Instead, the US opioid epidemic is inextricably linked to an unprecedented medical culture change in how US doctors were carefully and relentlessly persuaded by opioid makers, their lobbyists and sales reps to treat all manner of pain, not just terminal, late stage cancer pain, with highly powerful opioids.Problem is so far opioid makers haven't been held accountable for their willful recklessness (slaps on the wrist in the form of relatively piddling monetary fines obviously don't count) even as they've saturated the US market. Rather, a report in the Los Angeles Times by by Harriet Ryan, Lisa Girion, Scott Glover suggests that as their profits in the US market start to dry up, their ongoing intense lobbying around the world may end up replicating the US opioid crisis in other countries as well (30). For governments, policy makers and regulators the world over, how to avoid 'globalization of the prescription opioid epidemic' (31) thus becomes a matter of urgency.Bibliography1. Guy, Gery P. "Vital signs: changes in opioid prescribing in the United States, 2006–2015." MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report 66 (2017). https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/pdfs/mm6626a4.pdf2. Hedegaard, Holly, Margaret Warner, and Arialdi M. Miniño. "Drug overdose deaths in the United States, 1999-2015." NCHS data brief 273 (2017): 1-8. Welcome to CDC stacks3. Rudd, Rose A. "Increases in drug and opioid-involved overdose deaths—United States, 2010–2015." MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report 65 (2016). https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/pdfs/mm655051e1.pdf4. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr64/nvsr64_02.pdf5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC. "Vital signs: overdoses of prescription opioid pain relievers---United States, 1999--2008." MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report 60.43 (2011): 1487. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/wk/mm6043.pdf6. CDC Publications7. Mike Mariani, February 23, 2015. Poison Pill8. New Yorker, Patrick Radden Keefe, October 30, 2017. The Family That Built an Empire of Pain9. Propublica, Charles Ornstein, Tracy Weber, December 23, 2011. The Champion of Painkillers — ProPublica10. Tompkins, D. Andrew, J. Greg Hobelmann, and Peggy Compton. "Providing chronic pain management in the “Fifth Vital Sign” Era: Historical and treatment perspectives on a modern-day medical dilemma." Drug and Alcohol Dependence 173 (2017): S11-S21. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871617300030/pdfft?md5=3f2ef3c4ddb2c940d6f48f623ef4cc45&pid=1-s2.0-S0376871617300030-main.pdf11. Harris, Matthew C., et al. "Prescription Opioids and Labor Market Pains." (2017). http://cber.haslam.utk.edu/staff/harris/Opioids_HKMG.pdf12. Stat News, David Armstrong, September 22, 2016. Secret trove reveals Abbott's bold 'crusade' to sell OxyContin13. Hadland, Scott E., Maxwell S. Krieger, and Brandon DL Marshall. "Industry Payments to Physicians for Opioid Products, 2013–2015." American journal of public health 107.9 (2017): 1493-1495. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brandon_Marshall/publication/319203662_Industry_Payments_to_Physicians_for_Opioid_Products_2013-2015/links/599acf44aca272e41d4089fa/Industry-Payments-to-Physicians-for-Opioid-Products-2013-2015.pdf14. Prescribing Data15. Protect patients from opioid overdose16. The Los Angeles Times, Harriet Ryan, Lisa Girion, Scott Glover, May 5, 2016. http://www.latimes.com/projects/oxycontin-part1/17. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, John Fauber, October 6, 2013. Emails point to relationship between drug firms, regulators18. Critics Question FDA's Approval Of Zohydro19. Associated Press, Matthew Perrone, January 27, 2016. Federal pain panel rife with links to pharma companies20. Public Integrity, Liz Essley Whyte, Geoff Mulvhill, Ben Wieder, September 18, 2016. Politics of pain: Drugmakers fought state opioid limits amid crisis21. Mother Jones, Julia Lurie, September 21, 2016. Opioids are ravaging the country. These lobbyists want to keep the drugs flowing.22. Van Zee, Art. "The promotion and marketing of oxycontin: commercial triumph, public health tragedy." American Journal of Public Health 99.2 (2009): 221-227. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2622774/pdf/221.pdf23. https://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04110.pdf24. Founder and Owner of Pharmaceutical Company Insys Arrested and Charged with Racketeering25. This company’s drugs helped fuel Florida’s opioid crisis. But the government struggled to hold them accountable.26. Reckitt Benckiser sued by 35 US states for 'profiteering' from opioid treatment27. Boudreau, Denise, et al. "Trends in long‐term opioid therapy for chronic non‐cancer pain." Pharmacoepidemiology and drug safety 18.12 (2009): 1166-1175. 6 (2017). https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/pdfs/mm6626a4.pdf28. Schuchat, Anne, Debra Houry, and Gery P. Guy. "New data on opioid use and prescribing in the United States." Jama 318.5 (2017): 425-426. https://www.issup.net/files/2017-07/New%20Data%20on%20Opioid%20Use%20and%20Prescribing%20in%20the%20United%20States.pdf29. Chen, Jonathan H., et al. "Distribution of opioids by different types of medicare prescribers." JAMA internal medicine 176.2 (2016): 259-261. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2474400?version=meter%20at%20null&module=meter-Links&pgtype=article&contentId=&mediaId=&referrer=&priority=true&action=click&contentCollection=meter-links-click30. Los Angeles Times, Harriet Ryan, Lisa Girion, Scott Glover, December 16, 2016. http://www.latimes.com/projects/la-me-oxycontin-part3/31. Humphreys, Keith. "Avoiding globalisation of the prescription opioid epidemic." The Lancet 390.10093 (2017): 437-439.

As the USA holds the largest share of the pharmaceutical and life science industry in the world, the entire system works with hardcore rules and discipline. All the pharmacy chains in the USA have to follow certain rules and regulations as mandated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Drug Supply Chain Security Act (DSCSA). Prescription medication, especially, is dealt with strict guidelines. Customers can avail such drugs only with a physician’s prescription.Understanding the levels of the drug supply chainIn order to understand the pharmacy system in the USA, we need to first know the different levels that any medicine travels after from its manufacturing unit to the patients (the ultimate consumer). There are basically 4 stages of a drug supply chain in the USA:• Manufacturers• Re-packagers• Wholesalers• Distributors and• Retailers/dispensersThe journey of a drug from its manufacturing unit to the patientsIn the entire journey of the life science products right from the manufacturer to the customer is maintained under various regulations and guidelines. Given the crucial nature of these goods, the following restrictions need to be taken seriously:Vehicle equipment – The vehicles used in the transportation process of pharmaceutical products must be designed to equip temperature-controlled logistics. This is imperative for most of the pharmaceutical products as spoiled drugs can have serious consequences on health and wellbeing.Transportation operations - This includes adequate cleaning of the cargo area of a trailer to prevent cross-contamination. Temperature monitoring and control devices must also be regularly checked and serviced to ensure appropriate function.Personnel training- Individuals directly involved in the movement of pharmaceutical goods must receive proper training. This training must be documented through an electronic system for effective management.Record keeping – At every level of the pharmaceutical supply chain, it is imperative to have proper records as against every product. The track and trace solutions in the supply chain help to maintain the record in an effective manner. It helps to make the transport system effective and easier.

Definitions and regulation differs per country. Usually, the dating is also closely related to storage instructions which I've mostly left out of my answer to (hopefully) not make things too complex.Here are some of the basics. Skip to my final answer at the bottom if you're not interested in the details.United StatesWhen I researched this topic in more detail, the first thing that struck me was the FDA's stance on the issue of expiration dates:With the exception of infant formula, the laws that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) administers do not preclude the sale of food that is past the expiration date indicated on the label. FDA does not require food firms to place "expired by", "use by" or "best before" dates on food products. This information is entirely at the discretion of the manufacturer.A principle of U.S. food law is that foods in U.S. commerce must be wholesome and fit for consumption. A "best by", "use by" or expiration date does not relieve a firm from this obligation. A product that is dangerous to consumers would be subject to potential action by FDA to remove it from commerce regardless of any date printed on a label.(Did you know that a store can sell food past the expiration date?)I'm not exactly sure how that last part is actionable, since all foods go bad at some point.The USDA lists several dates:A "Sell-By" date tells the store how long to display the product for sale. You should buy the product before the date expires.A "Best if Used By (or Before)" date is recommended for best flavor or quality. It is not a purchase or safety date.A "Use-By" date is the last date recommended for the use of the product while at peak quality. The date has been determined by the manufacturer of the product."Closed or coded dates" are packing numbers for use by the manufacturer.Some dates may be required by the state (like expiration dates on eggs) and there is an entirely different and stricter set of rules for infant formula, but federal law on the issue is sketchy and doesn't say when a food is definitely unfit for consumption. It's usually left to the consumer and some healthy common sense. I haven't found any detailed regulation regarding expiration dates.(Food Product Dating - USDA)Time.com concluded that "use by" dates are generally for health and safety reasons while "best before" dates tend to be about quality. (Much like Australia listed below)(Only Suckers Abide by Food Expiration Dates)CanadaIn Canada the rules are different. The dating is related to the durable life of a product which is defined as "the anticipated time that an unopened food product, when stored under appropriate conditions, will retain its freshness, taste, nutritional value or any other qualities the manufacturer claims."A "best-before" date tells you when the durable life of a product ends. After that, the product can still be safe to eat, but a "best-before" date does not guarantee product safety.An expiration date is mandatory on formulated liquid diets, foods represented for use in a very low-energy diet, meal replacements (a formulated food that, by itself, can replace one or more daily meals), nutritional supplements and human milk substitutes (infant formula).After the expiry date, the food may not have the same nutrient content declared on the label.Food should not be eaten if the expiration date has passed. They should be discarded.In Canada, a "use by" date has limited applications and behaves similarly to "best before" dates."Use by" DateThe Food and Drug Regulations state the terms "use by" and "employez avant" may replace "best before" for pre-packaged fresh yeast only.It must be presented in the same form and manner as the "best before" date.(Date Labelling on Pre-packaged Foods - Canadian Food Inspection Agency)AustraliaAustralia appears to have the easiest system with the least amount of exceptions and complications:Foods that must be eaten before a certain time for health or safety reasons should be marked with a use by date. Foods should not be eaten after the use by date and can’t legally be sold after this date because they may pose a health or safety risk.Most foods have a best before date. You can still eat foods for a while after the best before date as they should be safe but they may have lost some quality. Foods that have a best before date can legally be sold after that date provided the food is fit for human consumption.The only food that can have a different date mark on it is bread, which can be labelled with a baked on or baked for date if its shelf life is less than seven days.Foods that have a shelf life of two years or longer, e.g. some canned foods, do not need to be labelled with a best before date.(Use by and best before dates - Food Standards Australia New Zealand (2012))('Use By' and 'Best Before' dates (October 2014) on qld.gov.au)United KingdomA product with a ‘use by’ date cannot be sold after that date and should not be used after midnight of that day. The ‘use by’ date applies to products in the state in which they were intended to be sold, for example, a product designed to be sold chilled should not be sold frozen. Where a food requires treatment before consumption, for example, raw meats, the ‘useby’ date means treat e.g. cook, by the end of the date declared.‘Best before’ dates relate to food quality, including taste, texture, aroma and appearance, whilst ‘use by’ dates relate to food safety. The ‘best before’ date is a quality indication used by the manufacturer to indicate that the food will be, assuming correct storage has been maintained, at its best before a certain date. A food which is past its ‘best before’ date should be safe to eat, but may not be at its best quality after this date.The document also lists a "display until" date like the "sell by" date for retailers.(Guidance on the application of date labels to food (September 2011) www.gov.uk)ConclusionThe general consensus appears to be that "Use By" dates are the last date on which the food is safe to consume, assuming it was stored correctly, while "best before" dates are not about food safety, but product quality.To answer the question details: A seller usually wants both dates to be as far in the future as possible. Consumers leave a product on the shelf if they're afraid they can't eat it in time. A longer shelf life means longer potential storage times, less waste of unsold product and more sales. On the other hand, some people will assume a product with a longer shelf life is filled with preservatives and some people will assume those are harmful, which might off-set some of the advantages.Other sources and further readingFood Product Dating on usda.govFood Storage and Shelf Life Guidelines on foodshare.org (mentions Connecticut State Law for date labeling which is required on dairy products only.)Date Labels on Food are Unrelated to Food Safety and Lead to Massive Waste by Peter LehnerIs Your Food Expired? Don’t Be So Quick to Toss It | TIME.comDate Markings - Canadian Food Inspection Agency'Best Before' confusion leading to needless food waste 'Best before' and 'Use-by' dates - New South Wales Food AuthorityFood labelling - A wealth of information for consumers