University Of Salisbury Immunization: Fill & Download for Free

I’m not 100% sure I know what you mean with the inclusion of the word ‘other’ there, but I know why I choose to enforce the rules I set for the class and maintain standards.If you don’t, students don’t learn. Even fully-grown adults will often follow the teacher’s lead, and they give a signal of ‘Oh, don’t worry about it, don’t try, you can get away with whatever you wish’ then students will stop trying. The good ones will lose respect for you, and the worse ones will laze around as much as allowed.Equally importantly, rules are a part of life. The older you get, the less people care about excuses. Once an adult, many rules and laws are enforced with exacting strictness and part of a school’s role is socializing children into being functioning members of society.Rules also help kids develop self-discipline; if you are not held accountable for your actions, you don’t grow up (which is an issue I believe many in the USA are confronting directly or indirectly at this moment in history.) Consequences are great teachers, and sometimes the most necessary lessons are delivered via pain, emotional or physical. There are physical and biological rules, after all: natural laws. With those, the universe is almost perfectly, neutrally, nonjudgmentally strict. Death takes king and commoner and all between, and feeling like you’re immune to rules and/or the consequences of breaking rules increases the chance of stupid actions that will get you or, far worse, someone else hurt.It’s a cliche to say rules are for your own good, but they in fact are when they are good, just, fairly-applied rules.When we begin applying notions like ‘collective guilt’ or ‘collective blame’ that’s when we end up with unjust laws—private laws, one could say, which is the translation of ‘privilege.’Being punished for your own actions, and rewarded for your own actions, teaches that lesson, too. Fairness is a very important thing, and a legitimate reason to feel one of the most overused, overexcused feelings we see so much of these days: outrage.

Why we might not get a coronavirus vaccinePoliticians have become more cautious about immunization prospects. They are right to beIt would be hard to overstate the importance of developing a vaccine to Sars-CoV-2 – it’s seen as the fast track to a return to normal life. That’s why the health secretary, Matt Hancock, said the UK was “throwing everything at it”.But while trials have been launched and manufacturing deals already signed – Oxford University is now recruiting 10,000 volunteers for the next phase of its research – ministers and their advisers have become noticeably more cautious in recent days.This is why.Why might a vaccine fail?Earlier this week, England’s deputy chief medical officer Jonathan Van-Tam said the words nobody wanted to hear: “We can’t be sure we will get a vaccine.”AdvertisementBut he was right to be circumspect.Vaccines are simple in principle but complex in practice. The ideal vaccine protects against infection, prevents its spread, and does so safely. But none of this is easily achieved, as vaccine timelines show.More than 30 years after scientists isolated HIV, the virus that causes Aids, we have no vaccine. The dengue fever virus was identified in 1943, but the first vaccine was approved only last year, and even then amid concerns it made the infection worse in some people. The fastest vaccine ever developed was for mumps. It took four years.Scientists have worked on coronavirus vaccines before, so are not starting from scratch. Two coronaviruses have caused lethal outbreaks before, namely Sars and Mers, and vaccine research went ahead for both. But none have been licensed, partly because Sars fizzled out and Mers is regional to the Middle East. The lessons learned will help scientists create a vaccine for Sars-CoV-2, but there is still an awful lot to learn about the virus.A chief concern is that coronaviruses do not tend to trigger long-lasting immunity. About a quarter of common colds are caused by human coronaviruses, but the immune response fades so rapidly that people can become reinfected the next year.Researchers at Oxford University recently analyzed blood from recovered Covid-19 patients and found that levels of IgG antibodies – those responsible for longer-lasting immunity – rose steeply in the first month of infection but then began to fall again.Last week, scientists at Rockefeller University in New York found that most people who recovered from Covid-19 without going into hospital did not make many killers antibodies against the virus.Advertisement“That’s what is particularly challenging,” says Stanley Perlman, a veteran coronavirus researcher at the University of Iowa. “If the natural infection doesn’t give you that much immunity except when it’s a severe infection, what will a vaccine do? It could be better, but we don’t know.” If a vaccine only protects for a year, the virus will be with us for some time.The genetic stability of the virus matters too. Some viruses, such as influenza, mutate so rapidly that vaccine developers have to release new formulations each year. The rapid evolution of HIV is a major reason we have no vaccine for the disease.So far, the Sars-CoV-2 coronavirus seems fairly stable, but it is acquiring mutations, as all viruses do. Some genetic changes have been spotted in the virus’s protein “spikes” which are the basis of most vaccines. If the spike protein mutates too much, the antibodies produced by a vaccine will effectively be out of date and might not bind the virus effectively enough to prevent infection.Martin Hibberd, professor of emerging infectious diseases at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, who helped identify some of the virus’s mutations, called them “an early warning”.Another challenge: making any vaccine safeIn the rush to develop a vaccine – there are now more than 100 in development – safety must remain a priority. Unlike experimental drugs for the severely ill, the vaccine will be given to potentially billions of generally healthy people.This means scientists will have to check extremely carefully for signs of dangerous side-effects. During the search for a Sars vaccine in 2004, scientists found that one candidate caused hepitites in ferrets. Another serious concern is “antibody-induced enhancement” where the antibodies produced by a vaccine actually make future infections worse. The effect caused serious lung damage in animals given experimental vaccines for both Sars and Mers.John McCauley, director of the Worldwide Influenza Centre at the Francis Crick Institute, says it takes time to understand the particular challenges each vaccine throws up. “You don’t know the difficulties, the specific difficulties, that every vaccine will give you,” he says. “And we haven’t got experience in handling this virus or the components of the virus.”We should ‘end up with something’ … but what does that mean?When the prime minister, Boris Johnson, told a No 10 press briefing that a vaccine was “by no means guaranteed”, his chief scientific adviser, Patrick Vallance, agreed, but added: “I’d be surprised if we didn’t end up with something.” Many scientists share that view.AdvertisementIn all likelihood, a coronavirus vaccine will not be 100% effective.Those in development draw on at least eight different approaches, from weakened and inactivated viruses to technologies that smuggle genetic code into the recipient’s cells, which then churn out spike proteins for the immune system to make antibodies against.Ideally, a vaccine will generate persistent, high levels of antibodies to wipe out the virus and also “T” cells to destroy infected cells. But each vaccine is different and today no one knows what kind of immune response is good enough.“We don’t even know if a vaccine can produce an immune response which would protect against future infection,” says David Heymann, who led the response of the World Health Organization (WHO) to the Sars epidemic.Early results from two frontrunner vaccines suggest they might have some use.The US biotech firm Moderna reported antibody levels similar to those who have recovered patients in 25 people who received its vaccine.Another vaccine from Oxford University did not stop monkeys contracting the virus, but did appear to prevent pneumonia, a major cause of death in coronavirus patients.If humans react the same way, vaccinated people would still spread the virus, but be less likely to die from it.How well a vaccine works determines how it is used. Armed with a highly effective vaccine that protects for several years, countries could aim for herd immunity by protecting at least two-thirds of the population.Coronavirus patients pass the virus on to three others, on average, but if two or more are immune, the outbreak will fizzle out. That is the best-case scenario.More likely is we will end up with a vaccine, or a number of vaccines, that are only partially effective.Vaccines that contain weakened strains of virus can be dangerous for older people, but might be given to younger people with more robust immune systems to reduce the spread of infection.Meanwhile, older people might get vaccines that simply prevent infections from progressing to life-threatening pneumonia. “If you don’t have the ability to induce immunity, you’ve got to develop a strategy for reducing serious outcomes of infection,” says McCauley.AdvertisementBut partially effective vaccines have their own problems: a vaccine that doesn’t stop the virus replicating can encourage resistant strains to evolve, making the vaccine redundant.So, is the virus here to stay?The simple answer is: yes.Hopes for eliminating the virus start with a vaccine but do not end there. “If and when we have a vaccine, what you get is not rainbows and unicorns,” says Larry Brilliant, CEO of Pandefense Advisory, who worked on the WHO’s smallpox eradication program. “If we are forced to choose a vaccine that gives only one year of protection, then we are doomed to have Covid become endemic, an infection that is always with us.”The virus will still be tough to conquer with a vaccine that lasts for years.“It will be harder to get rid of Covid than smallpox,” says Brilliant. With smallpox it was at least clear who was infected, whereas people with coronavirus can spread it without knowing. A thornier problem is that as long as the infection rages in one country, all other nations are at risk.As David Salisbury, the former director of immunization at the Department of Health, told a Chatham House webinar recently: “Unless we have a vaccine available in unbelievable quantities that could be administered extraordinarily quickly in all communities in the world we will have gaps in our defenses that the virus can continue to circulate in.”Or as Brilliant puts it, the virus will “ping-pong back and forth in time and geography”.One proposal from Gavi, the vaccine alliance, is to boost the availability of vaccines around the world through an “advance market commitment”. And Brilliant believes some kind of global agreement must be hammered out now. “We should be demanding, now, a global conference on what we’re going to do when we get a vaccine, or if we don’t,” he says.“If the process of getting a vaccine, testing it, proving it, manufacturing it, planning for its delivery, and building a vaccine programme all over the world, if that’s going to take as long as we think, then let’s fucking start planning it now.”How will we live with the virus?People will have to adapt – and life will change. Heymann says we will have to get used to extensive monitoring for infections backed up by swift outbreak containment. People must play their part too, by maintaining handwashing, physical distancing and avoiding gatherings, particularly in enclosed spaces. Repurposed drugs are faster to test than vaccines, so we may have an antiviral or an antibody treatment that works before a vaccine is available, he adds. Immediate treatment when symptoms come on could at least reduce the death rate.AdvertisementYuen Kwok-Yung, a professor of infectious disease at the University of Hong Kong, has advised his government that all social distancing can be relaxed – but only if people wear masks in enclosed spaces such as on trains and at work, and that no food or drink is consumed at concerts and cinemas.At restaurants, tables will have to be shielded from each other and serving staff will follow strict rules to prevent spreading the virus. “In our Hong Kong perspective, the diligent and correct use of reusable masks is the most important measure,” he says.Sarita Jane Robinson, a psychologist who studies responses to threats at the University of Central Lancashire, says people are still adapting to the “new normal” and that without more interventions – such as fines for not wearing face masks – “we could see people drifting back to old behaviors”.We might become blase about Covid-19 deaths when life resumes and the media move on, but the seriousness of the illness will make it harder to ignore, she says.One last possibility could save a lot of trouble. Some scientists wonder whether the common cold coronaviruses crossed into humans in the distant past and caused similar illness before settling down. “If the virus doesn’t change there’s no reason to think that miraculously in five years’ time it won’t still cause pneumonia,” says Perlman. “But that’s the hope: that we end up with a much more mild disease and you only get a bad cold from it.”Heymann says it is too soon to know how the pandemic will pan out. “We don’t understand the destiny of this virus,” he says. “Will it continue to circulate after its first pandemic? Or will it, like some other pandemic viruses, disappear or become less virulent? That we do not know.”• This article was amended on 1 June 2020 because Larry Brilliant worked on the WHO’s smallpox eradication programme, but did not lead it as an earlier version said.

1.BLACK TIGER--AN INDIAN SPY, RAVINDER KAUSHIK, ALIAS NABI AHMAD SHAKIR, SERVED AS MAJOR IN PAK ARMYSarabjit Singh, an alleged Indian RAW agent, on death row in Paklistan, who was killed on April 26,2013 by some other inmates of the Pakistani Jail at KOT LAKHPAT in Lahore, was accorded MARTYR status by Government of India and a large number of political top brass of the country , attended his funeral at his village ,Bhikhi pind in Indian Punjab. A lot of monetary benefits were announced by state and central governments in return of his services rendered to the nation by late Sarabjit Singh.While Sarabjit got recognised, there are many such unknown heros of India who remain unheard and unsung. In fact some of them had carried out acts, which one only reads in SPY BOOKS or MOVIES. One such Indian HERO was RAVINDER KAUSHIK, alias NABI AHMAD SHAKIR. Bollywood movie, "EK THAA TIGER " was inspired by his life story. This man infiltrated Pakistan army; served as a Major for 10 years till his cover got blown off by overambitious goofy act of RAW, and he died unheard, uncared and unsung in a Pakistani jail. His is a very fascinating story.INDIAN SPY, RAVINDER KAUSHIK@ NABI AHMAD SHAKIR, SERVED AS A MAJOR IN THE PAKISTAN ARMY BETWEEN 1975 to 1985, WHO DIED IN A PAKISTANI JAIL in 2001, UNHEARD AND UNSUNG! DOES INDIA CARE FOR SUCH HEROS? DO INDIANS KNOW ABOUT HIM?Story is quite fascinating------ Read this:-The world of spy consists of oblivion, betrayal and torture. De...spite the threat of certain death, spies have never shied away from responsibility of putting their life in danger for the sake of their motherland. India intelligence agency is full of stories of such brave young men. Kashmir Singh, Sarabjit Singh and countless other unknown names who have laid their lives for their nation. However, not many are aware of the name Ravinder Kaushik.Ravinder Kaushik was born in Sri Ganganagar, Rajasthan on April 11, 1952. He was a famous theater artist . He was 'spotted' by the Indian intelligence agency, RAW. He was offered a job of an undercover agent of India in Pakistan. Ravinder Kaushik was recruited by RAW and was given extensive training for two years He was taught Urdu language, circumcision was performed. He was made familiar with the topography of Pakistan and was given religious education. Being from Punjab-speaking Sri Ganganager, he was well versed in the language which is spoken in major part of Pakistan.His father, JM Kaushik had served in Indian Air force and after his retirement, was employed with a local textile mill. The family use to live in the old city, close to the mill. After studying in a Government school, Ravinder went to a private college. He was a good actor and was known for his mono-acting and mimicry. “He was one of the most popular students during his school and college days,” says Sukhdev Singh, who had studied with him in the local SD college.“Some time in 1971, he told my nana (Ravinder’s father) that he had got a job in Delhi and had to join immediately” Vashisth says.But in reality, Ravinder was handpicked by intelligence agencies and was asked to come to Delhi for training. He was given extensive training in Delhi for two years. Sunnat was performed on him to show him as a Muslim. He was taught Urdu, given religious education and acquainted with the topography and other details about Pakistan. Being from Punjab-speaking Sri Ganganager, he was well versed in the language which is spoken in major part of Pakistan.According to Vashisth, Kaushik was sent to Pakistan in around 1974. He was given the alias Nabi Ahmed Shakir and was shown a resident of Islamabad. He successfully got admission in Karachi University and completed his LLB. Later, he was able to become a commissioned officer in Pakistan Army. He rose to become a Major.Soon after, he got married to one Amanat, who belong to a well off family. He also became father of a girl.He visited India three to four times. His recruiters would ask him to come to Dubai and from there, he would reach Delhi on his Indian passport.“In 1979, he carried out a major operation that won him accolades from his bosses. His code name was changed to “Black Tiger,” in recognition of his services” Vashisth says. But some time in 1983, the luck of this master spy ran out. Indian intelligence agencies had sent an agent to get in touch with Black Tiger. But the agent was caught by Pakistan’s intelligence agencies.During interrogation, he broke down and revealed his purpose. He identified Black Tiger and Kaushik was arrested immediately. He was awarded death sentence, which he contested in the Supreme Court there. It was converted into a life term. That was in 1990. He was kept in various jails, including Sialkot and Kot Lakhpat.During his imprisonment, he was able to secretly send out half a dozen letters to his father. “From these letters, we came to know the real life of Ravinder Kaushik. According to a letter received from Kot Lakhpat Superintendent, Kaushik died of TB some time in 2001. The family, during these years, had never received any communication from his handlers.“I want the producer of the film Ek Tha Tiger to acknowledge that the movie is based on the life of my mama. His story reaching the common man of the country is what would satisfy our family,”He was given the title of 'Black Tiger' by India's then home minister S.B. Chavan. Some testify that the title was conferred by then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi. He spent 26 years of his life away from his home and family in Pakistan in very unfavourable conditions. India thwarted many Pakistan attempts based on the information received from Kaushik. On many occasions Pakistan prepared to wage war across the borders of Rajasthan in India, but they were foiled due to the timely advance warning given by Ravinder Kaushik, as he was a senior military officer in Pakistan by now and had access to top secret information. Ravinder Kaushik defied the Pakistan Army and its top class intelligence service for 26-long-years. They say, if you live by the sword, you die by one.His cover was blown after Indian intelligence sent another agent Inyat Masiha, to get in touch with Black Tiger. But the agent was caught by Pakistan’s intelligence agencies and revealed Ravinder Kaushik's true identity. Kaushik was then captured, tortured for two years at an interrogation centre in Sialkot. Ravinder was awarded death sentence in the year 1985. His sentence was later commuted to a life term by the Pakistan Supreme court. Kaushik was kept in various jails, including Sialkot, Kot Lakhpat and in Mianwali jail for 16 years, where he contracted Asthma and TB.The brave spy managed to secretly send letters to his family in India, from inside the Pakistan jail, which revealed his poor health condition and the trauma faced by him in Pakistani jails. In one of his letters he wrote, "Kya Bharat jaise bade desh ke liye kurbani dene waalon ko yahi milta hai?" (Is this the reward a person gets for sacrificing his life for India?) On 21 November 2001, he succumbed to pulmonary tuberculosis and heart disease in New Central Jail Multan. He was buried behind that jail.Both Kaushik’s brother and ailing 72-year-old mother Amladevi --- his father died of shock and heart failure --- have a grouse against the government: all their pleas since 1987 to secure Kaushik’s release from Pakistan custody fell on deaf ears. They wrote several letters, but got no response apart from foreign ministry despatches that “his case has been taken up with Pakistan”.One such letter from Amladevi to Prime Minister A.B. Vajpayee read: “Had he not been exposed, Kaushik would have been a senior army officer of the Pakistan government by now and (continued in) the coming years (serving India secretly).”2.Some excerpts from Man who saw the truth by Claude Arpi (emphasis added):Sydney Wignall is dead. He died on April 4 in the UK. But who is Sydney Wignall? Very few have ever heard of him in India.His obituary in The Telegraph (London) says: “Sydney Wignall, who has died aged 89, was an adventurer who, in 1955, led the first Welsh Himalayan Expedition with the intention of climbing Gurla Mandhata, at 25,355ft the highest peak in Chinese-occupied Tibet; in his book Spy on the Roof of the World, he recounted how he was captured by the Red Army and held in jail accused of being a CIA spy.”He was not a CIA agent; he worked for the Indian Military Intelligence, though...Though he died unknown in India, Wignall has done something great for India...Already during the mid-fifties, the Indian Army strongly suspected the Chinese of wanting to construct a road linking their new acquired provinces of Tibet and Xinjiang. Was the road crossing Indian territory?It is in London that Wignall was first contacted by Lt Col HW Tobin, the vice-president of the Himalayan Club and editor of the Himalayan Journal. Tobin asked Wignall if he would “do some friends a favour”. He was later introduced to an Intelligence officer, code-named ‘Singh’ from the Indian High Commission in London.Wignall was briefed by ‘Singh’ about the Chinese presence in Western Tibet and the possibility of the existence of a military road.Different incidents occurred in the early 50s which should have woken the Government of India out of its soporific Hindi-Chini Bhai Bhai dream world.First, the harassment of the Indian trade agent in Gartok, which was without doubt linked with the work which had started on the Tibet-Xinjiang highway; in 1953, the Chinese even forced Jawaharlal Nehru to close the Indian agency as the presence of an Indian official was embarrassing for the PLA.Brigadier SS Mallik, then Indian Military Attaché in Beijing, made some references to the Chinese road-building activities in a report to the Government around that time; a year later, the Military Attaché would confirm the construction of the strategic highway through Indian territory in Aksai Chin.The mission given to Wignall by the soon to-be Indian Army Chief, General KS Thimayya, was to check the information. It was thought that the Chinese would not suspect an innocuous group of foreign mountaineers...Unfortunately, Wignall and his companions were captured soon after they crossed the border town of Taglakot (known as Purang in Tibetan).They, however, had the opportunity to witness the Chinese road-building activities.Although the Official Report of the 1962 War prepared by the Union Ministry of Defence mentions the famous road, it does not give any detail about Nehru’s biggest blunder: Ignoring for several years that a road being built on Indian territory. The Official Report states: “China started constructing motorable road in summer 1955. …On October 6, 1957, the Sinkiang-Tibet road was formally opened with a ceremony in Gartok and 12 trucks on a trial run from Yarkand reached Gartok.”It was Wignall who had informed the Government of India about the Chinese scheme. Wignall was eventually caught by the Chinese Army, interrogated and kept prisoner for several weeks.He was later released in the midst of winter in a high altitude pass. The Chinese had thought that he would never survive the blizzard or find his way back to India. But, after an incredible journey, he managed to reach India and was able to report to Lt Col ‘Baij’ Mehta, his contact in the Military Intelligence. The Army in turn informed the Prime Minister and VK Krishna Menon, the India’s arrogant Union Defence Minister.Wignall was later told by his Army contact: “Our illustrious Prime Minister Nehru, who is so busy on the world stage telling the rest of mankind how to live, has too little time to attend to the security of his own country. Your material was shown to Nehru by one of our senior officers, who plugged hard. He was criticised by Krishna Menon in Nehru’s presence for ‘lapping up American CIA agent-provocateur propaganda.’ Menon has completely suppressed your information.”“So it was all for nothing?” I [Wignall] asked. “Perhaps not”, Singh, Wignall’s contact, responded. “We will keep working away at Nehru. Some day he must see the light, and realise the threat communist Chinese occupation of Tibet poses for India.”Nehru saw the Light on October 20, 1962. Unfortunately, it was way too late.General Thimayya, who became Army Chief in 1957, was forced to retire in 1961. He said in his valedictory address to the Indian Army Officer Corps: “I hope that I am not leaving you as cannon fodder for the Chinese communists.”The Government of India did not acknowledge that already in 1955, it had information about the Aksai Chin road. The issue was discussed for the first time in the Lok Sabha in August 1959 only.Also read: Excerpts from “Art of War” and "My Dear Jawaharlal" - Sardar Patel's stark warning to Nehru on China - written in 1950..and the incredibly heroic story of the Param Virs of 1962..and finally, here is Sydney Wignall's Obituary from The Telegraph3. The Incredible Story of an Uncontacted Tribe MemberKarapiru escaped death when miners invaded his Brazilian forest home. But the harrowing experience wasn't his last.Survival InternationalHis name means "Hawk" in his language. Yet even with the acuity of vision the moniker suggests, Karapiru could not have foreseen the tragedy that befell his people, the Awá tribe of northeastern Brazil. He could never have imagined the day that he would have to flee for his life far into the rainforest, a shotgun pellet burning in his back, his family mown down by gunmen. Nor could he have known that this brutal day would be the first in a decade of solitude and silence.Karapiru's ancestral homeland lies in Maranhão state, between the equatorial forests of Amazonia to the west and the eastern savannahs. To the indigenous Awá, however, the land has only one name: Harakwá, or, "the place that we know."For centuries, their way of life has been one of peaceful symbiosis with the rainforest. But over the course of four decades, the Awá have witnessed the destruction of their homeland, and are now the most threatened tribe on earth.The 460 members of the Awá tribe live by hunting for wild pigs, tapirs and monkeys, traveling through the rainforest with 6-foot bows and by gathering forest produce: babaçu nuts, açaí berries, and honey. Some foods are considered to have special properties; others, such as vultures, bats, and the three-toed sloth, are forbidden. The Awá also travel by night, lighting the way with torches made from tree resin.The tribe nurtures orphaned animals as pets; they share their hammocks with raccoon-like coatis and split mangoes with green parakeets. Awá women even breastfeed capuchin and howler monkeys and have also been known to suckle small pigs.The Awá year is divided into "sun" and "rain"; the rains are controlled by celestial beings called mai ra who oversee vast reservoirs in the sky. When the moon is full, the men, their dark hair speckled white with king vulture feathers, commune with the spirits through a chant-induced trance, during a sacred ritual that lasts until dawn.For centuries, their way of life has been one of peaceful symbiosis with the rainforest. But over the course of four decades, they have witnessed the destruction of their homeland -- more than 30 percent of one of their territories has now been razed to make way for cattle ranches -- and the murder of their people at the hands of karaí, or non-Indians. Today they are one of the last nomadic tribes in Brazil. As they are so few in number (there are fewer than 100 uncontacted Awá, some of whom live outside any protected area), they are surrounded on all sides by hostile frontier forces such as ranchers, loggers and settlers who invade and kill with impunity; as a result, much of their forest has been destroyed. They are now also the most threatened tribe on Earth.Karapiru's harrowing story really begins with a chance discovery in 1967 when American geologists were carrying out an aerial survey of the region's mineral resources. When the helicopter needed to refuel, the pilot decided to land on a treeless summit high in the Carajás Mountains. One geologist reputedly noticed a scattering of black-grey rocks on the ground. In fact, the soil beneath him contained what a geological magazine would later refer to as, "a thick layer of Jaspilites and lenses of hard hematite." In layman's terms, the prospectors had just touched down on the planet's richest iron ore deposit.Their discovery swiftly gave rise to the development of the Great Carajas Project, an agro-industrial scheme financed by the U.S., Japan, the World Bank, and what was then known as the European Economic Community (now the European Union). It consisted of a dam, aluminium smelters, charcoal camps and cattle ranches. Tarmacked roads and a long-distance railway cut through the Awá tribe's territory in order to transport workers in and minerals out.The project's industrial showpiece was a chasm gouged from the forest floor -- one so vast that it could be seen from space -- and one which would, in time, become the world's largest opencast mine.The Great Carajás Project was devastating for the region's environment and its tribal peoples, despite the fact that in return for the billion-dollar loan, the financiers had asked the Brazilian government to guarantee that its indigenous territories would be mapped and protected.But there was a fortune to be made from the forest, so a flood of ranchers, settlers and loggers soon began to pour into the region. Huge bulldozers gouged the land, tearing through layers of soil and rock to reach ore, bauxite and manganese. Ancient trees were chopped and burned; the black of charcoal ash replaced the deep green of the forest's foliage: Harakwá became a polluted, scarred, muddy vision of hell.To the invaders the Awá tribe was nothing more than an obstacle to their territory's natural treasure trove; a primitive nuisance that they needed to fell together with the trees.So they started killing them.Some were inventive in their killings: several Awá died after eating flour laced with ant poison; a "gift" from a local farmer. Others, like Karapiru, were shot where they stood -- at home, in front of their families.Karapiru believed that he was the only member of his family to survive one such massacre. The killers murdered his wife, son, daughter, mother, brothers and sisters. Another son was wounded and captured.Severely traumatized, Karapiru escaped into the forest, lead shot embedded in his lower back. "There was no way of healing the wound. I couldn't put any medicine on my back, and I suffered a great deal," he told Fiona Watson, director of field and research at tribal rights organization Survival International. "The lead was hot in my back, bleeding. I don't know how it didn't become full of insects. But I managed to escape from the whites ."For the next 10 years, Karapiru was on the run. He walked for nearly 400 miles across the forested hills and plains of Maranhão state, crossing the sand dunes of the restingas and the broad rivers that flow into the Atlantic.He was terrified, hungry and alone. "It was very hard," he told Survival International. "I had no family to help me, and no one to talk to."He survived by eating honey and small Amazonian birds: parakeet, dove and the red-bellied thrush. At night, when howler monkeys called from the canopy, he slept high in the boughs of vast copaiba trees, among the orchids and rattan vines. When the grief and loneliness became too much, he would talk quietly to himself or hum as he walked.The land the Awá call Harakwá, "our place," is beginning to take on the appearance of a post-apocalyptic wasteland.More than a decade after he had witnessed the murder of his family, Karapiru was spotted by a farmer on the outskirts of a town in the neighboring state of Bahia. He was walking through a burned section of forest, carrying a machete, a few arrows, some water containers, and a chunk of smoked wild pig.They greeted each other. The farmer gave him shelter in exchange for chores, and provided him with food he had never eaten before -- manioc, rice, flour and coffee -- for which Karapiru developed a taste. He discovered a little about the ways of the karai, the white man, learning that his hosts kept cattle and slept in a bed, which he found extremely uncomfortable.He was a man who had spent ten years "fleeing from everything.""It was very sad," he says. But just as Hawk could not have envisaged his long years of suffering, neither could he have predicted the joy that was soon to come.Once news spread that a solitary, unknown Indian had emerged from the forest, an anthropologist visited him. Karapiru tried to recount his story, telling the anthropologist that he had seen his family brutally cut down; that he had spent a decade in silence and that he was now the only one left.But there was a problem: the anthropologist couldn't understand the language he spoke. Believing it to be part of the Tupi language group, he thought Karapiru might be a member of the Avá Canoeiro tribe, so officials from FUNAI, the government Indian affairs department, sent Karapiru to Brasilia. There he was introduced to Avá Canoeiro speakers, in the hope they would be able to understand each other. They couldn't. So in a final attempt to communicate with Karapiru, FUNAI sent a young Awá man called Xiramukû to talk with him.The meeting with Xiramuku was one Karapiru could never have imagined. Not only could Xiramuku understand Karapiru's language, but he used one specific Awá word that instantly transformed Karapiru's life: he called him "father." The man standing in front of Karapiru, talking to him in his mother tongue, was his son.Xiramuku persuaded his father to leave the farmer's house and live with him in the Awá village of Tiracambu. After years of isolation, Karapiru once more led an Awá way of life: eating game hunted in the rainforest, sleeping in a hammock, and keeping monkeys as pets.Since then, Survival International has discovered that Karapiru has remarried, has several children and lives near his son in an Awá village. "I feel good here with the other Awá"' he says, "I found my son after many years, which made me very happy."Survival InternationalAlthough Karapiru has found some measure of peace, his tribe's problems aren't over. Armed ranchers and criminal logging gangs, together with the grisly help of hired guns called pistoleiros are once again shooting the Awá on sight. "The invasions of white people in Awá territory is not good," says Karapiru. "We don't like it. After what happened to me, I try and hide from white people." Death is the usual price of indigenous resistance to invaders.Their forests are disappearing faster than in any other indigenous area in the Brazilian Amazon. "Satellite images reveal that over 30 percent of one Awá territory has already been destroyed, despite the land having been legally recognized," says Watson of Survival International. The land they call Harakwá, "our place," is beginning to take on the appearance of a post-apocalyptic wasteland. Their forest is chopped down by loggers and colonists who work day and night to sell wood and clear land for cattle pasture.The forest game on which the Awá survive is becoming increasingly hard to find, as the animals die and bird life scatters. "The loggers are destroying our land," Pire'i Ma'a, an Awá man, told Watson recently. "Monkeys, peccaries and tapir are all running away. Everything is dying. We are all going to go hungry. We are not finding any game, because the white people use guns and kill all the game."The Carajás train, whose long cargo wagons rattle along the boiling tracks, carrying thousands of tons of iron ore, passes just yards from the forest where uncontacted Awá, who are some of the last uncontacted people on the planet, live. If forced into contact with outsiders, however, many could die. Survival International research has shown that up to 50 percent of uncontacted peoples die on first contact with outsiders from Western diseases to which they have no immunity.Almost a year later, the situation is still so serious that a Brazilian federal judge has described it as a "real genocide."Karapiru is now extremely concerned for his daughter's future. "I hope the same things that happened to me won't happen to my daughter," he says. "I hope she will eat lots of game, lots of fish, and grow up to be healthy. I hope it won't be like in my time."4. Briefly put: No Pāṇini, no software industry.Perhaps some may remember Pāṇini as the person who authored the most definitive treatise on Sanskrit Grammar – the Ashtadhyayi. What many do not know however, that Pāṇini was infact not only a grammarian but also a linguist, the foremost in the world at that. Why is this important? Because, again, he was not only the foremost linguist, but also the foremost mathematical linguist. So what? Well, Pāṇini’s rules for framing mathematical problems in simple phrases have been pivotal in the framing of a language called ALGOL 60, the 1960s precursor to modern day programming languages like Pascal and and the C family!!When Pāṇini’s work became known in Europe in the 19th century, many American and British linguists drew heavily from his ideas on structuralism, by which a language can be reproduced in a definitive form every single time an iteration of an operation is required. All the greats like Franz Bopp, Leonard Broomfeld and others extensively discussed and debated his rules for structural frameworks on languages. Along the way came a young man, Noam Chomsky, today regarded as one of the foremost intellectuals in the world, who also came under Pāṇini’s spell. So did another named Alan Turing.One thing led to another, and soon enough a new comprehensive computing language was born: the ALGOL 60, characterized as procedural, imperative and structured, which has been the predecessor of all “ALGOL like languages” which include Pascal, Ada, the C language family and so on. Yes, C, C+, C++ and et al!! There is even talk of renaming the Backus – Naur form, the original definition of a programmable language as defined by Pāṇini, using reiterative constraints on strings, as the Pāṇini – Backus form as it rightfully should be known!!5.Briefly put: No J.C.Bose, no communications.The odds this man overcame to achieve what he did were substantial to say the least. His thinking is now accepted to have been at least 60 years ahead of his time. And for what? Let’s see.Jagadish Chandra Bose, a true blue Bengali babu was born in Munshiganj in present day Bangladesh and raised in Calcutta. As a student with varied interests (he would later on become a leading authorirty on subjects as diverse as Physics, Plant Biology, Linguistics, Bengali Literature, Archaeology and Popular Science Fiction), Jagadish Chandra Bose at various points in his early student life had studied at University of London, University of Cambridge and St. Xavier’s Calcutta. Given the fact that the British pretty much didn’t like Indian presence in academia (they had good foresight, those Britishers), its an achievement in itself that Bose became a Professor of Physics at the Presidency College, Calcutta.What is even more remarkable is the fact that Bose was the first person in the world to successfully demonstrate remote wireless signalling in November 1894 at Kolkata’s town hall. Yes, without him, no radios or cell phones would have been possible today. Moreover, Bose was working unpaid at Presidency College (in protest against the low salary offered to Indian professors as compared to others), without a laboratory, in a small 24-square-foot (2.2 m2) room, with an untrained tinsmith as his sole assistant.Despite such odds, Bose quickly went on to publish two papers on Polarisation and Diffraction of waves. In those days wave receievers or detectors were termed as coherers. In 1895 the newspaper “The Englishman” noted, ”Should Professor Bose succeed in perfecting and patenting his ‘Coherer’, we may in time see the whole system of coast lighting throughout the navigable world revolutionised by a Bengali scientist working single handed in Presidency College Laboratory.”In May 1897, two years after Bose’s public demonstration in Kolkata, Marconi conducted his own wireless signalling experiment on Salisbury Plain and in 1909 was awarded the Nobel Prize for the same, 14 years after Bose’s pioneering research. Marconi’s experiments would not have been possible if not for Bose’s initial research. Moreover, Bose is also the inventor of several components now commonplace in all wireless communications equipment from radars to radios like semi-conductor crystal wave detectors and so on. Sir Nevill Mott, Nobel Laureate in 1977 for his own contributions to solid-state electronics, remarked that “J.C. Bose was at least 60 years ahead of his time” and “In fact, he had anticipated the existence of P-type and N-type semiconductors.”Then why doesn’t the world know him as well as Marconi? The reason, it turns out, is that Bose (like a true Bengali babu), had little patience with capitalist ideas like patents. He publicly expressed his disdain for patenting inventions, arguing that the greater common good is all that mattered. Marconi, on the other side, happily harbored no such misgivings, and the rest as they say is history. As we shall see, Bose is not the only one to be ignored by the Nobel Society in their annual awards.NARINDER SINGH KAPANY (BORN 1927)6.Briefly Put: No Narinder, no internet, no laser surgeries, no high speed communications.He is regarded as the founding father of Fibre Optics. Heck, he even coined the term Fibre Optics!! His groundbreaking research led to wide ranging applications in not just high speed communications, but also medical imaging from OFC networks to endoscopies to laser surgery. Born in 1927 in Moga, Punjab, he graduated from Agra University and went on to his Ph.D at Imperial College, London.There he became the first person in the world to demonstrate that light can travel in bent glass fibres. His research paper entitled “A Flexible Fiberscope, using Static Scanning” appeared in scientific journal Nature in its January 2, 1954 issue and paved the way for instruments such as endoscopes and laser probes. Kapany followed up this first paper with one published in Optica Acta in February 1955 entitled ‘Transparent Fibres for the Transmission of Optical Images’. As an author and lecturer, Kapany has published over 100 scientific papers and four books on opto-electronics. He has lectured to various national and international scientific societies. His popular article on Fibre optics in Scientific American in 1960 established the new term (Fibre optics); the article constitutes a reference point for the subject even today. In November 1999, Fortune magazine published profiles of seven people who have greatly influenced life in the twentieth century but are unsung heroes. Kapany was one of them.So when the 2009 Nobel for Physics went to Charles Kao for the discovery of Fibre Optics, the scientific community was stunned at the exclusion of Kapany. True, Kao also had made tremendous strides in the field, but his work was only the successor of the ground breaking research undertaken by Kapany, and built upon it. Once again, due to the blatant refusal to award Indians a Nobel (as has been the case with George Sudarshan,Satyendranath Bose, Jagadish Chandra Bose etc.), Kapany remains bereft of the recognition he so deserves.As has been in ages before and will be in ages hence, history’s depths throw up a few names, that rise above and shine as beacons of excellence for the wayfaring humanity to take courage and inspiration from. What happens to the many others who helped mankind progress in equal measure? Why are they bogged down to murky depths of oblivion with seeming randomness? Why is it that as a race of beings, we fail to take cognizance of some of the most stellar efforts that make us what we are today? Why is it that cruel life goes on unchanged, not realizing how it has indeed been phenomenally changed by men such as these? Why indeed? The silence, as always, is deafening….