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It was mostly the work of Robert W Young (an Anglo linguist) and William Morgan Sr (a Navajo linguist) who created the current Navajo writing system between 1935 and 1940. They published the first version in 1937. There were a number of competing systems before that but none had been solidified and none expressed things like tonality and nasalization or glotlalization well. Those are essential for recording Navajo. They created the best dictionary and a number of other books and articles as well. They also had a small newspaper named Ádahooníłígíí which was published from 1943 to 1957. Together they are widely considered to have made Navajo the best documented of any native American language.In July 1996, Robert Young and William Morgan were honored in the Navajo Nation Council Chambers for their work."(Robert Young and William Morgan) have made it possible to educate, communicate, inform, and entertain through the written Navajo language."--Navajo Tribal CouncilFor people that are not aware of it is it worth remembering or learning that most languages do not have commonly used writing systems. And most people the world and in most times have not been literate. Currently there are about 7,111 living languages. Just 3,995 have reportedly developed a writing system. In a large portion of those the writing system, while it may exist, often has few people who are literate and actually using the alphabet.Here is the Navajo system created by Robert Young and William Morgan. Below that is, first Robert Young’s history of modern Navajo orthography and literacy, and then following that, biographies of Morgan and YoungNavajo has two basic tones (low and high), plus two glides (rising and falling). High tone is marked with acute accent and low tone is unmarked. Falling and rising tones occur only with long vowels.Long vowels are represented by doubling the vowel.Vowel nasalization is marked with a cedilla (ą, ę, etc.)The fricatives [ʃ], [ʒ], [ɣ] are written sh, zh and gh respectively.The letter x is used instead of h if the previous letter is s or h to avoid confusion with sh and to avoid having two consecutive h.The glottal stop is marked with '.…..The fruitless effort to stamp out Indian languages and cultural systems finally came to a close on the heels of the Meriam Survey, conducted during the period 1926-28 by the Institute for Government Research. The report of the Meriam Committee (entitled The Problem of Indian Administration) recommended sweeping changes in Federal Indian policy and in the programs carried on by the Federal Government, including greater involvement of the Indian communities themselves in determining local needs and finding solutions to social and economic problems…… In 1933, and thereafter Indian languages and tribal cultural systems assumed a new status.Prerequisite to effective involvement of such Indian communities as the Navajo in social and economic programming was the development of improved media for communications among tribal members, involving not only the fostering of tribal governmental organizations, but the use of other available tools, including Indian languages.Accordingly, shortly after 1935, and especially after the appointment of Willard W. Beatty as Director of Indian Education, the Bureau of Indian Affairs took the first tentative steps in the direction of utilizing Indian languages in written form.Navajo had been written by anthropologists, linguists and missionaries for many years, in a variety of orthographies, for academic and religious purposes. Washington Matthews, the post surgeon at Fort Wingate in the 1880's collected many Navajo texts and, with the establishment of Navajo missions near the end of the 19th century, missionaries turned their attention to the Navajo language. The Franciscans published an Ethnological Dictionary of the Navajo Language in 1910 and a Vocabulary of the Navajo Language two years later, as well as catechisims and other religious material. In 1926, St. Michaels published a Manual of Navajo Grammar, and in the 1940's, a series entitled “Learning Navajo”. In addition, during the first three decades of the present century, various Protestant missions published religious materials and, in 1910, a small phrase book entitled “Dine Bizad”, written by G. F. Mitchell.In the mid-1930's Gladys Reichard carried on a series of classes, at Ganado, Arizona, to demonstrate the feasibility of teaching Navajos to read and write in their own language, utilizing her system of transcription. At about the same time Fr . Berard Haile of St. Michaels Mission was retained by the Bureau of Indian Affairs to prepare Navajo texts for broadcast over a Navajo language radio station that had been established at Window Rock. By that time, Fr. Berard was using an adaptation of the alphabetic system developed by Dr. Sapir.Interest in writing Navajo was widespread, but each interest group was adamant in declining to abandon its own system for that of a competitor. Consequently, about 1936, Dr. Beatty turned to the Smithsonian Institution for expertise in resolving the problem of establishing an independent system for the transcription of Navajo. Dr. John P. Harrington, a linguist in the Bureau of American Ethnology, was assigned the task of working out a simple, practical alphabet, and producing primer material for use in teaching written Navajo. However, although Harrington was an excellent phonetician, he had little previous experience in working with Athapaskan languages.In 1937, through the School of American Research in Santa Fe, Harrington was placed in contact with Robert W. Young who was then involved in field work on Navajo. Young was working with Adolph D. Bitanny, one of Gladys Reichard's students, in Albuquerque. In the fall of the same year Young went to Fort Wingate, New Mexico, where he continued language work with William Morgan. As a result of joint effort, Harrington, Young and Morgan developed an orthography acceptable to Bureau educators and produced several primers and work books — among them a reader entitled Shash Yaazh (Little Bear). These earliest efforts at materials production were never published and disposition of the manuscripts is unknown.In 1935, an interpreter's school was held at Fort Defiance, Arizona which resulted in a list of anatomical and medical terms, written in Navajo, and later published in mimeographed form under the title “Navajo Medical Dictionary.”In the spring of 1940, Edward A. Kennard and Robert W. Young were employed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs to produce reading and teaching materials in Navajo and other Indian languages, and to introduce literacy in native languages in the schools. Adolph Bitanny was retained, by Navajo Agency, as a teacher of literacy, and Willetto Antonio was employed, at the Phoenix Indian School, as a printer.A series by J. B. Enochs, consisting of a pre-primer, primer and reader, was translated into Navajo and published in 1940, under the title “Little Man's Family”. It was followed by a reader entitled “Who Wants To Be a Prairie Dog” , written by Ann Nolan Clark.In 1941, William Morgan joined the literacy group, and Dr. Kennard turned his attention to Sioux and Hopi. There was an urgent need for reading material and, in 1941, Young and Morgan produced a book, in mimeographed form, entitled “The World and its People”, in Navajo and English, with a glossary. This was followed by a four-volume series by Ann Nolan Clark, published bilingually in 1940-43, under the title “Little Herder” ( in Spring , Summer Autumn and Winter).In 1942, a new set of bilingual reading materials (Pre-primer, Primer and Coyote Tales) were prepared by Hildegard Thompson, based on Navajo stories and published as “The Navajo Series”.In 1943, Young and Morgan published “The Navajo Language”, and an account of the events leading up to World War II. The latter was a Navajo Translation of “War with the Axis”, by Charles McFarlane. The Navajo version was entitled Dii K’ad Ana’lgii Baa Hane’ . Additional teaching materials were produced, including a bilingual description of the Navajo alphabet, entitled “The ABC of Navajo”, republished in 1946 to include an abridged version of “Robinson Crusoe”, complete with glossary. The translation had been completed, about 1942, by Alice Gorman. And, in the same year, 1943, Young and Morgan began the publication of a monthly Navajo language newspaper called “Adahooniligii”.At the same period the Wycliffe Bible Translators, in Farmington, New Mexico began the translation of the Bible into Navajo. The Wycliffe Translators decided to use the "government" system of transcription in their work. Interested in teaching literacy as well they produced primers and teaching materials that were published by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and made available generally to schools and literacy classes.Following the close of World War II, the Navajo newspaper was continued and enlarged. The Gallup Independent gave used cartoon matrices for publication, with Navajo legends, in Adahooniligii, and an English summary of each article was added.The post war period was fraught with many economic problems on the Reservation and interest grew in devising and carrying out a resources development plan. The evaluation of resource potential, as presented to the Tribal Council, was translated into Navajo, published in Adahooniligii and republished in reprint form for continuing distribution, in 1947. At the same time, to satisfy popular curiosity, the Navajo Treaty of 1868 was translated and published.During the period 1947-50, the Tribal government was under heavy pressure from the Secretary of the Interior to revise the existing grazing regulations for the Navajo Reservation, or to adopt the General Grazing Regulations of the Department of the Interior. Complex and legalistic as they were, people in the communities could not understand the provisions of these documents, nor could interpreters explain them satisfactorily on an extemporaneous basis. They were translated into written Navajo, published in the Navajo newspaper and in reprint form, and widely used as the basis for discussions at a community level throughout the Navajo Country.At the same time the Navajo-Hopi Rehabilitation Bill was in the process of drafting by Congress. it too was translated, with explanations of each section, and published in Navajo. A number of Navajo leaders and old people recorded historical narratives on Soundscriber disks, for transcription and publication in the newspaper. Of these, the best were subsequently assembled and republished in “The Navajo Historical Series”, including three separate books. In republished form, they became available during the period 1949-52 (“The Ramah Navajos” , “The Trouble at Round Rock” and “Selections from Navajo History”). In 1948, Young and Morgan published a document entitled “The Function and Signification of Certain Navajo Particles” and, in 1951 a supplement to “The Navajo Language” was published, under the title “Vocabulary of Colloquial Navajo.” In 1950, a Navajo translation of the “Revised Election Procedure for the Tribal Council” was made available to the Navajo public.During the early 1950's adult literacy classes were continued, by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and by mission groups, and the Bureau continued to cooperate with the Wycliffe Bible Translators in the production of primers, charts and teaching materials. These included a new series composed of a preprimer, primer and reader, a brochure on how to find a job (“Naanish Hanishta”), and a book on learning English, all authored by the Wycliffe Translators.In 1953, a description of the “Special Five Year Program” (an accelerated educational program for Navajo young people whose education had been interrupted by the war or who for other reasons had not progressed far in school), was published. In 1956, a new set of bilingual materials by Cecil S. King and Marian Nez was published under the title “Navajo New World Readers”, and in 1958 Wall and Morgan published a “Navajo-English Dictionary.”Finally, in 1957, in the face of great stress on the teaching and learning of English, the publication of Adahooniligii was discontinued, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs turned its attention away from the use of written Navajo.In the 1960's however, many young Navajos awakened to the realization that knowledge of the Tribal language and cultural heritage — and with it their identity as Navajos — were rapidly slipping away. This realization, often voiced by young people at Tribal Youth Conferences in the early years of the decade, led to a reawakening of interest in the Navajo language and the traditional culture. Since that time the Rough Rock Demonstration School, the Navajo Community College, the Navajo Reading Study, the University of New Mexico and Northern Arizona University have taken an active interest in the study of Navajo language and culture, and in the promotion of written Navajo. New reading materials are being produced, in Navajo, and bilingual education is once again finding support in the Reservation schools.”Full text of "ERIC ED068229: Written Navajo: A Brief History. Navajo Reading Study Progress Report No. 19."Robert Young (1912 –2007) was born in Chicago. He got degree from the University of Illinois in 1935. He learned Nahuatl and Spanish from Mexican immigrant railroad workers. He moved to New Mexico and entered grad school in Anthropology. He worked with a fellow grad student who was Navajo named Adolph Dodge Bitanny to try to learn Navajo.He met William Morgan while he doing field work and they were both working at the Southwestern Range and Sheepbreeding Laboratory in Fort Wingate, New Mexico. He counted sheep's hair under a microscope. He needed work in the Depression while in grad school. He lived in a tent. Morgan and Young began working on Navajo grammar in their spare time.He married Olga Maoloni Young in 1939. In 1940, he and Morgan were hired by the BIA as language specialists. The created programs to teach Navajo literacy and wrote many books and papers. They created and ran Ádahooníłígíí a Navajo-language monthly newspaper from 1943 to 1957. Shortly after that the Navajo Times began publication. It continues as the Navajo Nation's main print-medium to this day.He was in the Marine Corps in World War II in Phoenix. The Marines used his abilities to help in the testing and selection of Navajo “Code Talkers.”He became an adjunct linguistics professor at the University of New Mexico when he retired from the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1971. He taught Navajo language classes and was co-director of the Navajo Reading Study. One of the first typewriters that could adequately record the Navajo language was built for him. In the nineteen-seventies, a Navajo font was released for the IBM Selectric, an electric typewriter. Navajo fonts are now available for download in multiple typefaces: Times New Roman, Verdana, and Lucida Sans.A scholarship was created in his name to support students in the Department of Linguistics who are engaged in the study of Native American Linguistics.. The University of New MexicoDr William Morgan Sr (1917-2001) was born in a hooghan in Red Rock near Gallup NM. He was Tsi'naajinii clan (Black Streak Wood). He was born for Haltsooi clan, (Meadow People clan).He went to boarding school at Tohatchie at age eight. He spoke only Navajo at the time. He was there for nine months a year with no break to go home. He went to Fort Wingate High School and gradated in 193six.He got a job at Southwestern Range and Sheepbreeding Laboratory working to improve breeds. In 1940, he and Young were hired by the BIA as language specialists. They wrote books and papers together. He married Desbah Dickson Morgan.In the late 1950s he worked with the Cornell university Medical College to develop Navajo terms for medicine. He was an interpreter and instructor of the Navajo language for Cornell University, University of New Mexico and Navajo Community College. He was the designer of the logo for the Navajo Community College.He died at age 85. He had ten children, 19 grandkids and 19 great grandkids.Dr William Morgan and Tom Watson, a medicine man, examining objects to be included in an exhibit at the Navajo Tribal MuseumWilliam Morgan (1917-2001): Navajo Linguist

Here's Xi's own explanation of his rise to power:Xi Jinping: My Road Into PoliticsInterview with Now-President Xi Jinping, Summer, 2000(Xi Jinping at the time was 47 years old and governor in the Fujian province and Yang Xiaohuai was the editor of Zhonghua Ernü).Xi Jinping: Welcome here.[1] I have previously said no thank you to personal interviews innumerable times. We all have different tasks. If you do not mention everybody, then you are only emphasizing yourself. You can also put it differently: When we are all doing our duty within our respective area of responsibility, then it is the community that creates the results. Therefore it makes no sense mentioning the individual. That is the reason why I have refused giving personal interviews. There are also people who write autobiographies. I do not do that either.Yang Xiaohuai: I thought so. That kind of thing can easily lead to misunderstandings.Xi: Particularly if you look at the popular media. You write about a person’s background. Who are his parents? Who is he married to? He is such and such a person. What’s the use of that? That kind of information is not news. It is something everybody knows already. You make a little soup of it. It is immaterial.Yang: Obviously that kind of publicity is immaterial and superfluous. But as a high-level official you are in the focus of the formation of public opinion. The press and the media can help people better understand your work. That kind of public mention I think is important.Xi: Of course you can write about leading officials. To a certain extent. But you must preserve the sense of proportions. There is a tendency to write that a leading official is so and so perfect and so and so excellent, but in reality nobody is perfect and consummate. Take a person and describe him as excellent. Nobody will believe it. An individual’s ability to get results on his own is limited. Without the community and without cooperation you will achieve nothing. Therefore I believe that it is better to focus on the community and cooperation.Yang: You recently took the post as governor of the Fujian province. What new political initiatives did you consider, and what parts of the politics in progress did you wish to continue?Xi: When I became governor in August last year, the members of the provincial government emphasized two points: Firstly that I was to continue working on the foundations laid by the previous governor. It was my task seeing to it that the plans laid down at the beginning of the year were carried through. In addition I could come with my own plans. When you have just taken over a new job you will also want to set your own agenda in the first year. But it must be on the foundations of your predecessor. It is like a relay race. You have to receive the baton properly and then yourself run it in goal.The second point: Of course a provincial governor has an important position. But he is just one person. A provincial government consists of a governor, several deputy governors and many colleagues in the various departments. If you are to achieve results, everybody must pull in the same direction. Furthermore it is important that you make sure you have the cooperation and back-up of the whole province.Yang: When you were sent to Ningde county[2] as a leader, I have heard that you did not tear along ostentatiously, as many other leaders do when they come to a new place. You did not come sweeping with new brooms to make room for your own special projects. You did not use big words but proceeded slowly and patiently.Xi: When I was sent to Ningde, I had been vice mayor in Xiamen[3] for three years. For a brief period I was also acting leader of the city. I had worked to develop Xiamen’s economic reform policy and to build the city’s large industrial zone. The provincial leadership was happy about my efforts and my experiences getting things going, so they decided to appoint me leader of Ningde county. At the time Jia Qinglin[4] was deputy secretary of the party committee of the Fujian province. He called me for a meeting and said: “We want you to go to Ningde county to get things going and change the profile of the county. The level is low and development has been far too slow. We have had many meetings, bur Ningde is still the poorest county of the province. There is no spirit there, just empty words. You must do something extraordinary, so that the situation in the county will be changed.” Both the party leader of the province Chen Guangyi[5] and governor Wang Zhaoguo[6] supported me with much advice.The first thing I did in Ningde was familiarizing myself thoroughly with things. I was filled with admiration for its people. They had for several years worked hard and laboriously and had made a great effort. In Ningde they had built the first medium-sized hydroelectric power station of the province. From here electricity was led on to the whole province and to the urban centres. You could see that people in Ningde had diligently given their contribution to the economic development of the province. It wasn’t that people did not work, but the natural conditions of the county had its limitations. Of course there were also things that could be done better. Many things were still in the old grove, and original thinking was lacking.But just as I had come to Ningde inflation rose, the economy became overheated, and the central government implemented a strict economic policy. The economic situation allowed no extraordinary economic initiatives. Everybody wanted a change and hoped that I could contribute to it. But I had no smart theoretical solution and did not come with a miracle. Therefore the only thing I could say was that the economic crisis was an occasion and a motivation for everybody to join hands. My greatest worry was that we should plunge into unsafe projects. The time was not for that. It would have been easy to make a rousing and enthusiastic speech, arouse their enthusiasm and utilize everybody’s motivation to pitch into work. But that might easily have resulted in grave disappointment. So that wasn’t what I did.My procedure was to light a small fire to warm up the water, keep the fire burning and now and again pour some more cold water in, so that the kettle did not boil over. People told me that they wanted to get three great projects going: Building a harbour at Sandu´ao[7], establishing a railway-line to Ningde and putting greater emphasis on developing the cities in the county. I answered that that kind of project needed developing slowly, as our economic foundation was still weak, and that we should not aim too high. At first we had to analyse the facts and create a robust economic foundation. Even if it takes a long time even ‘a drop can hollow out a stone’.The last thing I have heard is that my plans for the development of the county did not miss the mark. After 12 years of thorough preparations the State Council has now approved prioritizing developing the cities. A railway line has been projected, while building a harbour is still being made researches into. Praxis has shown that with Ningde’s conditions no miracle will happen overnight.There were several challenges, and it was a steady pull. But as in the race between the tortoise and the hare you may finally reach the goal and win. Carrying out the plans took a long time, and I myself did not count on leaving Ningde at once.I set four goals for myself: To encourage thinking along new lines, building a solid group of leaders, taking initiatives to fight poverty and exploiting Ningde’s special economic possibilities as a mountainous area near the coast.I left Ningde after two years because the provincial government wanted me back here in Fuzhou. Even if my time in Ningde was brief, I came to love the place very much. Now many years later, Ningde is still one of the places that I am greatly attached to.Yang: These years several people talk about many officials coming with ‘new brooms’ to a new job, get a couple of new projects going to leave again after a short period. You yourself have talked about how important it is having patience. I have visited a good many places but have only met very few officials thinking like you. Many people believe that officials first and foremost aim at a success to get promoted and to create results to further their own career. Do you have any comments on that?Xi: Promotion is only something external. If a promotion is well founded, it is only one of several signs that the individual has achieved results in his work. A promotion can be seen as an expression of recognition from management and colleagues. But you must remember that promotion in itself is not the full and true assessment of an official as a person. Promotion alone does not tell the whole story about an official. Our system of assessment is still not perfect and makes evaluating an official very difficult. Both subjective and objective factors come in, and in the final analysis that means that the assessment is imperfect.When I have left a post, I have always thought back on my colleagues, I have summed up my impressions and found that I also sometimes have posted my colleagues wrongly. Some were posted wrongly because I thought they were better than they actually were, others because I thought they were poorer than they actually were. That was because I did not compare their efforts and immediate progress with their personal motivation. Therefore one may easily happen to promote the wrong colleagues if one does not view their efforts in a larger perspective. As an organization and as management we do not have a final set of criteria when it comes to assessing a colleague and deciding if the person in question is to be promoted.Yang: Of course I do not know your entire background, but you have had a career as an official for over 20 years. Is it not true that – unlike some officials who have promotion as their ultimate goal – you have a fundamental wish to do something good for society?Xi: That is true. It is a highly relevant question. It is about a decisive choice in life, which I myself – already before I went into politics – thought a lot about. First and foremost over such questions as: Which way do you want to go? What do you want to do with your life? What goals do you want to achieve? Personally I set several goals. One of them was doing something important for society. When that is the goal of your life, you must at the same time be aware that you can’t have your cake and eat it. If you go into politics, it mustn’t be for money. Sun Yatsen[8] said the same thing, namely that one has to make up one’s mind to accomplish something and not go for a high position as an official. If you wish to make money, there are many legal ways of becoming rich. Becoming rich in a legal way is worth all honour and respect. Later the taxation authorities will also respect you because you are contributing to the economic development of the country. But you should not go into politics if you wish to become wealthy. In that case you will inevitably become a corrupt and filthy official. A corrupt official with a bad reputation who will always be afraid of being arrested, and who must envisage having a bad posthumous reputation.If you go into politics to make a career, you must give up any thought of personal advantages. That is out of the question. An official may not through a long career have achieved very great things, but at least he has not put something up his sleeve. He is upright. In a political career you can never go for personal advantages or promotion. It is just like that. It can’t be done. These are the rules.You do not promote a person just because he has good qualifications and experience. Of course qualifications are important, as are a great sense of responsibility and a great knowledge. But it must be seen in a larger context. When you are to choose a person who is to get an important position, and who can make a difference, you must also see it in connection with the time, place, other colleagues and the situation in general. So there is no definite formula which you can use to figure out who is to get promoted.If throughout your career you have unsuccessfully tried to achieve success, it may be a great personal disappointment that you fail to get promoted. But as the old Master Guan[9] said: Do not try to do the impossible, do not strive for the unobtainable, do not rest on the transient, do not do what cannot be repeated.You should not be afraid of difficulties and challenges when you have prepared yourself thoroughly. Politics is both unsafe and risky, and wilfulness is no passable road. Many who have experienced failures are hit by self-reproaches thinking: “I have helped so many people, I have done so much, and all I get is ingratitude. There are so many people who do not understand me. Why must it be like that?” Some of my colleagues who started at the same time as I have given up their jobs for that reason. If you have a position somewhere, the thing is to stick to it and continue one’s work. Then, in the final analysis, it will give results. The germ of success is to fasten on and continue one’s work. Once you have gone into politics, it is like crossing a river. No matter how many obstacles you meet, there is only one way, and that is further on. I myself have also come across many difficulties and obstacles. That is simply inevitable.Yang: I have been told that you originally worked in The Central Military Commission in Beijing. For many people this would be an ideal job. But nevertheless, after a brief employment, you chose to leave your job to work at grass-roots level. Why?Xi: There were many who did not understand me at the time. Before I went to the county of Zhending in the province of Hebei, I worked as a secretary for defence minister Geng Biao,[10] who was also a member of the Politbureau. He said that if I wanted to work at a grass roots level, I might follow the army on its exercises. I did not have to work for a local government.[11]Before leaving Beijing I was around saying goodbye to friends and acquaintances. Many of them had been sent to the countryside during the “Cultural Revolution” – to all kind of places – and were now at length back into town again. Some of them thought that they had had a very hard time. There were also those who thought that now their time had come. Now it was their time to live a good life. It disappointed me to hear that. They would not move outside a radius of 50 kilometres from Beijing, for then they would lose their official register address in Beijing. But I said that we should go out with the same commitment and enthusiasm as generations of officials before us had done.During the “Cultural Revolution” we were sent out into the countryside. We had no choice; it was something we were forced to. It is a part of our history from which we have learned a lot. Today we have good times and have put that kind of ‘leftist’ policy behind us. But we still need to go to the countryside, be diligent and do a good job.The old poet and calligrapher Zheng Banqiao[12] wrote in his first poem “when your roots are deeply anchored in the mountains, no storms from any corner of the world can blow you down or make you surrender.” I would like to change some of the words based on my own experiences from my stay in the countryside saying: “when you are close to the grass roots and close to the people, no storms from any corner of the world can blow you down or make you surrender.” My seven years in the countryside have meant a lot to me. I have gained a deep knowledge of people, and that has been a decisive precondition for my later work. If I again am to work at grass roots level, I will not hesitate for a moment and do it with great confidence. Even if much always will be unpredictable, every day will be rich in experiences and challenges. I would certainly again like to work at grass roots level if I am asked to and my health is all right. In the final analysis anyone can assess my work and my successors will be able to evaluate my achievements. I need not think of that.Yang: I have understood that through more than 20 years – whether it was at a village level, in counties, in regions or in cities like Fuzhou – you have always had a very good cooperation. How did you manage to achieve that cooperation?Xi: Cooperation was something I learned at home as a child. My father often talked about it, telling us children already when we were quite small that we should be good at cooperating. “Do not do to others what you do not want others to do to you.” “Behave decently to others and then you yourself are a decent human being.” These were the phrases he would use to emphasise that you should not just think about your own view of things but also about what others believed. When you live with other people and only follow your own opinion, things will go badly. What my father said has meant a lot to me. No matter whether it was at school or when Í worked in the countryside, I have had a strong feeling that if everybody cooperates, then you will achieve good results. If cooperation is bad, it is bad for everybody.But I have also made mistakes that I have learned from. When I was sent to the countryside, I was very young. It was something I was forced to. At the time I did not think very far and did not at all think of the importance of cooperating. While others in the village every day went up the mountain slopes and worked, I did as I chose, and people got a very bad impression of me. Some months later I was sent back to Beijing and placed in a “study group”. When six months later I was let out, I thought a lot about whether I should return to the village. At last I called upon my uncle, who before 1949 had worked in a base area in the Taihang Mountains.[13] At the time he, my aunt and my mother were active in revolutionary work. All of them are people who have meant a lot to me. My uncle told me about his work then, and about how decisive it is to cooperate with the people among whom you are.That settled it. I went back to the village, got down to work and cooperated. In a matter of a year I did the same work as people in the village, lived in the same way as they and worked hard. People saw that I had changed. They accepted me and began passing by the cave in which I lived,[14] which soon became a rendezvous. It must have been around 1970. Every night people of all ages would turn up. I would tell them what I knew of China’s history and the history of the world. They would like to hear someone from the city tell them about something they did not know about. At last the leader of the village came and listened. He said that young people knew much more than he himself. Slowly the village gained confidence in me. Even if I was not more than 16 or 17 years old, several of the old people began asking for my advice. Today writers write about how miserable lives the young students led in the countryside then. It wasn’t like that for me. In the beginning it was hard, but I got used to life in the village, and as people got confidence in me, I had a good life.Yang: I have been told that while you were in the village you joined the production brigade[15], then you became a member of the party’s youth league[16], then a member of the party, and finally promoted to the position as secretary of the production brigade’s party branch. With your family background this was unusual at that time. Could you tell me more about how you experienced this period?Xi: It was around 1973. The entrance examinations to the party were taken place, but those who had a family background like mine – as you just mentioned – were not accepted. At last I was permitted to go to the Zhaojia He production brigade in the Fengjia Ping people’s commune to study. It was very exciting. At the time I had become a member of the youth league but not yet a member of the party. I had already written ten applications for membership of the party, but because of my family history my application was not approved. The people’s commune then sent my application on to the county’s party committee to hear their opinion. The secretary of the party committee said that my family background as reported by the village indeed was complicated and it was no wonder that the local people had found it difficult to reach a decision. On the other hand he also thought that the village needed me to lead the work, so he ended deciding that my father’s situation should be of no importance for my admission into the party. He approved my application and then sent me back as party secretary of the production brigade of the village.-o-Before that I had also had great difficulties becoming a member of the party’s youth league. I only succeeded after having applied eight times. When I had written the first application, I invited the secretary of the production brigade’s party branch home and offered him omelette and steamed wheat balls. After we had eaten I asked:“Have you sent my application on?”“How sent on? From above everybody say that you should teach children.”“What do you mean by saying that I should teach children?”“From above they say that you have not distanced yourself clearly from your family.”“So what is the decision? It is about a human being. There must be a decision. What is the decision about my father? What documents have you had from the central authorities?”“No, the application has not been sent on, but now it will be.”When he came back from the people’s commune he told me that the party secretary of the people’s commune had scolded him saying that he had not understood a thing, and had asked if he really wanted to send the application on from such a person? I asked:“Such a person? What does that mean? Have I written something reactionary or shouted reactionary slogans? I am just a young man who wishes to move forward. Tell me what is wrong with that?”I was not knocked out and wrote my second application in the next days, gave it to the secretary of the party branch asking him to send it on. I continued like that until I had written eight applications. I did not lose heart and had no feelings of inferiority. I just thought that there were more good than bad people in the party and the youth league. I really wanted to join the youth league and told the party secretary that I needed his support. When I had written eight applications I was finally approved as a member. But it only happened after I had had the support of the secretary of the people’s commune’s youth league. He came to the village and talked to me for five days. We came close and became really good friends. When shortly afterwards he took over the job as the leader of the out-of-school education of the people’s commune, he was also the one who took the “black material’’ about me and simply burned it. It happened in the way that he took me up into the mountains to a small ravine. We sat down, and he said:“I have all the “black material” about you right here.”“What are you going to do with it?”“I’ll burn it.”“You must be out of your mind.”“May be, but I can see that it was sent from your school in Beijing.”-o-That was true. For I had been expelled from the high school for children of high ranking party members and then caught by Kang Sheng’s[17] wife Cao Yi’ou’s red guard group, who accused me of all manner of bad things. I was called a gang leader because I was stubborn, and because I said that I had done nothing wrong. I did not want to be kicked around and did not give in to the red guards. I was only 14. The red guards asked:“How serious do you yourself think your crimes are?”“You can estimate it yourselves. Is it enough to execute me?”“We can execute you a hundred times.”To my mind there was no difference between being executed a hundred times or once, so why be afraid of a hundred times? The red guards wanted to scare me saying that now I was to feel the democratic dictatorship of the people, and that I only had five minutes left. Afterwards they said that I was to read quotations from Chairman Mao[18] every single day until late at night. Then they decided to send me to a youth prison. But it turned out that the youth prison did not have a study program for “black gangs”, and moreover, that there were no vacancies until a month later. At the same time – it was in December 1968 – Chairman Mao issued a new instruction: Young students should be sent into the countryside to learn from the peasants. I immediately went to the school to be sent into the countryside so that I could follow Chairman Mao’s instruction. They considered that at the school eventually deciding that I was to go to Yan’an. It was like being sent into exile.-o-After many difficulties one way or another – problems because of the “Cultural Revolution” and problems with the decision to send students to the countryside – it turned out that the village actually needed me and would not do without me. So I felt at ease in the village. If at the time I had been in the cities, as a worker or anything else, I would have been criticized every single day, as the “Cultural Revolution” was a lot more violent in the cities.In the village in northern Shaanxi we also participated in meetings criticizing Liu Shaoqi’s and Deng Xiaoping’s[19] representatives in north-western China “Peng, Gao and Xi”, Liu Lantao, Zhao Shouyi and others. “Peng, Gao and Xi” were Peng Dehuai, Gao Gang and Xi Zhongxun.[20] During these daily meetings of criticism the praxis was that those who could read were asked to read aloud from the newspapers. I was asked to do that as well. That was all. The villagers were very understanding. It was my father’s old base area. Before 1949 he had – 19 years old – been president of the “Shaanxi-Gansu Soviet.”[21] Therefore many people would care for me and help me. I myself was also very motivated. That was what it was like.Yang: You have told about your seven years’ experiences in the countryside. Can you tell me about the most important experience you have had?Xi: I grew up in the seven years I was in Shaanxi. I learned two important things. First I had the opportunity to understand what real life looks like, what is right and wrong, and who ordinary people are. These were experiences for life.Right as I had arrived at the village, many beggars would often appear. As soon as they turned up, the dogs would be set on them. At the time we students had the opinion that all beggars were “bad elements” and tramps. We did not know the saying “in January there is still enough food, in February you will starve, and March and April you are half alive half dead”. For six months all families would only live on bark and herbs. Women and children were sent out to beg, so that the food could go to those who were working in the fields with the spring ploughing. You had to live in a village to understand it. When you think of the difference there was at that time between what the central government in Beijing knew and what actually happened in the countryside, you must shake your head.Second, I had my self confidence built up. As they say: the knife is sharpened on a stone, people are strengthened in adversity. Seven years of hard life in the countryside developed me a lot. When later in life I have encountered challenges, I have thought about the village, and that then I could do something in spite of hardships. When later I have come across problems, I have never experienced them as big as then. Every man is to find his own strength. When you meet hardships you mustn’t panic, no matter how big the challenge is.Yang: How did you manage to get admitted into university while you were in the village?Xi: At the time I was one of the leaders in the village, but all the time I thought that I would study further. Although I read far too few books, I had not given up my greatest wish – to go to university. At the time the Tsinghua University[22] had given two places to the Yan’an prefecture. One of them went to Yanchuan country where I lived. There were three of us who applied. I said that If you choose me, I will go, if not, never mind. Yanchuan county reported my application to Yan’an prefecture[23] and the leadership of the education committee of Yanchuan county supported my application. But the people from Tsinghua University who had come to Yan’an, and who were responsible for the procedure of admission, dared not make a final decision and asked for instruction from the management of the university. At the same time – it was from July 1975 and three months on – a political campaign had started against what was called “the attempts of the right wing to change the foundations of the Cultural Revolution”. While Chi Qun and Xie Jingyi were absent from the university because of the campaign, Liu Bing[24]was in charge. Liu said there was no problem for me to enrol. At the time my father worked in a factory in Luoyang. The factory submitted a document stating that the political question of Xi Zhongxun was a contradiction within the people and should have no influence on his children’s careers. The document meant that I was admitted into the university. When I left the village, some of the other students were envious of me. They were all of them top students, but they did not have a case that needed re-opening, and all of them were admitted later. Read more...Copyright © 2000 by中华儿女,北京市朝阳区东三环南路98号韩建丹阳大厦15层,邮编：100021

Hello; Yes Great choice! Why not?!87.000$ to 114.000$ per year!!!Top 3 aerospace engineer JobsManual Machinist - Roush Industries - Livonia, MIWith over 4,000 employees in facilities throughout the United States, Europe, Asia, and South America, our unique combination of creativity andIT Support Engineer - Roush Industries - Wittmann, AZWith over 4,000 employees in facilities throughout the United States, Europe, Asia, and South America, our unique combination of creativity andPrototype CNC Machinist (Engine Block & Cylinder Head- Roush Industries - Livonia, MIWith over 4,000 employees in facilities throughout the United States, Europe, Asia, and South America, our unique combination of creativity andSee all aerospace engineer jobsWhat Aerospace Engineers Do[About this section]Aerospace engineers design primarily aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, and missiles. In addition, they test prototypes to make sure that they function according to design.Duties of Aerospace EngineersAerospace engineers typically do the following:Direct and coordinate the design, manufacture, and testing of aircraft and aerospace productsAssess proposals for projects to determine if they are technically and financially feasibleDetermine if proposed projects will result in safe aircraft and partsEvaluate designs to see that the products meet engineering principles, customer requirements, and environmental challengesDevelop acceptance criteria for design methods, quality standards, sustainment after delivery, and completion datesEnsure that projects meet quality standardsInspect malfunctioning or damaged products to identify sources of problems and possible solutionsAerospace engineers may develop new technologies for use in aviation, defense systems, and spacecraft. They often specialize in areas such as aerodynamic fluid flow; structural design; guidance, navigation, and control; instrumentation and communication; robotics; and propulsion and combustion.Aerospace engineers can specialize in designing different types of aerospace products, such as commercial and military airplanes and helicopters; remotely piloted aircraft and rotorcraft; spacecraft, including launch vehicles and satellites; and military missiles and rockets.Aerospace engineers often become experts in one or more related fields: aerodynamics, thermodynamics, celestial mechanics, flight mechanics, propulsion, acoustics, and guidance and control systems.Aerospace engineers typically specialize in one of two types of engineering: aeronautical or astronautical.Aeronautical engineers work with aircraft. They are involved primarily in designing aircraft and propulsion systems and in studying the aerodynamic performance of aircraft and construction materials. They work with the theory, technology, and practice of flight within the earth’s atmosphere.Astronautical engineers work with the science and technology of spacecraft and how they perform inside and outside the earth’s atmosphere.Aeronautical and astronautical engineers face different environmental and operational issues in designing aircraft and spacecraft. However, the two fields overlap a great deal because they both depend on the basic principles of physics.Work Environment for Aerospace Engineers[About this section]Aerospace engineers held about 72,500 jobs in 2014. The industries that employed the most aerospace engineers were as follows:They are employed in industries where workers design or build aircraft, missiles, systems for national defense, or spacecraft. Aerospace engineers work primarily for firms that engage in manufacturing, analysis and design, research and development, and for the federal government.Aerospace engineers now spend more of their time in an office environment than they have in the past, because modern aircraft design requires the use of sophisticated computer equipment and software design tools, modeling, and simulations for tests, evaluation, and training.Aerospace engineers work with other professionals involved in designing and building aircraft, spacecraft, and their components. Therefore, they must be able to communicate well, divide work into manageable tasks, and work with others toward a common goal.Aerospace Engineers Work SchedulesAerospace engineers typically work full time. Engineers who direct projects must often work extra hours to monitor progress, to ensure that the design meets requirements, to determine how to measure aircraft performance, to see that production meets design standards, and to ensure that deadlines are met.How to Become an Aerospace Engineer[About this section] [To Top]Get the education you need: Find schools for Aerospace Engineers near you!Aerospace engineers must have a bachelor’s degree in aerospace engineering or another field of engineering or science related to aerospace systems. Aerospace engineers who work on projects that are related to national defense may need a security clearance. U.S. citizenship may be required for certain types and levels of clearances.Aerospace Engineer EducationEntry-level aerospace engineers usually need a bachelor’s degree. High school students interested in studying aerospace engineering should take courses in chemistry, physics, and math, including algebra, trigonometry, and calculus.Bachelor’s degree programs include classroom, laboratory, and field studies in subjects such as general engineering principles, propulsion, stability and control, structures, mechanics, and aerodynamics, which is the study of how air interacts with moving objects.Some colleges and universities offer cooperative programs in partnership with regional businesses, which give students practical experience while they complete their education. Cooperative programs and internships enable students to gain valuable experience and to finance part of their education.At some universities, a student can enroll in a 5-year program that leads to both a bachelor’s degree and a master’s degree upon completion. A graduate degree will allow an engineer to work as an instructor at a university or to do research and development. Programs in aerospace engineering are accredited by ABET.Important Qualities for Aerospace EngineersAnalytical skills. Aerospace engineers must be able to identify design elements that may not meet requirements and then must formulate alternatives to improve the performance of those elements.Business skills. Much of the work done by aerospace engineers involves meeting federal government standards. Meeting these standards often requires knowledge of standard business practices, as well as knowledge of commercial law.Critical-thinking skills. Aerospace engineers must be able to translate a set of issues into requirements and to figure out why a particular design does not work. They must be able to ask the right question, then find an acceptable answer.Math skills. Aerospace engineers use the principles of calculus, trigonometry, and other advanced topics in math for analysis, design, and troubleshooting in their work.Problem-solving skills. Aerospace engineers use their education and experience to upgrade designs and troubleshoot problems when meeting new demands for aircraft, such as increased fuel efficiency or improved safety.Writing skills. Aerospace engineers must be able both to write papers that explain their designs clearly and to create documentation for future reference.Licenses, Certifications, and RegistrationsLicensure is not required for entry-level positions as an aerospace engineer. A Professional Engineering (PE) license, which allows for higher levels of leadership and independence, can be acquired later in one’s career. Licensed engineers are called professional engineers (PEs). A PE can oversee the work of other engineers, sign off on projects, and provide services directly to the public. State licensure generally requires:A degree from an ABET-accredited engineering programA passing score on the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) examRelevant work experience, typically at least 4 yearsA passing score on the Professional Engineering (PE) examThe initial FE exam can be taken after one earns a bachelor’s degree. Engineers who pass this exam are commonly called engineers in training (EITs) or engineer interns (EIs). After meeting work experience requirements, EITs and EIs can take the second exam, called the Principles and Practice of Engineering.Advancement for Aerospace EngineersEventually, aerospace engineers may advance to become technical specialists or to supervise a team of engineers and technicians. Some may even become engineering managers or move into executive positions, such as program managers.Aerospace Engineer Salaries[About this section] [More salary/earnings info]The median annual wage for aerospace engineers was $105,380 in May 2014. The median wage is the wage at which half the workers in an occupation earned more than that amount and half earned less. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $66,110, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $155,240.In May 2014, the median annual wages for aerospace engineers in the top industries in which they worked were as follows:Aerospace engineers typically work full time. Engineers who direct projects must often work extra hours to monitor progress, to ensure that the design meets requirements, to determine how to measure aircraft performance, to see that production meets design standards, and to ensure that deadlines are met.Job Outlook for Aerospace Engineers[About this section]Employment of aerospace engineers is projected to decline 2 percent from 2014 to 2024. Aircraft are being redesigned to cut down on noise pollution and to raise fuel efficiency, which will help sustain demand for research and development. However, growth will be tempered because many of these engineers are employed in manufacturing industries that are projected to grow slowly or even decline.Most of the work of aerospace engineers involves national defense–related projects or the design of civilian aircraft. Research-and-development projects, such as those related to improving the safety, efficiency, and environmental soundness of aircraft, should sustain demand for workers in this occupation.Aerospace engineers who work on engines or propulsion will continue to be needed as the emphasis in design and production shifts to rebuilding existing aircraft so that they are less noisy and more fuel efficient.In addition, as governments refocus their space efforts, new companies are emerging to provide access to space beyond the access afforded by standard space agencies. The efforts of these companies will include low-orbit and beyond-earth-orbit capabilities for human and robotic space travel. Unmanned aerial vehicles will create some opportunities for aerospace engineers as authorities find domestic uses for them, such as finding missing persons lost in large tracts of forest or helping to put out forest fires.Aerospace Engineers Job ProspectsAerospace engineers who know how to use collaborative engineering tools and processes and who are familiar with modeling, simulation, and robotics should have good opportunities. Employment opportunities also should be favorable for those trained in computational fluid dynamics software, which has enabled companies to test designs in a digital environment, thereby lowering testing costs. Finally, the aging of workers in this occupation should help to create openings in it over the next decade.Employment projections data for Aerospace Engineers, 2014-24Careers Related to Aerospace Engineers[About this section]Aerospace Engineering and Operations TechniciansAerospace engineering and operations technicians operate and maintain equipment used in developing, testing, and producing new aircraft and spacecraft. Increasingly, these workers are using computer-based modeling and simulation tools and processes in their work.Architectural and Engineering ManagersArchitectural and engineering managers plan, direct, and coordinate activities in architectural and engineering companies.Computer Hardware EngineersComputer hardware engineers research, design, develop, and test computer systems and components such as processors, circuit boards, memory devices, networks, and routers. These engineers discover new directions in computer hardware, which generate rapid advances in computer technology.Electrical and Electronics Engineering TechniciansElectrical and electronics engineering technicians help engineers design and develop computers, communications equipment, medical monitoring devices, navigational equipment, and other electrical and electronic equipment. They often work in product evaluation and testing, using measuring and diagnostic devices to adjust, test, and repair equipment. They are also involved in the manufacture and deployment of equipment for automation.Electrical and Electronics EngineersElectrical engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacturing of electrical equipment, such as electric motors, radar and navigation systems, communications systems, and power generation equipment. Electronics engineers design and develop electronic equipment, such as broadcast and communications systems—from portable music players to global positioning systems (GPSs).Industrial EngineersIndustrial engineers find ways to eliminate wastefulness in production processes. They devise efficient systems that integrate workers, machines, materials, information, and energy to make a product or provide a service.Materials EngineersMaterials engineers develop, process, and test materials used to create a wide range of products, from computer chips and aircraft wings to golf clubs and biomedical devices. They study the properties and structures of metals, ceramics, plastics, composites, nanomaterials (extremely small substances), and other substances to create new materials that meet certain mechanical, electrical, and chemical requirements.Mechanical EngineersMechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering disciplines. Mechanical engineers design, develop, build, and test mechanical and thermal sensors and devices, including tools, engines, and machines.