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It wasn't until the mid-1800s that there was any type of formal regulation of educational standards for aspiring physicians. There is sn excellent article on this by MedlinePlus:Doctor of medicine profession (MD)MDs may be found within a wide range of practice settings, including private practices, group practices, hospitals, health maintenance organizations, teaching facilities, and public health organizations.InformationThe practice of medicine in the United States dates back to colonial times (early 1600s). At the beginning of the 17th century, medical practice in England was divided into three groups: the physicians, the surgeons, and the apothecaries.Physicians were seen as elite. They most often held a university degree. Surgeons were typically hospital-trained and they did apprenticeships. They often served the dual role of barber-surgeon. Apothecaries also learned their roles (prescribing, making, and selling medicines) through apprenticeships, sometimes in hospitals.This distinction between medicine, surgery, and pharmacy did not survive in colonial America. When university-prepared MDs from England arrived in America, they were expected to also perform surgery and prepare medicines.The New Jersey Medical Society, chartered in 1766, was the first organization of medical professionals in the colonies. It was developed to "form a program embracing all the matters of highest concern to the profession: regulation of practice; educational standards for apprentices; fee schedules; and a code of ethics." Later this organization became the Medical Society of New Jersey.Professional societies began regulating medical practice by examining and licensing practitioners as early as 1760. By the early 1800s, the medical societies were in charge of establishing regulations, standards of practice, and certification of doctors.A natural next step was for such societies to develop their own training programs for doctors. These society-affiliated programs were called "proprietary" medical colleges.The first of these proprietary programs was the medical college of the Medical Society of the County of New York, founded March 12, 1807. Proprietary programs began to spring up everywhere. They attracted a large number of students because they eliminated two features of university-affiliated medical schools: a long general education and a long lecture term.To address the many abuses in medical education, a national convention was held in May 1846. Proposals from that convention included the following:A standard code of ethics for the professionThe adoption of uniform higher educational standards for MDs, including courses of premedical educationThe creation of a national medical associationOn May 5, 1847, nearly 200 delegates representing 40 medical societies and 28 colleges from 22 states and the District of Columbia met. They resolved themselves into the first session of the American Medical Association (AMA). Nathaniel Chapman (1780-1853) was elected as the first president of the association. The AMA has become an organization that has a great deal of influence over issues related to health care in the United States.The AMA set educational standards for MDs, including the following:A liberal education in the arts and sciencesA certificate of completion in an apprenticeship before entering the medical collegeAn MD degree that covered 3 years of study, including two 6-month lecture sessions, 3 months devoted to dissection, and a minimum of one 6-month session of hospital attendanceIn 1852, the standards were revised to add more requirements:Medical schools had to provide a 16-week course of instruction that included anatomy, medicine, surgery, midwifery, and chemistryGraduates had to be at least 21 years of ageStudents had to complete a minimum of 3 years of study, 2 years of which were under an acceptable practitionerBetween 1802 and 1876, 62 fairly stable medical schools were established. In 1810, there were 650 students enrolled and 100 graduates from medical schools in the United States. By 1900, these numbers had risen to 25,000 students and 5,200 graduates. Nearly all of these graduates were white males.Daniel Hale Williams (1856-1931) was one of the first black MDs. After graduating from Northwestern University in 1883, Dr. Williams practiced surgery in Chicago and was later a main force in establishing Provident Hospital, which still serves Chicago's South Side. Previously black physicians found it impossible to obtain privileges to practice medicine in hospitals.Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1920), after graduating from Geneva College of Medicine in upstate New York, became the first woman granted an MD degree in the United States.The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine opened in 1893. It is cited as being the first medical school in America of "genuine university-type, with adequate endowment, well-equipped laboratories, modern teachers devoted to medical investigation and instruction, and its own hospital in which the training of physicians and healing of sick persons combined to the optimal advantage of both." It is considered the first, and the model for all later research universities. Johns Hopkins Medical School served as a model for the reorganization of medical education. After this, many sub-standard medical schools closed.Medical schools had become mostly diploma mills, with the exception of a few schools in large cities. Two developments changed that. The first was the "Flexner Report," published in 1910. Abraham Flexner was a leading educator who was asked to study American medical schools. His highly negative report and recommendations for improvement led to the closing of many substandard schools and the creation of standards of excellence for a real medical education.The other development came from Sir William Osler, a Canadian who was one of the greatest professors of medicine in modern history. He worked at McGill University in Canada, and then at the University of Pennsylvania, before being recruited to be the first physician-in-chief and one of the founders of Johns Hopkins University. There he established the first residency training and was the first to bring students to the patient's bedside. Before that time, medical students learned from textbooks only until they went out to practice, so they had little practical experience. Osler also wrote the first comprehensive, scientific textbook of medicine and later went to Oxford as Regent professor, where he was knighted. He established patient-oriented care and many ethical and scientific standards.By 1930, nearly all medical schools required a liberal arts degree for admission and provided a 3- to 4-year graded curriculum in medicine and surgery. Many states also required candidates to complete a 1-year internship in a hospital setting after receiving a degree from a recognized medical school in order to license the practice of medicine.American doctors did not begin to specialize until the middle of the 19th century. People objecting to specialization said that "specialties operated unfairly toward the general practitioner, implying that he is incompetent to properly treat certain classes of diseases." They also said specialization tended "to degrade the general practitioner in the view of the public." However, as medical knowledge and techniques expanded many doctors chose to concentrate on certain specific areas and recognize that their skill set could be more helpful in some situations.Economics also played an important role, because specialists typically earned higher incomes than the generalist physicians. The debates between specialists and generalists continue, and have recently been fueled by issues related to modern health care reform.SCOPE OF PRACTICEThe practice of medicine includes the diagnosis, treatment, correction, advisement, or prescription for any human disease, ailment, injury, infirmity, deformity, pain, or other condition, physical or mental, real or imaginary.REGULATION OF THE PROFESSIONMedicine was the first of the professions to require licensing. State laws on medical licensing outlined the "diagnosis" and "treatment" of human conditions in medicine. Any individual who wanted to diagnose or treat as part of the profession could be charged with "practicing medicine without a license."Medicine, like many other professions, is regulated at several different levels:Medical Schools must adhere to the standards of the American Association of Medical CollegesLicensure is a process that takes place at the state level in accordance with specific state lawsCertification is established through national organizations with consistent national requirements for minimal professional practice standardsLicensure: All states require that applicants for MD licensure be graduates of an approved medical school and complete the United States Medical Licensing Exam (USMLE) Steps 1 to 3. Steps 1 and 2 are completed while in medical school and step 3 is completed after some medical training (usually between 12 to 18 months, depending on the state). People who earned their medical degrees in other countries also must satisfy these requirements before practicing medicine in the United States.With the introduction of telemedicine, there has been concern as to how to handle state licensure issues when medicine is being shared between states through telecommunications. Laws and guidelines are being addressed. Some states have recently established procedures for recognizing the licenses of physicians practicing in other states in times of emergency, such as after hurricanes or earthquakes.Certification: MDs who wish to specialize must complete an additional 3 to 9 years of postgraduate work in their specialty area, then pass board certification examinations. Doctors who claim to practice in a specialty should be board-certified in that specific area of practice. Not all "certifications" come from recognized academic agencies however. Most credible certifying agencies are part of the American Board of Medical Specialties. Many hospitals will not permit physicians or surgeons to practice on their staffs if they are not board certified in an appropriate specialty.ReferencesGoldman L, Schafer AI. Approach to medicine, the patient, and the medical profession: medicine as a learned and humane profession. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman-Cecil Medicine. 25th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2016:chap 1.Kaljee L, Stanton BF. Cultural issues in pediatric care. In: Kliegman RM, Stanton BF, St. Geme JW, Schor NF, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 20th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2016:chap 4.Krieg RM, Cooksey JA. Provident Hospital: A Living Legacy. Chicago, IL; The Provident Foundation, 1997.

Let’s start with my favourite ones : Engineers1. Leonardo da Vincida Vinci, by all accounts, was good at a few things - painting, sculpting, architecture, science, music, mathematics, engineering, invention, anatomy, geology, astronomy, botany, writing, history, and cartography. The usual. His engineering concepts were unfathomable at the time and still carry about an air of magic with them today - flying machines, a type of armoured fighting vehicle, concentrated solar power, an adding machine, and the double hull. Few of which were feasible then, but which are central to how we live today.2. Isambard Kingdom Brunel"One of the most ingenious and prolific figures in engineering history"; "one of the 19th century engineering giants"; and "one of the greatest figures of the Industrial Revolution" - it's hard to overestimate the impact Brunel had on the infrastructure of modern Britain. It's appropriate he's on a list on this site too, having given his name to a modern day university. His greatest achievement is the Great Western Railway, which operates to this day.3. ArchimedesThe greatest of all the classical engineers, Archimedes has influenced for all time the fields of maths, physics, engineering and astronomy. Though little is known about the precise details of his life, what he invented and discovered is not in doubt - the screw pump and compound pulleys can be attributed to him. The island of Syracuse, where he lived all his life, were also protected by various defense mechanisms of his design.4. George StephensonBorn in Wylam, Northumberland, we could easily have included his son Robert on this list, who was called the greatest engineer of the 19th Century and rests at Westminister Abbey. Stephenson senior gets the nod, however, for doing it all first - he built the first public inter city railway line between Liverpool and Manchester in 1830. His rail gauge is also still used the world over as the standard measurement for rail tracks, which will no doubt be of interest to some of you.5. Gustave EiffelCan you guess what landmark world structure this chap is famous for? Aside from the eponymous Parisian tower, Eiffel built various bridges for the French railway network before being commissioned to built the centrepiece for the 1889 Universal Exposition. After this, Eiffel didn't just let his good name carry him through life - he helped design the Statue of Liberty, and contributed greatly to the fields of meteorology and aerodynamics.6. Henry FordNot the inventor of the modern car, but one of the most astute engineers and industrialists of all time who founded the Ford Motor Company and the assembly line method of mass production. This meant that Ford was, to all intents and purposes, the founder of the first motor car that the average person could afford, turning automobiles from a curiosity into a necessity. It's a shame that he was also a publisher of anti-semitic material, otherwise he would be hugely admirable.7. Elon MuskEngineer, businessman, inventor, genius - four of the many labels oft attached to South African-born Canadian Musk. Founder of SpaceX - which will almost certainly be taking the average joe on holiday to space sooner rather than later - Tesla Motors - electric cars that actually, you know, work - and SolarCity, which provide solar panels for businesses all over the world. Remember the name, but then again, how could you forget one as unusual as that?8. Burt RutanAerospace engineering now, and one of the most original modern engineers. Rutan's aircraft were often peculiar looking, but have always proven light, strong, and energy efficient. His greatest achievements number Voyager - the first plane to fly non-stop around the world - and SpaceShipOne - the first privately funded spacecraft to make regular and succesful trips into sub-orbit. Honoured in the National Air and Space Museum, he is also honoured on our list.9. Steve WozniakFrom structural to electronic engineering, from the biggest buildings on earth to some of the smallest but most revolutionary technology of the past few decades. Wozniak, along with Steve Jobs, pioneered the 1970s personal computer revolution. He single handedly developed the Apple I, and was arguably the main component in the development of the truly revolutionary Apple II - he did the programming, Jobs did the case it came in.10. Fazlur Rahman KhanBorn in Dhaka - then of the British Raj, today capital of Bangladesh - can claim the title of father of the modern skyscraper. This structural engineer and architect came up with tubular designs that allowed for the easier constructions of the high rise structures we know today. Also one of the first to utilise computer aided design techniques, his gifts to the US include their second tallest building, the Willis Tower, and the John Hancock Centre (pictured) - sorry, Center. It is American after all.The most celebrated astronauts :1. Yuri GagarinAs the first man to space, no list of famous astronauts would be complete without the Soviet/ Russian born cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. In 1955, he was drafted into the Soviet Air Force and then landed to the Soviet Space Program due to his excellent flying record. He was soon selected for a special group known as the Sochi Six, from which the country would choose its first cosmonaut.2. Alan ShepardEdgar D. Mitchell, Alan B. Shepard Jr. (center), and Stuart A. RoosaIn the midst of the Cold War, Russia’s Sputnik 1 launch in 1957, shook the America’s confidence in its space and tech superiority over the Soviets. This was the first major move from either side during the Space Race. In response, the then U.S President Eisenhower formed NASA and gave them the go ahead to recruit their first astronauts from military ranks.Alan Bartlett Shepard Jr. was one of the first naval aviators who were recruited by NASA under the name of the Mercury Seven in 1959. In May 1961 he made the first manned Project Mercury flight, in flight Freedom 7. He became only the second person in the world, and the first American, to travel in space.3. Valentina TereshkovaValentina Tereshkova with Nikita Khrushchev, Pavel Popovich and Yury Gagarin at Lenin’s MausoleumAt the age of 80, the Russian born Valentina Tereshkova is the oldest astronaut alive on the Earth. She was also the first women into space, two years after Yuri Gagarin. Before becoming a cosmonaut, Tereshkova worked as an assembly worker in a local textile factory.She left the Soviet Space agency and became one of the well known faces of the Communist Party in the Soviet regime. From 1966 to 1991 she held various important legal offices. She remained politically active years after the collapse of the USSR and is regarded as a hero in Russia.4. Neil ArmstrongNeil Armstrong stands alongside X-15 -1Does this person need any formal introduction? I guess not. He is arguably the most famous astronauts, especially to kids who someday wants to become an astronaut. Born in 1930, in Wapakoneta, Ohio, Armstrong graduated from Purdue University and became a member of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics before becoming an astronaut.After the Mercury 7 program, NASA wanted to recruit a fresh line of astronauts, and that’s when Armstrong joined and became part of the Gemini program. On July 16th, 1969, Armstrong alongside “Buzz” Aldrin and Michael Collins, became the first astronauts to walk on the moon’s surface (except Michael Collins).5. Buzz AldrinBuzz Aldrin made a history in the field of human space exploration after becoming a part of the first crew to land on the Moon in 1969. As the Module Pilot on Apollo 11, he was the second person to walk on it after the commander Neil Armstrong.Before joining NASA, he was enlisted as a second lieutenant in the U.S Air Force and was deployed in the Korean peninsula during the Korean War. Three years before, the Lunar mission Aldrin went into orbit for the first time during the Gemini 12 mission, and achieved the first successful EVA without mishap.6. Sally Kristen RideSally Ride communicates with controllers from the Challenger’s flight deckSally Kristen Ride was born in Los Angeles, Southern California in 1951. She joined the National Aeronautics and Space Administration at the age of 27 and soon became the first women from the United States in space. Internationally, Sally Ride was only the third female astronaut in space after two Russian (USSR) cosmonauts Valentina Tereshkova and Svetlana Savitskaya.7. John Herschel Glenn Jr.John Herschel Glenn was an engineer, U.S Marine Corps pilot, astronaut, and later Senator from the state of Ohio. In 1962, he became the first U.S national to orbit the Earth following his Mercury-Atlas 6 mission. Before being selected by NASA, Glenn was a prolific fighter pilot who served in various wars, including the World War II, China and Korean War.As a fighter pilot, he received various medals and honors, including the Distinguished Flying Cross and more than a dozen AIr medals. In 1957, he became the first person to perform a supersonic transcontinental flight across the country, while his on-board camera took the first ever panoramic photograph of the entire United States.8. Chris HadfieldChris Hadfield is one of the prominent Canadian astronauts, who became the first national to perform a space walk. Born and raised on a farm in southern Ontario, Hatfield’s biggest inspiration while growing up was watching the Apollo 11 landing on his T.V set. After graduation, he joined national Armed Forces, and was eventually accepted into the Canadian astronaut program in 1992.In 2013, during his third and last expedition to ISS, as a commander of the mission, Hadfield was responsible for various important tasks. During this mission, he captured various space images and posted on different social media platforms which earned him a great deal of popularity from around the world.9. Pete ConradCharles “Pete” Conrad Jr., was one of the highly respected American astronauts in the world. He was an American NASA astronaut, naval officer and aviator, test pilot, and during the Apollo 12 mission, he became the third man to walk on the Moon. He joined NASA as a part of a special group called New Nine in 1962.For his first mission, he was assigned to Gemini 5, where along with his mission commander Gordon Cooper, broke the previous space endurance record of five days. After Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, Conrad and Alan L. Bean became the second NASA pair to perform Moon expedition in 1969.10. Alexey LeonovAlexey Leonov (on the right) with Anton ShkaplerovThe Soviet born Alexey Leonov was the first person to perform a spacewalk or more formally an Extravehicular activity (EVA) during the Voskhod 2 mission. Actually, his spacewalk was scheduled to be taken place during the Voskhod 1 mission, but was cancelled and was scheduled a year later.During this historic event, a severe malfunction in Leonov’s spacesuit almost caused his life. Due to a minor defect, his pressurized suit began to inflate during his space walk. The inflation quickly escalated to the levels that he couldn’t even re-enter the spacecraft. To gain flexibility, he released a valve of his suit to release the pressure to bleed off, but this resulted in a quick loss of oxygen, which nearly killed him.11. Scott KellyScott Kelly with Former U.S President Barack ObamaThe retired American astronaut, engineer and a former Navy captain Scott Kelly is perhaps one of the popular modern personality among the space lovers. The veteran NASA astronaut commanded a total of three International Space Station expeditions and been in space for four different occasions.Scott Kelly made it to orbit very quickly after becoming an astronaut. Only three years later, he was the pilot for STS-103, a shuttle mission that upgraded the Hubble Space Telescope. His crew spent eight days in December 1999 in space (including celebrating Christmas there), where their main duties were to install instruments and upgrade systems on Hubble.In 2015, Kelly achieved a milestone after he spent a record 520 days in space. The record was later broken by astronaut Jeff Williams in 2016 and astronaut Peggy Whitson year after.12. Guion BlufordOn August 30, 1983, for the first time in human space exploration history, astronaut Guion Bluford of African-American heritage went to the outer space. Before starting a career with NASA, Bluford was a ranked officer in the U.S Air Force, where he continued to serve even after his initial recruitment in the space agency.At NASA, he became part of a total of four different space missions from 1983 to 1992. For his services, Bluford was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1997, and the U.S Astronaut Hall of Fame in 2010.13. Marc GarneauImage Courtesy: NASAMarc Garneau became the first Canadian astronaut to the outer space, while he was assigned as one of the crew members to the STS-41-G in 1984. Like most of the early astronauts, Garneau also started in the military, as an engineer in the Royal Canadian Navy in 1974, before being promoted to Captain. He left Navy ranks in 1989 to become the deputy Director of the newly formed CAP (now Canadian Astronaut Corps).Here, he gained further experience and became a mission specialist. After working as a ground flight controller for couple of space missions, he himself went to outer space two times in 1984 and 1966. During his entire career, Garneau registered more than 670 space hours under his belt.14. Mae Carol JemisonJemison aboard the Spacelab JapanNot many in their life can achieve everything they crave for, but she sure did. Working with NASA, Mae Jemison became the first African American female into the outer space on-board the Endeavour space shuttle in 1992. Before NASA, she was selected in the Peace Corps in 1985 following her medical degree and a brief period of medical practice.At NASA, she administered various tasks in the Kennedy Space Center, Florida before going to space. She, however left NASA to form her own research firm. She is also famous among sci-fi fans for appearing in an episode of Star Trek. And that’s not all, Jemison currently holds nine honorary doctorates in engineering, science and humanities.And finally Physicians:1- Hippocrates( father of Western medicine)Hippocrates, about 460 BC – 377 BC, is a famous doctor and the father of Western medicine. As a physician practicing and teaching in Classical Greece, he made medicine a discipline separate from theology and philosophy. Hippocrates founded a school for medicine on the island of Cos, Greece, where he taught that thoughts, ideas and feelings come from the brain, rather than the heart. He described the symptoms of many diseases like pneumonia and epilepsy. The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of early medical works from ancient Greece, a summary of the medical knowledge of the time, attributed to him and his students. Hippocrates introduced the Hippocratic Oath, a promise physicians make to practice medicine ethically, that is still used today in revised form.2- Edward JennerEdward Anthony Jenner, 1749 – 1823, was a famous English doctor and scientist who worked in immunology and developed the smallpox vaccine. His discovery has eradicated the dreaded disease of smallpox and saved more lives than the work of any other doctor. To this day, smallpox is the only human infectious disease to have been eradicated.Smallpox was an infectious disease since prehistoric time, killing, blinding and disfiguring its victims. The concept of variolation, using the smallpox virus itself for a risky inoculation, was introduced in England from Turkey by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. A few individuals had already used the cowpox vaccine to try to vaccinate against smallpox. Jenner knew that milkmaids who worked with cows got the milder cowpox disease from cows, but did not contract smallpox. Jenner hypothesized that the pus from cowpox would provide immunity from smallpox. He successfully tested his hypothesis and published papers on vaccination. He opened the field of immunology, with the possibility of curing many more diseases. Jenner died at the age of 73 after several strokes.3-Rene LaennecRene Laennec, 1781 – 1826 was a famous French doctor and physician who invented the stethoscope, used for auscultation, that is, listening to the sounds in the lungs and heart. It became the primary medical diagnostic tool. Doctors of today still rely on his invention.The idea for the stethoscope came while he watched children playing with hollow sticks, which translated and amplified sounds. His skill as a flautist may have contributed to his invention. He authored many articles in the field of auscultation. Laennec was known for his charity to the poor during the French Revolution.4-Henry GrayHenry Gray, 1827-1861, was a famous English doctor and surgeon and author of the book Anatomy, also known as Gray's Anatomy, an authoritative textbook for medical students that is still published today. In 1858 Doctor Gray published the first edition of Anatomy, with 750 pages and and 363 drawings. The success of the book is partly due to the skilled illustrations made by his friend Henry Vandyke Carter.Learning anatomy from surgery on cadavers, he submitted outstanding student work. Henry Gray was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society at the age of 25. He became a Lecturer of Anatomy at St. George's Hospital, and published the book he is known for at the age of 31. His promising career was interrupted by his untimely death from smallpox at the age of 34.5- Ignaz SemmelweisIgnaz Semmelweis, 1818-1865, was a famous Hungarian doctor. He dramatically reduced the death rate of new mothers from childbed fever. At this time the germ theory of infection was unknown in medicine. From 10% to 35% of all women died after childbirth from puerperal fever. Doctor Semmelweis worked at one of two Obstetrical Clinics of the Vienna General Hospital.These were charitable maternity clinics where illegitimate babies were delivered. Here surgeons staffed the first maternity clinic, and midwives staffed the second maternity clinic. The clinic staffed by surgeons had a death rate 3 times higher than the midwives' clinic. Semmelweis's careful study found that the only difference between the clinics was that midwives regularly washed their hands. He required doctors to wash their hands in a disinfectant solution of chlorinated lime and thus greatly improved the survival rate of women in childbirth.His published conclusions were widely ridiculed by his peers. Suffering from a nervous breakdown, possibly Alzheimer's or syphilis, Semmelweis was confined to an asylum, beaten by guards and died from his wounds two weeks after admission. His work gained acceptance only after his death.6-Louis pasteurLouis Pasteur. 1822 - 1895, was a French chemist and one of the founders of microbiology. He was not a licensed doctor, but he improved the health of everyone. His work proved the theory that germs cause disease. He was a professor of physics and then a professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg.The death of two of his five children from typhoid fever motivated him to study disease and medicine. In his breakthrough work Pasteur demonstrated that fermentation is caused by the growth of microorganisms. He discovered the pasteurization process to kill the bacteria and molds that spoil milk and wine. He created a rabies vaccine and a vaccine for chicken cholera. He also disproved the theory of spontaneous generation of life forms by showing the "life comes from other life," which is called the Law of Biogenesis. This law means that maggots come from maggots and bacteria from bacteria, rather than via spontaneous generation out of nothingness.Pasteur received many honors, including a Grand Croix of the Legion of Honor from France. His death came in 1895 after a series of strokes. His remains have been placed in a crypt in the Institut Pasteur, Paris.7-Joseph ListerJoseph Lister, 1827 - 1912 was a famous English doctor, surgeon and the father of antiseptic, that is, sterile surgery. He introduced carbolic acid to sterilize surgical instruments, to clean wounds, and to clean the hands of the surgeon. His work reduced gangrene and other infections and made surgery safer for patients.At this time wounds often became infected after surgery, which led to death. French chemist Louis Pasteur had proved that rotting and fermentation were caused by microorganisms. While professor of surgery at the University of Glasgow, Scotland, Doctor Lister showed that gangrene, the rotting of human flesh, could be prevented by cleaning wounds with carbolic acid. This was the first antiseptic treatment for wounds. Like Ignaz Semmelweis, Doctor Lister noticed that babies delivered by midwives had a better survival rate than babies delivered by surgeons, because midwives washed their hands often. He also had surgeons wash their hands before and after a surgery using a solution of carbolic acid, and wear clean gloves. He used carbolic acid to sterilize medical instruments and the surgery. Lister made surgery safer and improved the infant survival rate. His work finally convinced the worldwide medical community of the germ theory of infection, discovered by Ignaz Semmelweis.Doctor Lister showed that aseptic surgery made many types of operations successful. He operated on a brain tumor, repaired kneecaps with metal wire and improved mastectomies. He was a popular lecturer and president of the Royal Society. After the death of his wife Agnes, who was his lifetime partner in his laboratory, Lister retired from medicine. In 1879 Listerine mouthwash was named after him for his work in antisepsis. Also named in his honour is the bacterial genus Listeria. He received fame and honor during his lifetime, and was made a baron. He died in his home at the age of 84.8-Elizabeth BlackwellElizabeth Blackwell, 1821 – 1910, was the first female doctor in the United States. She founded medical schools and supported women in medicine, the anti-slavery movement and the women's rights movement. Blackwell was born in England, one of nine children in a Quaker family where the daughters received a good education at home. After the family emigrated to the United States, she taught school in Kentucky to pay for medical training. She studied medicine privately under several physicians, and was admitted, by mistake, to Geneva College in New York. In spite of much prejudice, in 1849 she became the first woman to earn a medical degree in the United States, and graduated first in her class.In 1857, Doctor Blackwell along with her sister Emily and Dr. Marie Zakrzewska, founded the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children. During the American Civil War, Blackwell trained many women to be nurses for the Union Army. In 1868 she established a Women's Medical College for women, physicians, and doctors. She opened the first training school for nurses in the United States in 1873. She also was the first woman to be registered in England as a doctor. Returning to England, she founded the Women's Medical College with Florence Nightingale. Doctor Blackwell remained an active teacher, lecturer and author until she died in 1910 at her home in England after a stroke.9-Frederick BantingFrederick Banting, 1891-1941, was a Canadian doctor and scientist. Working with Dr. John Macleod, he discovered insulin, which is used to treat diabetes.At college, he transferred from divinity studies to medicine. After graduation he served with the Canadian Army Medical Corps in France in WWI. He was wounded and received the Military Cross for heroism under fire. Back in Toronto, Doctor Banting set up a general practice, and also taught medicine.It was generally known that diabetes was the buildup of sugar in the blood caused by the lack of insulin, a protein secreted by the pancreas. Banting devised a successful procedure to extract insulin from the pancreas. In 1923, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this work, which he shared with Dr. Macleod.In Toronto, he founded the Banting and Best Institute, where he studied silicosis, cancer, drowning and blackout of high-altitude airplane pilots. He has received many awards and honors, including knighthood. The Banting crater on the moon was named for him. Banting was portrayed by Jason Priestley in the film Above and Beyond.Twice married, father of one child and an enthusiastic painter, Doctor Banting died in a plane crash. A CBC public survey in 2004 named him one of the top 10 "Greatest Canadians."10-Charles DrewCharles R. Drew, 1904 - 1950, was a prominent African American doctor during the period of segregation in the United States. He is recognized for his work in the field of blood transfusions.The death of his sister Elsie during a flu pandemic influenced his decision to study medicine. Doctor Drew received his MD degree in 1933 and became instructor in pathology, then an instructor in surgery and an assistant surgeon. He studied blood preservation techniques, and received his Doctor of Science in Surgery from Columbia University, New York.During World War II, Doctor Drew organized the Blood for Britain project, a prototype blood bank to collect, test, store and send U.S. blood plasma to aid Britain. The successful program continued for five months and recruited 15,000 donors. Drew opposed the practice of segregating blood by the race of the donor, on the basis of scientific search. As a result, he lost his job. However, in 1943, he was appointed to serve as an examiner on the American Board of Surgery, the first black surgeon to do so.Doctor Drew worked in research and teaching at Freedman's Hospital, Morgan State University, Montreal General and Howard University. He died in 1946 from injuries sustained in an automobile accident, leaving behind his wife and four children.11- Alexander FlemingAlexander Fleming, 1881 – 1955, was a Scottish biologist and pharmacologist. He is famous for his discovery of the antibiotic penicillin. Penicillin changed the course of medicine. It was the life-saving drug that conquered syphilis, gangrene and tuberculosis.By chance, Fleming discovered the anti-bacterial lysozyme, a natural substance found in tears and the nose that helps the body fight germs. He noticed that his own nasal mucus dripped onto a petri dish and killed the bacteria. Penicillin, the most effective life-saving drug in the world, was also discovered accidentally. While Fleming was on vacation, a mold had grown and destroyed the bacteria on a Petri dish in his lab. Fleming's discoveries are substances that can kill bacteria but not adversely affect the human body. Fleming was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945.12-Virginia ApgarVirginia Apgar, 1909 – 1974, was a famous American doctor who founded the field of neonatology for the care of newborn infants, especially the ill or premature newborn. She was a leader in the fields of anesthesiology and teratology, the study of developmental defects. She developed the Apgar test to assess the health of babies immediately at birth and to study the effects of obstetric anesthesia on babies. Her work reduced worldwide infant mortality.Doctor Apgar graduated from Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons. After her residency in surgery, she trained in anesthesia and became director of the division of anesthesia at Columbia. At a time when she and women in general were discouraged from a career as a physician, she was the first woman in the positions she held. She published more than 60 scientific papers and articles and books for the general public.The Apgar test she invented was the first test made for newborn health. The test scores the health of the newborn baby on the basis of 5 observable criteria, Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration. Her name Apgar also became a mnemonic word based on these five criteria. The Apgar score indicates if a newborn needs immediate medical care. It is easily administered by trained observation.

Donald John Trump born (14-June-1946) and raised in the New York City borough of Queens. He is the 45th and current President of the United States Of America. Before entering politics, he was a businessman and television personality but before we dive into “how he became wealthy ?” a little bit of background.Trump's paternal grandfather, Frederick Trump, first immigrated to the United States in 1885 at the age of 16 and became a citizen in 1892. He amassed a fortune operating boomtown restaurants and boarding houses in the Seattle area and the Klondike region of Canada during its gold rush. On a visit to Kallstadt, he met Elisabeth Christ and married her in 1902. The couple permanently settled in New York in 1905. Frederick died from influenza during the 1918 pandemic. Trump’s father Fred Trump started working with his mother in real estate when he was only 15, shortly after his father's death. Their company, "E. Trump & Son", founded in 1923, was primarily active in the New York boroughs of Queens and Brooklyn. Fred Trump eventually built and sold thousands of houses, barracks, and apartments. In 1971, Donald Trump was made the president of the company, which was later renamed as the Trump Organization. Trump's mother Mary Anne MacLeod was born in Tong, Lewis, Scotland. At age 18 in 1930, she immigrated to New York, where she worked as a maid. Fred Trump and Mary Anne MacLeod married in 1936 and raised their family in Queens.Education-: Initially Trump attended the Kew-Forest School from kindergarten through seventh grade. At age 13, he was enrolled in the New York Military Academy, a private boarding school, after his parents discovered that he had made frequent trips into Manhattan without their permission.In 1964, Trump enrolled at Fordham University. After two years, he was transferred to the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. While at Wharton, he worked at the family business, Elizabeth Trump & Son.He graduated in May 1968 with a Bachelor of Science degree in economics.Business Career-:In 1968, Trump began his career at his father Fred's real estate development company, E. Trump & Son, which, among other interests, owned middle-class rental housing in New York City's outer boroughs. Trump worked for his father to revitalize the Swifton Village apartment complex in Cincinnati, Ohio, which the elder Trump had bought in 1964. The management of the property was sued for racial discrimination in 1969; the suit "was quietly settled at Fred Trump's direction."The Trumps sold the property in 1972, with a vacancy on the rise. When his father became chairman of the board in 1971, Trump was promoted to president of the company and renamed it The Trump Organization.Manhattan Developments-:In 1978, Trump launched his Manhattan real estate business by purchasing a 50 percent stake in the derelict Commodore Hotel, located next to Grand Central Terminal. The purchase was funded largely by a $70 million construction loan that was guaranteed jointly by Fred Trump and the Hyatt hotel chain. When the remodeling was finished, the hotel reopened in 1980 as the Grand Hyatt Hotel.The same year, Trump obtained the rights to develop Trump Tower, a 58-story, 664-foot-high (202 m) skyscraper in Midtown Manhattan.In 1980, repairs began on Central Park's Wollman Rink, with an anticipated two-and-a-half year construction time frame. Because of design flaws and numerous other construction problems, the project remained unfinished by May 1986. In June the same year rump was awarded a contract as the general contractor to finish the repairs by December 15 with a cost ceiling of $3 million, with the actual costs to be reimbursed by the city. Trump hired an architect, a construction company, and a Canadian ice-rink manufacturer and completed the work in four months, $775,000 under budget. Trump managed the rink from 1987 to 1995.In 1994, Trump's company refurbished the Gulf and Western Building on Columbus Circle with design and structural enhancements turning it into a 44-story luxury residential and hotel property known as Trump International Hotel and Tower.From 1994 to 2002, Trump owned a 50 percent share of the Empire State Building. He intended to rename it "Trump Empire State Building Tower Apartments" if he had been able to boost his share.In 1996, Trump acquired the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building, which was a vacant seventy-one story skyscraper on Wall Street. After an extensive renovation, the high-rise was renamed the Trump Building at 40 Wall Street.In 1997, he began construction on Riverside South, which he dubbed Trump Place, a multi-building development along the Hudson River. He and the other investors in the project ultimately sold their interest for $1.8 billion in 2005 in what was then the biggest residential sale in the history of New York City.In 1988 Trump acquired the Plaza Hotel in Manhattan for $407 million and appointed his wife Ivana to manage its operations. They sold it in 1995He received another contract in 2001 which was extended until 2021In 2001, Trump completed Trump World Tower.In 2002, Trump acquired the former Hotel Delmonico, which was renovated and reopened in 2004 as the Trump Park Avenue; the building consisted of 35 stories of luxury condominiums.Palm Beach Estate-:In 1985, Trump acquired the Mar-a-Lago estate in Palm Beach, Florida, for $10 million, $7 million for the real estate and $3 million for the furnishings. His initial offer of $28 million had been rejected, and he was able to obtain the property for the lower price after a real-estate market "slump".In addition to using a wing of the estate as a home, Trump turned Mar-a-Lago into a private club. To join, prospective members had to pay an initiation fee and annual dues. The initiation fee was $100,000 until 2016; it was doubled to $200,000 in January 2017.Atlanta City Casino-:After New Jersey legalized casino gambling in 1977, Trump went to Atlantic City to explore new business opportunities. Seven years later, he opened Harrah's at Trump Plaza hotel and casino; the project was built by Trump with financing from the Holiday Corporation who also managed its operation. It was renamed "Trump Plaza" soon after it opened. The casino's poor financial results exacerbated disagreements between Trump and Holiday Corp., which led to Trump's paying $70 million in May 1986 to buy out their interest in the property.Trump also acquired a partially completed building in Atlantic City from the Hilton Corporation for $320 million; when completed in 1985, that hotel and casino became Trump Castle,Trump acquired his third casino in Atlantic City, the Taj Mahal, in 1988 while it was under construction, through a complex transaction with Merv Griffin and Resorts International. It was completed at a cost of $1.1 billion and opened in April 1990. The project was financed with $675 million in junk bonds and was a major gamble by Trump. The project underwent debt restructuring the following year, leaving Trump with 50 percent ownership. Facing "enormous debt", he sold his airline, Trump Shuttle, and his 282-foot (86 m) mega yacht, the Trump Princess, which had been indefinitely docked in Atlantic City while leased to his casinos for use by wealthy gamblersIn 1995, Trump founded Trump Hotels & Casino Resorts (THCR), which assumed ownership of Trump Plaza, Trump Castle, and the Trump Casino in Gary, Indiana.THCR purchased Taj Mahal in 1996 and underwent bankruptcy restructuring in 2004 and 2009, leaving Trump with 10 percent ownership in the Trump Taj Mahal and other Trump casino properties. Trump remained chairman of THCR until 2009.Golf Courses-:Trump began acquiring and constructing golf courses in 1999; his first property was the Trump International Golf Club, West Palm Beach in Florida.By 2007, he owned four courses around the U.S.Following the financial crisis of 2007–2008, he began purchasing existing golf courses and re-designing themAs of December 2016, the Trump Organization owns or operates 18 golf courses and golf resorts in the United States and abroad. According to Trump's FEC personal financial disclosure, his 2015 golf and resort revenue amounted to $382 million, while his three European golf courses did not show a profit.Bankruptcies-:Trump has never filed for personal bankruptcy, but his hotel and casino businesses have been declared bankrupt six times between 1991 and 2009 in order to re-negotiate debt with banks and owners of stock and bonds. Because the businesses used Chapter 11 bankruptcy, they were allowed to operate while negotiations proceeded. Trump was quoted by Newsweek in 2011 saying, "I do play with the bankruptcy laws – they're very good for me" as a tool for trimming debt.The six bankruptcies were the result of over-leveraged hotel and casino businesses in Atlantic City and New York:Trump Taj Mahal (1991).Trump Plaza Hotel and Casino (1992),.Plaza Hotel (1992).Trump Castle Hotel and Casino (1992).Trump Hotels and Casino Resorts (2004).Trump Entertainment Resorts (2009).Side Ventures-:After Trump took over the family real estate firm in 1971 and renamed it The Trump Organization, he expanded its real estate operations and ventured into other business activities. The company eventually became the umbrella organization for several hundred individual business ventures and partnerships.Sports-:In September 1983, Trump purchased the New Jersey Generals—an American football team that played in the United States Football League (USFL).He hosted several boxing matches at the Trump Plaza in Atlantic City, including Mike Tyson's 1988 heavyweight championship fight against Michael Spinks. He also acted as a financial advisor to Mike Tyson.In 1989 and 1990, Trump lent his name to the Tour de Trump cycling stage race, which was an attempt to create an American equivalent of European races such as the Tour de France or the Giro d'Italia.Trump also operates golf courses in several countries.Miss Universe-:From 1996 to 2015, Trump owned part or all of the Miss Universe pageants. The pageants include Miss USA and Miss Teen USA. His management of this business involved his family members—daughter Ivanka once hosted Miss Teen USA. He became dissatisfied with how CBS scheduled the pageants and took both Miss Universe and Miss USA to NBC in 2002.Trump University-:Trump University was a for-profit education company that was founded by Trump and his associates, Michael Sexton and Jonathan Spitalny. The company ran a real estate training program and charged between $1,500 and $35,000 per course.In 2005, New York State authorities notified the operation that its use of the word"university" was misleading and violated state law. After a second such notification in 2010, the name of the company was changed to the "Trump Entrepreneurial Institute".Trump was also found personally liable for failing to obtain a business license for the operation. Ronald Schnackenberg, a sales manager for Trump University, said in a testimony that he was reprimanded for not trying harder to sell a $35,000 real estate class to a couple who could not afford it. Schnackenberg said that he believed "Trump University was a fraudulent scheme" which "preyed upon the elderly and uneducated to separate them from their money."In 2013, New York State filed a $40 million civil suit against Trump University; the suit alleged that the company made false statements and defrauded consumers. Also, two class-action civil lawsuits were filed in federal court relating to Trump University; they named Trump personally as well as his companies.During the presidential campaign, Trump criticized presiding Judge Gonzalo P. Curiel, alleging bias in his rulings because of his Mexican heritage. Shortly after Trump won the presidency, the parties agreed to a settlement of all three pending cases, whereby Trump paid a total of $25 million and denied any wrongdoing.Foundation-:The Donald J. Trump Foundation is a U.S.-based private foundation that was established in 1988 for the initial purpose of giving away proceeds from the book Trump: The Art of the Deal. The foundation's funds have mostly come from donors other than Trump, who has not given personally to the charity since 2008. The foundation's tax returns show that it has given to health care and sports-related charities, as well as conservative groups. In 2009, for example, the foundation gave $926,750 to about 40 groups, with the biggest donations going to the Arnold Palmer Medical Center Foundation ($100,000), the New York-Presbyterian Hospital ($125,000), the Police Athletic League ($156,000), and the Clinton Foundation ($100,000). From 2004 to 2014, the top donors to the foundation were Vince and Linda McMahon of WWE, who donated $5 million to the foundation after Trump appeared at WrestleMania in 2007. Trump later named Linda McMahon as Administrator of the Small Business Administration. In 2016, The Washington Post reported that the charity had committed several potential legal and ethical violations, including alleged self-dealing and possible tax evasion. Also in 2016, the New York State Attorney General's office notified the Trump Foundation that the foundation appeared to be in violation of New York laws regarding charities, ordering it to immediately cease its fundraising activities in New York. A Trump spokesman called the Attorney General's investigation a "partisan hit job".In response to mounting complaints, Trump's team announced in late December 2016 that the Trump Foundation would be dissolved to remove "even the appearance of any conflict with [his] role as President."According to an IRS filing in November 2017, the foundation intended to shut down and distribute its assets (about $970,000) to other charities. However, the New York Attorney General's office had to complete their ongoing investigation before the foundation could legally shut down, and in June 2018 they filed a civil suit against the foundation for $2.8 million in restitution and additional penalties.The suit names Trump himself as well as his adult children Donald Jr., Eric, and Ivanka.Wealth-:Trump is the beneficiary of several trust funds set up by his father and paternal grandmother beginning in 1949. In 1976, Fred Trump set up trust funds of $1 million (equivalent to $4.3 million in 2017) for each of his five children and three grandchildren; Donald Trump received annual payments from his trust fund, for example, $90,000 in 1980 and $214,605 in 1981. By 1993, when Trump took two loans totaling $30 million from his siblings, their anticipated shares of Fred's fortune were $35 million each. Upon Fred Trump's death in 1999, his will divided $20 million after taxes (equivalent to $29.38 million in 2017) among his surviving children. Trump said that he began his career with "a small loan of one million dollars" from his father.He appeared on the initial Forbes 400 list of richest Americans in 1982 with an estimated $200 million fortune shared with his father.Former Forbes reporter Jonathan Greenberg stated in 2018 that during the 1980s Trump had deceived him about his actual net worth and his share of the family assets in order to appear on the list.Trump made the Forbes World's Billionaires list for the first time in 1989, but he was dropped from the Forbes 400 from 1990 to 1995 following business losses.In 2005, Deutsche Bank loan documents pegged Trump's net worth at $788 million, while Forbes quoted $2.6 billion and journalist Tim O'Brien gave a range of $150 million to $250 million.In its 2018 billionaires ranking, Forbes estimated Trump's net worth at $3.1 billion(766th in the world, 248th in the U.S.)making him one of the richest politicians in American history.When he filed mandatory financial disclosure forms with the Federal Elections Commission (FEC) in July 2015, Trump claimed a net worth of about $10 billion;however, FEC figures cannot corroborate this estimate because they only show each of his largest buildings as being worth "over $50 million", yielding total assets worth more than $1.4 billion and debt over $265 million. Trump reported a yearly income of $362 million for 2014 and $611 million from January 2015 to May 2016.A 2016 analysis of Trump's business career by The Economist concluded that his performance since 1985 had been "mediocre compared with the stock market and property in New York".A subsequent analysis by The Washington Post concluded that "Trump is a mix of braggadocio, business failures, and real success"