Change Of Schedule Form - Elizabeth City State University: Fill & Download for Free

46 Famous Movie Scenes before and after Special EffectsBack in the day, filmmakers used matte paintings, miniature models and trick photography to achieve impossible looking cinematic effects. Today, Hollywood has nearly perfected the art and application of computer-generated imagery (CGI) in movies and TV shows. In fact, most film scenes that you think are filmed in spectacular locations are actually CGI composites shot in a studio. Here’s a list of 46 before-and-after CGI images that’ll leave you amazed.The AvengersMarvel's The Avengers (classified under the name Marvel Avengers Assemble in the United Kingdom and Ireland), or simply The Avengers, is a 2012 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team of the same name, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sixth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was written and directed by Joss Whedon and features an ensemble cast that includes Robert Downey Jr., Chris Evans, Mark Ruffalo, Chris Hemsworth, Scarlett Johansson, and Jeremy Renner as the titular Avengers team, alongside Tom Hiddleston, Clark Gregg, Cobie Smulders, Stellan Skarsgård, and Samuel L. Jackson. In the film, Nick Fury, director of the peacekeeping organization S.H.I.E.L.D., recruits Tony Stark, Captain America, the Hulk, and Thor to form a team that must stop Thor's brother Loki from subjugating Earth.The film's development began when Marvel Studios received a loan from Merrill Lynch in April 2005. After the success of the film Iron Man in May 2008, Marvel announced that The Avengers would be released in July 2011. With the signing of Johansson in March 2009, the film was pushed back for a 2012 release. Whedon was brought on board in April 2010 and rewrote the original screenplay by Zak Penn. Production began in April 2011 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, before moving to Cleveland, Ohio, in August and New York City in September. The film was converted to 3D in post-production.AvatarAvatar, marketed as James Cameron's Avatar, is a 2009 American epic science fiction film directed, written, produced, and co-edited by James Cameron, and starring Sam Worthington, Zoe Saldana, Stephen Lang, Michelle Rodriguez, and Sigourney Weaver. The film is set in the mid-22nd century, when humans are colonizing Pandora, a lush habitable moon of a gas giant in the Alpha Centauri star system, in order to mine the mineral unobtanium, a room-temperature superconductor. The expansion of the mining colony threatens the continued existence of a local tribe of Na'vi – a humanoid species indigenous to Pandora. The film's title refers to a genetically engineered Na'vi body with the mind of a remotely located human that is used to interact with the natives of Pandora.Development of Avatar began in 1994, when Cameron wrote an 80-page treatment for the film. Filming was supposed to take place after the completion of Cameron's 1997 film Titanic, for a planned release in 1999, but, according to Cameron, the necessary technology was not yet available to achieve his vision of the film. Work on the language of the film's extraterrestrial beings began in 2005, and Cameron began developing the screenplay and fictional universe in early 2006. Avatar was officially budgeted at $237 million. Other estimates put the cost between $280 million and $310 million for production and at $150 million for promotion.[19][20][21] The film made extensive use of new motion capture filming techniques, and was released for traditional viewing, 3D viewing (using the RealD 3D, Dolby 3D, XpanD 3D, and IMAX 3D formats), and for "4D" experiences in select South Korean theaters. The stereoscopic filmmaking was touted as a breakthrough in cinematic technology.Alice in WonderlandAlice in Wonderland is a 2010 American fantasy adventure film directed by Tim Burton from a screenplay written by Linda Woolverton. The film stars Johnny Depp, Anne Hathaway, Helena Bonham Carter, Crispin Glover, Matt Lucas and Mia Wasikowska, and features the voices of Alan Rickman, Stephen Fry, Michael Sheen, and Timothy Spall. Based on Lewis Carroll's fantasy novels, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass, the film tells the story of a nineteen-year-old Alice Kingsleigh, who is told that she can restore the White Queen to her throne, with the help of the Mad Hatter. She is the only one who can slay the Jabberwock, a dragon-like creature that is controlled by the Red Queen and terrorizes Underland's inhabitants.The film was produced by Walt Disney Pictures and shot in the United Kingdom and the United States. The film premiered in London at the Odeon Leicester Square on February 25, 2010, and was released in Australia on March 4, 2010, and the following day in the United Kingdom and the United States through the Disney Digital 3D, RealD 3D, and IMAX 3D formats as well as in conventional theaters. It is also the second-highest-grossing film of 2010.Boardwalk EmpireBoardwalk Empire is an American period crime drama television series created by Terence Winter and broadcast on premium cable channel HBO. The series is set in Atlantic City, New Jersey, during the Prohibition era and stars Steve Buscemi as Nucky Thompson. Winter, a Primetime Emmy Award-winning screenwriter and producer, created the show, inspired by the book Boardwalk Empire: The Birth, High Times, and Corruption of Atlantic City by Nelson Johnson about historical criminal kingpin Enoch L. Johnson.The pilot episode was directed by Martin Scorsese and produced at a cost of $18 million. On September 1, 2009, HBO picked up the series for an additional 11 episodes. The series premiered on September 19, 2010, and completed its five-season run on October 26, 2014.Captain AmericaCaptain America is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by cartoonists Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in Captain America Comics #1 (cover dated March 1941) from Timely Comics, a predecessor of Marvel Comics. Captain America was designed as a patriotic supersoldier who often fought the Axis powers of World War II and was Timely Comics' most popular character during the wartime period. The popularity of superheroes waned following the war and the Captain America comic book was discontinued in 1950, with a short-lived revival in 1953. Since Marvel Comics revived the character in 1964, Captain America has remained in publication.The character wears a costume bearing an American flag motif, and he utilizes a nearly indestructible shield which he throws as a projectile. Captain America is the alter ego of Steve Rogers, a frail young man enhanced to the peak of human perfection by an experimental serum to aid the United States government's efforts in World War II. Near the end of the war, he was trapped in ice and survived in suspended animation until he was revived in the present day. Although Captain America often struggles to maintain his ideals as a man out of his time with its modern realities, he remains a highly respected figure in his community which includes becoming the long-time leader of the Avengers.Deadly HoneymoonA wealthy couple take a honeymoon cruise in Tahiti, but the husband disappears without trace. The captain asks an FBI agent on holiday to investigate, believing he may have been murdered. Suspicion falls on his wife, who may have objected to his infidelities, but also a trio of Hungarian gamblers with shady secrets.District 9District 9 is a 2009 science fiction action horror film directed by Neill Blomkamp, written by Blomkamp and Terri Tatchell, and produced by Peter Jackson and Carolynne Cunningham. It is a co-production of New Zealand, the United States, and South Africa. The film stars Sharlto Copley, Jason Cope, and David James, and was adapted from Blomkamp's 2006 short film Alive in Joburg.The film is partially presented in a found footage format by featuring fictional interviews, news footage, and video from surveillance cameras. The story, which explores themes of humanity, xenophobia, and social segregation, begins in an alternate 1982, when an alien ship appears over Johannesburg, South Africa. When a population of sick and malnourished insect-like aliens is found aboard the ship, the South African government confines them to an internment camp called District 9. Years later, during the government's relocation of the aliens to another camp, one of the confined aliens named Christopher Johnson tries to escape with his son and return home, crossing paths with a bureaucrat named Wikus van der Merwe. The title and premise of District 9 were inspired by events in District Six, Cape Town, during the apartheid era.Game of ThronesGame of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss. It is an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire, George R. R. Martin's series of fantasy novels, the first of which is A Game of Thrones. It is filmed in Belfast and elsewhere in the United Kingdom, Canada, Croatia, Iceland, Malta, Morocco, Spain, and the United States. The series premiered on HBO in the United States on April 17, 2011, and its seventh season ended on August 27, 2017. The series will conclude with its eighth season premiering in 2019.Set on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos, Game of Thrones has several plot lines and a large ensemble cast but centers on three primary story arcs. The first story arc centers on the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms and follows a web of alliances and conflicts among the dynastic noble families either vying to claim the throne or fighting for independence from the throne. The second story arc focuses on the last descendant of the realm's deposed ruling dynasty, exiled and plotting a return to the throne. The third story arc centers on the longstanding brotherhood charged with defending the realm against the ancient threats of the fierce peoples and legendary creatures that lie far north, and an impending winter that threatens the realm.GravityGravity is a 2013 science fiction thriller film directed, co-written, co-edited, and produced by Alfonso Cuarón. It stars Sandra Bullock and George Clooney as American astronauts who are stranded in space after the mid-orbit destruction of their space shuttle, and their subsequent attempt to return to Earth.Cuarón wrote the screenplay with his son Jonás and attempted to develop the film at Universal Pictures. Later, the distribution rights were acquired by Warner Bros. Pictures. David Heyman, who previously worked with Cuarón on Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004), produced the film with him. Gravity was produced entirely in the United Kingdom, where British visual effects company Framestore spent more than three years creating most of the film's visual effects, which make up over 80 of its 91 minutes.Grey’s AnatomyGrey's Anatomy is an American medical drama television series that premiered on March 27, 2005, on American Broadcasting Company (ABC) as a mid-season replacement. The fictional series focuses on the lives of surgical interns, residents, and attending physicians, as they develop into seasoned doctors while trying to maintain personal lives and relationships. The title is a play on Gray's Anatomy, a classic human anatomy textbook first published in 1858 in London and written by Henry Gray. Shonda Rhimes developed the pilot and continues to write for the series; she is also one of the executive producers, along with Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Krista Vernoff, Rob Corn, Mark Wilding, and Allan Heinberg. Although the series is set in Seattle (at the fictional Seattle Grace, later known as the Grey-Sloan Memorial Hospital), it is filmed primarily in Los Angeles, California.The series was designed to be racially diverse and used color-blind casting. It revolves around the title character, Dr. Meredith Grey, played by Ellen Pompeo, first featured as an intern. The original cast consisted of nine star-billed actors: Pompeo, Sandra Oh, Katherine Heigl, Justin Chambers, T. R. Knight, Chandra Wilson, James Pickens Jr., Isaiah Washington and Patrick Dempsey. The cast has undergone major changes through the series' run, with many members leaving and being replaced by others. In its fourteenth season, the show had a large ensemble of fourteen actors, including four characters from the original cast (Meredith Grey, Alex Karev, Miranda Bailey, and Richard Webber).The HobbitThe Hobbit is a film series consisting of three high fantasy adventure films directed by Peter Jackson. They are based on the 1937 novel The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien, with large portions of the trilogy inspired by the appendices to The Return of the King, which expand on the story told in The Hobbit, as well as new material and characters written especially for the films. Together they act as a prequel to Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. The films are subtitled An Unexpected Journey (2012), The Desolation of Smaug (2013), and The Battle of the Five Armies (2014).The screenplay was written by Fran Walsh, Philippa Boyens, Jackson, and Guillermo del Toro, who was originally chosen to direct before his departure from the project. The films take place in the fictional world of Middle-earth sixty years before the beginning of The Lord of the Rings, and follow hobbit Bilbo Baggins (Martin Freeman), who is convinced by the wizard Gandalf the Grey (Ian McKellen) to accompany thirteen dwarves, led by Thorin Oakenshield (Richard Armitage), on a quest to reclaim the Lonely Mountain from the dragon Smaug (voiced by Benedict Cumberbatch). The films also expand upon certain elements from the novel and other source material, such as Gandalf's investigation at Dol Guldur, and the pursuit of Azog and Bolg, who seek vengeance against Thorin and his ancestors.The Hunger GamesThe Hunger Games is a trilogy of young adult dystopian novels written by American novelist Suzanne Collins. The series is set in The Hunger Games universe, and follows young characters Katniss Everdeen and Peeta Mellark.The novels in the trilogy are titled The Hunger Games (2008), Catching Fire (2009), and Mockingjay (2010). The novels have all been developed into films starring Jennifer Lawrence, with the film adaptation of Mockingjay split into two parts. The first two books in the series were both New York Times best sellers, and Mockingjay topped all US bestseller lists upon its release. By the time the film adaptation of The Hunger Games was released in 2012, the publisher had reported over 26 million Hunger Games trilogy books in print, including movie tie-in books.Iron ManIron Man is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by writer and editor Stan Lee, developed by scripter Larry Lieber, and designed by artists Don Heck and Jack Kirby. The character made his first appearance in Tales of Suspense #39 (cover dated March 1963).A wealthy American business magnate, playboy, and ingenious scientist, Anthony Edward "Tony" Stark suffers a severe chest injury during a kidnapping. When his captors attempt to force him to build a weapon of mass destruction, he instead creates a powered suit of armor to save his life and escape captivity. Later, Stark develops his suit, adding weapons and other technological devices he designed through his company, Stark Industries. He uses the suit and successive versions to protect the world as Iron Man. Although at first concealing his true identity, Stark eventually declared that he was, in fact, Iron Man in a public announcement.Life of PiLife of Pi is a Canadian fantasy adventure novel by Yann Martel published in 2001. The protagonist is Piscine Molitor "Pi" Patel, an Indian boy from Pondicherry who explores issues of spirituality and practicality from an early age. He survives 227 days after a shipwreck while stranded on a lifeboat in the Pacific Ocean with a Bengal tiger named Richard Parker.The novel has sold more than ten million copies worldwide. It was rejected by at least five London publishing houses before being accepted by Knopf Canada, which published it in September 2001. The UK edition won the Man Booker Prize for Fiction the following year. It was also chosen for CBC Radio's Canada Reads 2003, where it was championed by author Nancy Lee.Man of SteelMan of Steel is a 2013 superhero film based on the DC Comics character Superman. It is a British-American venture produced by Legendary Pictures, DC Entertainment, Syncopy Inc., and Cruel and Unusual Films, and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is the first installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU). The film is directed by Zack Snyder written by David S. Goyer, and stars Henry Cavill, Amy Adams, Michael Shannon, Kevin Costner, Diane Lane, Laurence Fishburne, Antje Traue, Ayelet Zurer, Christopher Meloni, and Russell Crowe. Man of Steel is a reboot of the Superman film series that retells the character's origin story. In the film, Clark Kent learns that he is a superpowered alien from the planet Krypton and assumes the role of mankind's protector as Superman, but finds himself having to prevent General Zod from destroying humanity.Development began in 2008, when Warner Bros. took pitches from comic book writers, screenwriters, and directors, opting to reboot the franchise. In 2009, a court ruling resulted in Jerry Siegel's family recapturing the rights to Superman's origins and Siegel's copyright. The decision stated that Warner Bros. did not owe the families additional royalties from previous films, but if they did not begin production on a Superman film by 2011, then the Shuster and Siegel estates would be able to sue for lost revenue on an unproduced film. Producer Christopher Nolan pitched Goyer's idea after story discussion on The Dark Knight Rises, and Snyder was hired as the film's director in October 2010. Principal photography began in August 2011 in West Chicago, Illinois, before moving to Vancouver and Plano, Illinois.Oz the Great and PowerfulOz the Great and Powerful is a 2013 American fantasy adventure film directed by Sam Raimi and produced by Joe Roth, from a screenplay written by David Lindsay-Abaire and Mitchell Kapner. The film stars James Franco, Michelle Williams, Rachel Weisz and Mila Kunis, with Zach Braff, Bill Cobbs, Joey King, and Tony Cox in supporting roles. Based on L. Frank Baum's Oz novels and set 20 years before the events of the original novel, Oz the Great and Powerful is a spiritual prequel to the 1939 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film, The Wizard of Oz. The film tells the story of Oscar Diggs, a deceptive magician who arrives in the Land of Oz and encounters three witches: Theodora, Evanora, and Glinda. Oscar is then enlisted to restore order in Oz, while struggling to resolve conflicts with the witches and himself.Kapner began developing an origin story for the Wizard of Oz after a lifelong interest of wanting to create one for the character. Walt Disney Pictures commissioned the film's production in 2009, with Joe Roth as producer and Grant Curtis, Joshua Donen, Philip Steuer, and Palak Patel serving as executive producers. Raimi was hired to direct the following year. After Robert Downey Jr. and Johnny Depp declined the titular role, Franco was cast in February 2011, with principal photography commencing five months later. Danny Elfman composed the film's score.Pirates of the CaribbeanPirates of the Caribbean is a Disney media franchise encompassing numerous theme park attractions, a series of films, and spin-off novels, as well as a number of related video games and other media publications. The franchise originated with the Pirates of the Caribbean theme ride attraction, which opened at Disneyland in 1967 and was one of the last Disney theme park attractions overseen by Walt Disney. Disney based the ride on pirate legends and folklore. As of October 2016, Pirates of the Caribbean attractions can be found at five Disney theme parks. Their related films have grossed over US$ 3.7 billion worldwide as of January 2015,[1] putting the film franchise 11th in the list of all-time highest grossing franchises and film series.Rise of the Planet of the ApesRise of the Planet of the Apes is a 2011 American science fiction film directed by Rupert Wyatt and starring James Franco, Freida Pinto, John Lithgow, Brian Cox, Tom Felton, David Oyelowo, and Andy Serkis. Written by Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver, it is 20th Century Fox's reboot of the Planet of the Apes series, intended to act as an origin story for a new series of films. Its premise is similar to the fourth film in the original series, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes (1972), but it is not a direct remake of that film.Rise of the Planet of the Apes was released on August 5, 2011, to critical and commercial success. The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects. It was also nominated for five Saturn Awards including Best Director for Wyatt and Best Writing for Jaffa and Silver, winning Best Science Fiction Film, Best Supporting Actor for Serkis and Best Special Effects. Serkis's performance as Caesar was widely acclaimed, earning him many nominations from associations which do not usually recognize performance capture as traditional acting. A sequel to the film, Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, was released on July 11, 2014, and a third film, War for the Planet of the Apes, was released on July 14, 2017.The Dark Knight RisesThe Dark Knight Rises is a 2012 superhero film directed by Christopher Nolan, who co-wrote the screenplay with his brother Jonathan Nolan, and the story with David S. Goyer.[5] Featuring the DC Comics character Batman, the film is the final installment in Nolan's The Dark Knight Trilogy, and the sequel to The Dark Knight (2008). Christian Bale reprises the lead role of Bruce Wayne/Batman, with a returning cast of allies: Michael Caine as Alfred Pennyworth, Gary Oldman as James Gordon, and Morgan Freeman as Lucius Fox. The film introduces Selina Kyle (Anne Hathaway) and Bane (Tom Hardy). Eight years after the events of The Dark Knight, merciless revolutionary Bane forces an older Bruce Wayne to resume his role as Batman and save Gotham City from nuclear destruction.Christopher Nolan was hesitant about returning to the series for a second time, but agreed after developing a story with his brother and Goyer that he felt would conclude the series on a satisfactory note. Nolan drew inspiration from Bane's comic book debut in the 1993 "Knightfall" storyline, the 1986 series The Dark Knight Returns, and the 1999 storyline "No Man's Land". Filming took place from May to November 2011 in locations including Jodhpur, London, Nottingham, Glasgow, Los Angeles, New York City, Newark, and Pittsburgh. Nolan used IMAX 70 mm film cameras for much of the filming, including the first six minutes of the film, to optimize the quality of the picture. A vehicle variation of the Batplane and Batcopter termed the "Bat", an underground prison set, and a new Batcave set were created specifically for the film. As with The Dark Knight, viral marketing campaigns began early during production. When filming concluded, Warner Bros. refocused its campaign: developing promotional websites, releasing the first six minutes of the film, screening theatrical trailers, and sending out information regarding the film's plot.The Dark KnightThe Dark Knight is a 2008 superhero film directed, produced, and co-written by Christopher Nolan. Featuring the DC Comics character Batman, the film is the second part of Nolan's The Dark Knight Trilogy and a sequel to 2005's Batman Begins, starring an ensemble cast including Christian Bale, Michael Caine, Heath Ledger, Gary Oldman, Aaron Eckhart, Maggie Gyllenhaal and Morgan Freeman. In the film, Bruce Wayne / Batman (Bale), Police Lieutenant James Gordon (Oldman) and District Attorney Harvey Dent (Eckhart) form an alliance to dismantle organized crime in Gotham City, but are menaced by a criminal mastermind known as the Joker (Ledger) who seeks to undermine Batman's influence and create chaos.Nolan's inspiration for the film was the Joker's comic book debut in 1940, the 1988 graphic novel The Killing Joke, and the 1996 series The Long Halloween, which retold Two-Face's origin. The "Dark Knight" nickname was first applied to Batman in Batman #1 (1940), in a story written by Bill Finger.[4][5] The Dark Knight was filmed primarily in Chicago, as well as in several other locations in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Hong Kong. Nolan used IMAX 70 mm film cameras to film some sequences, including the Joker's first appearance in the film. Warner Bros. initially created a viral marketing campaign for The Dark Knight, developing promotional websites and trailers highlighting screenshots of Ledger as the Joker. Ledger died on January 22, 2008, some months after the completed filming and six months before the film's release from a toxic combination of prescription drugs, leading to intense attention from the press and movie-going public.The Great GatsbyThe Great Gatsby is a 2013 romance drama film based on F. Scott Fitzgerald's 1925 novel of the same name. The film was co-written and directed by Baz Luhrmann and stars Leonardo DiCaprio as the eponymous Jay Gatsby, with Tobey Maguire, Carey Mulligan, Joel Edgerton, Isla Fisher and Elizabeth Debicki. Production began in 2011 and took place in Australia, with a $190 million budget. The film follows the life and times of millionaire Jay Gatsby and his neighbor Nick Carraway (Tobey Maguire), who recounts his encounter with Gatsby at the height of the Roaring Twenties in New York state.The film polarized critics, receiving both praise and criticism for its acting performances, soundtrack, visual style, and direction. Audiences responded more positively and Fitzgerald's granddaughter praised the film, stating "Scott would have been proud." As of 2017, it is Luhrmann's highest-grossing film, grossing over $353 million worldwide. At the 86th Academy Awards, the film won in both of its nominated categories: Best Production Design and Best Costume Design.The MatrixThe Matrix is a 1999 science fiction action film written and directed by The Wachowskis (credited as The Wachowski Brothers) and starring Keanu Reeves, Laurence Fishburne, Carrie-Anne Moss, Hugo Weaving, and Joe Pantoliano. It depicts a dystopian future in which reality as perceived by most humans is actually a simulated reality called "the Matrix", created by sentient machines to subdue the human population, while their bodies' heat and electrical activity are used as an energy source. Cybercriminal and computer programmer Neo learns this truth and is drawn into a rebellion against the machines, which involves other people who have been freed from the "dream world."The Matrix is known for popularizing a visual effect known as "bullet time", in which the heightened perception of certain characters is represented by allowing the action within a shot to progress in slow-motion while the camera's viewpoint appears to move through the scene at normal speed. The film is an example of the cyberpunk subgenre. It contains numerous references to philosophical and religious ideas, and prominently pays homage to works such as Plato's Allegory of the Cave, Jean Baudrillard's Simulacra and Simulation and Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. The Wachowskis' approach to action scenes drew upon their admiration for Japanese animation[8] and martial arts films, and the film's use of fight choreographers and wire fu techniques from Hong Kong action cinema influenced subsequent Hollywood action film productions.The Secret in Their EyesSecret in Their Eyes is a 2015 American psychological thriller film written and directed by Billy Ray and a remake of the 2009 Argentine film of the same name, both based on the novel La pregunta de sus ojos by author Eduardo Sacheri. The film stars Chiwetel Ejiofor, Nicole Kidman, Julia Roberts, Dean Norris, and Michael Kelly.The film was released by STXfilms on November 20, 2015. It received mixed reception from critics, who praised its performances but compared it unfavourably to the original.The Walking DeadThe Wolf of Wall StreetThe Wolf of Wall Street is a 2013 American biographical black comedy[3] directed by Martin Scorsese and written by Terence Winter, based on the memoir of the same name by Jordan Belfort. It recounts Belfort's perspective on his career as a stockbroker in New York City and how his firm Stratton Oakmont engaged in rampant corruption and fraud on Wall Street that ultimately led to his downfall. Leonardo DiCaprio (who was also a producer) stars as Belfort, with Jonah Hill as his business partner and friend Donnie Azoff, Margot Robbie as his wife Naomi Lapaglia and Kyle Chandler as Patrick Denham, the FBI agent who tries to bring him down. Matthew McConaughey, Rob Reiner, Jon Favreau, Joanna Lumley and Jean Dujardin also star. The film marks the director's fifth collaboration with DiCaprio, after Gangs of New York (2002), The Aviator (2004), The Departed (2006) and Shutter Island (2010), as well as his second collaboration with Winter after the television series Boardwalk Empire (2010–14).TransformersTransformers is a series of American science fiction fantasy action films based on the toys created by Hasbro and Tomy. Michael Bay has directed the first five films: Transformers (2007), Revenge of the Fallen (2009), Dark of the Moon (2011), Age of Extinction (2014) and The Last Knight (2017). A spin-off entitled Bumblebee: The Movie, directed by Travis Knight and produced by Michael Bay, is scheduled for December 21, 2018. The series has been distributed by Paramount Pictures and DreamWorks.The live-action film series has received mixed reception, with criticism of the plots, sophomoric humor, overuse of product placements and the lengths of the films, but praise of the visual effects, action sequences and music. It is the 11th-highest-grossing film series, with a total of $4.3 billion; two films in the series have individually grossed over $1 billion.The Twilight Saga: Breaking DawnThe Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 (commonly referred to as Breaking Dawn: Part 1) is a 2011 American romantic fantasy film directed by Bill Condon and based on the novel Breaking Dawn by Stephenie Meyer. The first part of a two-part film forms the fourth and penultimate installment in The Twilight Saga film series, and is the beginning of the 2012 film Breaking Dawn: Part 2. All three main cast members, Kristen Stewart, Robert Pattinson, and Taylor Lautner, reprised their roles.Wyck Godfrey and Karen Rosenfelt served as producers of the film, along with the author of the series, Stephenie Meyer; the screenplay was written by Melissa Rosenberg, the screenwriter of the first three entries. It was released in theaters on November 18, 2011, and released to DVD on February 11, 2012 in the United States. The film grossed over $712 million worldwide. Though the film gained predominantly negative critical reviews, it was a box office hit.300300 is a 2006 American epic war film based on the 1998 comic series 300 by Frank Miller and Lynn Varley. Both are fictionalized retellings of the Battle of Thermopylae within the Persian Wars. The film was directed by Zack Snyder, while Miller served as executive producer and consultant. It was filmed mostly with a super-imposition chroma key technique, to help replicate the imagery of the original comic book.The plot revolves around King Leonidas (Gerard Butler), who leads 300 Spartans into battle against the Persian "god-King" Xerxes (Rodrigo Santoro) and his invading army of more than 300,000 soldiers. As the battle rages, Queen Gorgo (Lena Headey) attempts to rally support in Sparta for her husband. The story is framed by a voice-over narrative by the Spartan soldier Dilios (David Wenham). Through this narrative technique, various fantastical creatures are introduced, placing 300 within the genre of historical fantasy.Sources: 46 Famous Movie Scenes Before And After Special Effects

Let’s start with my favourite ones : Engineers1. Leonardo da Vincida Vinci, by all accounts, was good at a few things - painting, sculpting, architecture, science, music, mathematics, engineering, invention, anatomy, geology, astronomy, botany, writing, history, and cartography. The usual. His engineering concepts were unfathomable at the time and still carry about an air of magic with them today - flying machines, a type of armoured fighting vehicle, concentrated solar power, an adding machine, and the double hull. Few of which were feasible then, but which are central to how we live today.2. Isambard Kingdom Brunel"One of the most ingenious and prolific figures in engineering history"; "one of the 19th century engineering giants"; and "one of the greatest figures of the Industrial Revolution" - it's hard to overestimate the impact Brunel had on the infrastructure of modern Britain. It's appropriate he's on a list on this site too, having given his name to a modern day university. His greatest achievement is the Great Western Railway, which operates to this day.3. ArchimedesThe greatest of all the classical engineers, Archimedes has influenced for all time the fields of maths, physics, engineering and astronomy. Though little is known about the precise details of his life, what he invented and discovered is not in doubt - the screw pump and compound pulleys can be attributed to him. The island of Syracuse, where he lived all his life, were also protected by various defense mechanisms of his design.4. George StephensonBorn in Wylam, Northumberland, we could easily have included his son Robert on this list, who was called the greatest engineer of the 19th Century and rests at Westminister Abbey. Stephenson senior gets the nod, however, for doing it all first - he built the first public inter city railway line between Liverpool and Manchester in 1830. His rail gauge is also still used the world over as the standard measurement for rail tracks, which will no doubt be of interest to some of you.5. Gustave EiffelCan you guess what landmark world structure this chap is famous for? Aside from the eponymous Parisian tower, Eiffel built various bridges for the French railway network before being commissioned to built the centrepiece for the 1889 Universal Exposition. After this, Eiffel didn't just let his good name carry him through life - he helped design the Statue of Liberty, and contributed greatly to the fields of meteorology and aerodynamics.6. Henry FordNot the inventor of the modern car, but one of the most astute engineers and industrialists of all time who founded the Ford Motor Company and the assembly line method of mass production. This meant that Ford was, to all intents and purposes, the founder of the first motor car that the average person could afford, turning automobiles from a curiosity into a necessity. It's a shame that he was also a publisher of anti-semitic material, otherwise he would be hugely admirable.7. Elon MuskEngineer, businessman, inventor, genius - four of the many labels oft attached to South African-born Canadian Musk. Founder of SpaceX - which will almost certainly be taking the average joe on holiday to space sooner rather than later - Tesla Motors - electric cars that actually, you know, work - and SolarCity, which provide solar panels for businesses all over the world. Remember the name, but then again, how could you forget one as unusual as that?8. Burt RutanAerospace engineering now, and one of the most original modern engineers. Rutan's aircraft were often peculiar looking, but have always proven light, strong, and energy efficient. His greatest achievements number Voyager - the first plane to fly non-stop around the world - and SpaceShipOne - the first privately funded spacecraft to make regular and succesful trips into sub-orbit. Honoured in the National Air and Space Museum, he is also honoured on our list.9. Steve WozniakFrom structural to electronic engineering, from the biggest buildings on earth to some of the smallest but most revolutionary technology of the past few decades. Wozniak, along with Steve Jobs, pioneered the 1970s personal computer revolution. He single handedly developed the Apple I, and was arguably the main component in the development of the truly revolutionary Apple II - he did the programming, Jobs did the case it came in.10. Fazlur Rahman KhanBorn in Dhaka - then of the British Raj, today capital of Bangladesh - can claim the title of father of the modern skyscraper. This structural engineer and architect came up with tubular designs that allowed for the easier constructions of the high rise structures we know today. Also one of the first to utilise computer aided design techniques, his gifts to the US include their second tallest building, the Willis Tower, and the John Hancock Centre (pictured) - sorry, Center. It is American after all.The most celebrated astronauts :1. Yuri GagarinAs the first man to space, no list of famous astronauts would be complete without the Soviet/ Russian born cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. In 1955, he was drafted into the Soviet Air Force and then landed to the Soviet Space Program due to his excellent flying record. He was soon selected for a special group known as the Sochi Six, from which the country would choose its first cosmonaut.2. Alan ShepardEdgar D. Mitchell, Alan B. Shepard Jr. (center), and Stuart A. RoosaIn the midst of the Cold War, Russia’s Sputnik 1 launch in 1957, shook the America’s confidence in its space and tech superiority over the Soviets. This was the first major move from either side during the Space Race. In response, the then U.S President Eisenhower formed NASA and gave them the go ahead to recruit their first astronauts from military ranks.Alan Bartlett Shepard Jr. was one of the first naval aviators who were recruited by NASA under the name of the Mercury Seven in 1959. In May 1961 he made the first manned Project Mercury flight, in flight Freedom 7. He became only the second person in the world, and the first American, to travel in space.3. Valentina TereshkovaValentina Tereshkova with Nikita Khrushchev, Pavel Popovich and Yury Gagarin at Lenin’s MausoleumAt the age of 80, the Russian born Valentina Tereshkova is the oldest astronaut alive on the Earth. She was also the first women into space, two years after Yuri Gagarin. Before becoming a cosmonaut, Tereshkova worked as an assembly worker in a local textile factory.She left the Soviet Space agency and became one of the well known faces of the Communist Party in the Soviet regime. From 1966 to 1991 she held various important legal offices. She remained politically active years after the collapse of the USSR and is regarded as a hero in Russia.4. Neil ArmstrongNeil Armstrong stands alongside X-15 -1Does this person need any formal introduction? I guess not. He is arguably the most famous astronauts, especially to kids who someday wants to become an astronaut. Born in 1930, in Wapakoneta, Ohio, Armstrong graduated from Purdue University and became a member of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics before becoming an astronaut.After the Mercury 7 program, NASA wanted to recruit a fresh line of astronauts, and that’s when Armstrong joined and became part of the Gemini program. On July 16th, 1969, Armstrong alongside “Buzz” Aldrin and Michael Collins, became the first astronauts to walk on the moon’s surface (except Michael Collins).5. Buzz AldrinBuzz Aldrin made a history in the field of human space exploration after becoming a part of the first crew to land on the Moon in 1969. As the Module Pilot on Apollo 11, he was the second person to walk on it after the commander Neil Armstrong.Before joining NASA, he was enlisted as a second lieutenant in the U.S Air Force and was deployed in the Korean peninsula during the Korean War. Three years before, the Lunar mission Aldrin went into orbit for the first time during the Gemini 12 mission, and achieved the first successful EVA without mishap.6. Sally Kristen RideSally Ride communicates with controllers from the Challenger’s flight deckSally Kristen Ride was born in Los Angeles, Southern California in 1951. She joined the National Aeronautics and Space Administration at the age of 27 and soon became the first women from the United States in space. Internationally, Sally Ride was only the third female astronaut in space after two Russian (USSR) cosmonauts Valentina Tereshkova and Svetlana Savitskaya.7. John Herschel Glenn Jr.John Herschel Glenn was an engineer, U.S Marine Corps pilot, astronaut, and later Senator from the state of Ohio. In 1962, he became the first U.S national to orbit the Earth following his Mercury-Atlas 6 mission. Before being selected by NASA, Glenn was a prolific fighter pilot who served in various wars, including the World War II, China and Korean War.As a fighter pilot, he received various medals and honors, including the Distinguished Flying Cross and more than a dozen AIr medals. In 1957, he became the first person to perform a supersonic transcontinental flight across the country, while his on-board camera took the first ever panoramic photograph of the entire United States.8. Chris HadfieldChris Hadfield is one of the prominent Canadian astronauts, who became the first national to perform a space walk. Born and raised on a farm in southern Ontario, Hatfield’s biggest inspiration while growing up was watching the Apollo 11 landing on his T.V set. After graduation, he joined national Armed Forces, and was eventually accepted into the Canadian astronaut program in 1992.In 2013, during his third and last expedition to ISS, as a commander of the mission, Hadfield was responsible for various important tasks. During this mission, he captured various space images and posted on different social media platforms which earned him a great deal of popularity from around the world.9. Pete ConradCharles “Pete” Conrad Jr., was one of the highly respected American astronauts in the world. He was an American NASA astronaut, naval officer and aviator, test pilot, and during the Apollo 12 mission, he became the third man to walk on the Moon. He joined NASA as a part of a special group called New Nine in 1962.For his first mission, he was assigned to Gemini 5, where along with his mission commander Gordon Cooper, broke the previous space endurance record of five days. After Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, Conrad and Alan L. Bean became the second NASA pair to perform Moon expedition in 1969.10. Alexey LeonovAlexey Leonov (on the right) with Anton ShkaplerovThe Soviet born Alexey Leonov was the first person to perform a spacewalk or more formally an Extravehicular activity (EVA) during the Voskhod 2 mission. Actually, his spacewalk was scheduled to be taken place during the Voskhod 1 mission, but was cancelled and was scheduled a year later.During this historic event, a severe malfunction in Leonov’s spacesuit almost caused his life. Due to a minor defect, his pressurized suit began to inflate during his space walk. The inflation quickly escalated to the levels that he couldn’t even re-enter the spacecraft. To gain flexibility, he released a valve of his suit to release the pressure to bleed off, but this resulted in a quick loss of oxygen, which nearly killed him.11. Scott KellyScott Kelly with Former U.S President Barack ObamaThe retired American astronaut, engineer and a former Navy captain Scott Kelly is perhaps one of the popular modern personality among the space lovers. The veteran NASA astronaut commanded a total of three International Space Station expeditions and been in space for four different occasions.Scott Kelly made it to orbit very quickly after becoming an astronaut. Only three years later, he was the pilot for STS-103, a shuttle mission that upgraded the Hubble Space Telescope. His crew spent eight days in December 1999 in space (including celebrating Christmas there), where their main duties were to install instruments and upgrade systems on Hubble.In 2015, Kelly achieved a milestone after he spent a record 520 days in space. The record was later broken by astronaut Jeff Williams in 2016 and astronaut Peggy Whitson year after.12. Guion BlufordOn August 30, 1983, for the first time in human space exploration history, astronaut Guion Bluford of African-American heritage went to the outer space. Before starting a career with NASA, Bluford was a ranked officer in the U.S Air Force, where he continued to serve even after his initial recruitment in the space agency.At NASA, he became part of a total of four different space missions from 1983 to 1992. For his services, Bluford was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1997, and the U.S Astronaut Hall of Fame in 2010.13. Marc GarneauImage Courtesy: NASAMarc Garneau became the first Canadian astronaut to the outer space, while he was assigned as one of the crew members to the STS-41-G in 1984. Like most of the early astronauts, Garneau also started in the military, as an engineer in the Royal Canadian Navy in 1974, before being promoted to Captain. He left Navy ranks in 1989 to become the deputy Director of the newly formed CAP (now Canadian Astronaut Corps).Here, he gained further experience and became a mission specialist. After working as a ground flight controller for couple of space missions, he himself went to outer space two times in 1984 and 1966. During his entire career, Garneau registered more than 670 space hours under his belt.14. Mae Carol JemisonJemison aboard the Spacelab JapanNot many in their life can achieve everything they crave for, but she sure did. Working with NASA, Mae Jemison became the first African American female into the outer space on-board the Endeavour space shuttle in 1992. Before NASA, she was selected in the Peace Corps in 1985 following her medical degree and a brief period of medical practice.At NASA, she administered various tasks in the Kennedy Space Center, Florida before going to space. She, however left NASA to form her own research firm. She is also famous among sci-fi fans for appearing in an episode of Star Trek. And that’s not all, Jemison currently holds nine honorary doctorates in engineering, science and humanities.And finally Physicians:1- Hippocrates( father of Western medicine)Hippocrates, about 460 BC – 377 BC, is a famous doctor and the father of Western medicine. As a physician practicing and teaching in Classical Greece, he made medicine a discipline separate from theology and philosophy. Hippocrates founded a school for medicine on the island of Cos, Greece, where he taught that thoughts, ideas and feelings come from the brain, rather than the heart. He described the symptoms of many diseases like pneumonia and epilepsy. The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of early medical works from ancient Greece, a summary of the medical knowledge of the time, attributed to him and his students. Hippocrates introduced the Hippocratic Oath, a promise physicians make to practice medicine ethically, that is still used today in revised form.2- Edward JennerEdward Anthony Jenner, 1749 – 1823, was a famous English doctor and scientist who worked in immunology and developed the smallpox vaccine. His discovery has eradicated the dreaded disease of smallpox and saved more lives than the work of any other doctor. To this day, smallpox is the only human infectious disease to have been eradicated.Smallpox was an infectious disease since prehistoric time, killing, blinding and disfiguring its victims. The concept of variolation, using the smallpox virus itself for a risky inoculation, was introduced in England from Turkey by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. A few individuals had already used the cowpox vaccine to try to vaccinate against smallpox. Jenner knew that milkmaids who worked with cows got the milder cowpox disease from cows, but did not contract smallpox. Jenner hypothesized that the pus from cowpox would provide immunity from smallpox. He successfully tested his hypothesis and published papers on vaccination. He opened the field of immunology, with the possibility of curing many more diseases. Jenner died at the age of 73 after several strokes.3-Rene LaennecRene Laennec, 1781 – 1826 was a famous French doctor and physician who invented the stethoscope, used for auscultation, that is, listening to the sounds in the lungs and heart. It became the primary medical diagnostic tool. Doctors of today still rely on his invention.The idea for the stethoscope came while he watched children playing with hollow sticks, which translated and amplified sounds. His skill as a flautist may have contributed to his invention. He authored many articles in the field of auscultation. Laennec was known for his charity to the poor during the French Revolution.4-Henry GrayHenry Gray, 1827-1861, was a famous English doctor and surgeon and author of the book Anatomy, also known as Gray's Anatomy, an authoritative textbook for medical students that is still published today. In 1858 Doctor Gray published the first edition of Anatomy, with 750 pages and and 363 drawings. The success of the book is partly due to the skilled illustrations made by his friend Henry Vandyke Carter.Learning anatomy from surgery on cadavers, he submitted outstanding student work. Henry Gray was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society at the age of 25. He became a Lecturer of Anatomy at St. George's Hospital, and published the book he is known for at the age of 31. His promising career was interrupted by his untimely death from smallpox at the age of 34.5- Ignaz SemmelweisIgnaz Semmelweis, 1818-1865, was a famous Hungarian doctor. He dramatically reduced the death rate of new mothers from childbed fever. At this time the germ theory of infection was unknown in medicine. From 10% to 35% of all women died after childbirth from puerperal fever. Doctor Semmelweis worked at one of two Obstetrical Clinics of the Vienna General Hospital.These were charitable maternity clinics where illegitimate babies were delivered. Here surgeons staffed the first maternity clinic, and midwives staffed the second maternity clinic. The clinic staffed by surgeons had a death rate 3 times higher than the midwives' clinic. Semmelweis's careful study found that the only difference between the clinics was that midwives regularly washed their hands. He required doctors to wash their hands in a disinfectant solution of chlorinated lime and thus greatly improved the survival rate of women in childbirth.His published conclusions were widely ridiculed by his peers. Suffering from a nervous breakdown, possibly Alzheimer's or syphilis, Semmelweis was confined to an asylum, beaten by guards and died from his wounds two weeks after admission. His work gained acceptance only after his death.6-Louis pasteurLouis Pasteur. 1822 - 1895, was a French chemist and one of the founders of microbiology. He was not a licensed doctor, but he improved the health of everyone. His work proved the theory that germs cause disease. He was a professor of physics and then a professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg.The death of two of his five children from typhoid fever motivated him to study disease and medicine. In his breakthrough work Pasteur demonstrated that fermentation is caused by the growth of microorganisms. He discovered the pasteurization process to kill the bacteria and molds that spoil milk and wine. He created a rabies vaccine and a vaccine for chicken cholera. He also disproved the theory of spontaneous generation of life forms by showing the "life comes from other life," which is called the Law of Biogenesis. This law means that maggots come from maggots and bacteria from bacteria, rather than via spontaneous generation out of nothingness.Pasteur received many honors, including a Grand Croix of the Legion of Honor from France. His death came in 1895 after a series of strokes. His remains have been placed in a crypt in the Institut Pasteur, Paris.7-Joseph ListerJoseph Lister, 1827 - 1912 was a famous English doctor, surgeon and the father of antiseptic, that is, sterile surgery. He introduced carbolic acid to sterilize surgical instruments, to clean wounds, and to clean the hands of the surgeon. His work reduced gangrene and other infections and made surgery safer for patients.At this time wounds often became infected after surgery, which led to death. French chemist Louis Pasteur had proved that rotting and fermentation were caused by microorganisms. While professor of surgery at the University of Glasgow, Scotland, Doctor Lister showed that gangrene, the rotting of human flesh, could be prevented by cleaning wounds with carbolic acid. This was the first antiseptic treatment for wounds. Like Ignaz Semmelweis, Doctor Lister noticed that babies delivered by midwives had a better survival rate than babies delivered by surgeons, because midwives washed their hands often. He also had surgeons wash their hands before and after a surgery using a solution of carbolic acid, and wear clean gloves. He used carbolic acid to sterilize medical instruments and the surgery. Lister made surgery safer and improved the infant survival rate. His work finally convinced the worldwide medical community of the germ theory of infection, discovered by Ignaz Semmelweis.Doctor Lister showed that aseptic surgery made many types of operations successful. He operated on a brain tumor, repaired kneecaps with metal wire and improved mastectomies. He was a popular lecturer and president of the Royal Society. After the death of his wife Agnes, who was his lifetime partner in his laboratory, Lister retired from medicine. In 1879 Listerine mouthwash was named after him for his work in antisepsis. Also named in his honour is the bacterial genus Listeria. He received fame and honor during his lifetime, and was made a baron. He died in his home at the age of 84.8-Elizabeth BlackwellElizabeth Blackwell, 1821 – 1910, was the first female doctor in the United States. She founded medical schools and supported women in medicine, the anti-slavery movement and the women's rights movement. Blackwell was born in England, one of nine children in a Quaker family where the daughters received a good education at home. After the family emigrated to the United States, she taught school in Kentucky to pay for medical training. She studied medicine privately under several physicians, and was admitted, by mistake, to Geneva College in New York. In spite of much prejudice, in 1849 she became the first woman to earn a medical degree in the United States, and graduated first in her class.In 1857, Doctor Blackwell along with her sister Emily and Dr. Marie Zakrzewska, founded the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children. During the American Civil War, Blackwell trained many women to be nurses for the Union Army. In 1868 she established a Women's Medical College for women, physicians, and doctors. She opened the first training school for nurses in the United States in 1873. She also was the first woman to be registered in England as a doctor. Returning to England, she founded the Women's Medical College with Florence Nightingale. Doctor Blackwell remained an active teacher, lecturer and author until she died in 1910 at her home in England after a stroke.9-Frederick BantingFrederick Banting, 1891-1941, was a Canadian doctor and scientist. Working with Dr. John Macleod, he discovered insulin, which is used to treat diabetes.At college, he transferred from divinity studies to medicine. After graduation he served with the Canadian Army Medical Corps in France in WWI. He was wounded and received the Military Cross for heroism under fire. Back in Toronto, Doctor Banting set up a general practice, and also taught medicine.It was generally known that diabetes was the buildup of sugar in the blood caused by the lack of insulin, a protein secreted by the pancreas. Banting devised a successful procedure to extract insulin from the pancreas. In 1923, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this work, which he shared with Dr. Macleod.In Toronto, he founded the Banting and Best Institute, where he studied silicosis, cancer, drowning and blackout of high-altitude airplane pilots. He has received many awards and honors, including knighthood. The Banting crater on the moon was named for him. Banting was portrayed by Jason Priestley in the film Above and Beyond.Twice married, father of one child and an enthusiastic painter, Doctor Banting died in a plane crash. A CBC public survey in 2004 named him one of the top 10 "Greatest Canadians."10-Charles DrewCharles R. Drew, 1904 - 1950, was a prominent African American doctor during the period of segregation in the United States. He is recognized for his work in the field of blood transfusions.The death of his sister Elsie during a flu pandemic influenced his decision to study medicine. Doctor Drew received his MD degree in 1933 and became instructor in pathology, then an instructor in surgery and an assistant surgeon. He studied blood preservation techniques, and received his Doctor of Science in Surgery from Columbia University, New York.During World War II, Doctor Drew organized the Blood for Britain project, a prototype blood bank to collect, test, store and send U.S. blood plasma to aid Britain. The successful program continued for five months and recruited 15,000 donors. Drew opposed the practice of segregating blood by the race of the donor, on the basis of scientific search. As a result, he lost his job. However, in 1943, he was appointed to serve as an examiner on the American Board of Surgery, the first black surgeon to do so.Doctor Drew worked in research and teaching at Freedman's Hospital, Morgan State University, Montreal General and Howard University. He died in 1946 from injuries sustained in an automobile accident, leaving behind his wife and four children.11- Alexander FlemingAlexander Fleming, 1881 – 1955, was a Scottish biologist and pharmacologist. He is famous for his discovery of the antibiotic penicillin. Penicillin changed the course of medicine. It was the life-saving drug that conquered syphilis, gangrene and tuberculosis.By chance, Fleming discovered the anti-bacterial lysozyme, a natural substance found in tears and the nose that helps the body fight germs. He noticed that his own nasal mucus dripped onto a petri dish and killed the bacteria. Penicillin, the most effective life-saving drug in the world, was also discovered accidentally. While Fleming was on vacation, a mold had grown and destroyed the bacteria on a Petri dish in his lab. Fleming's discoveries are substances that can kill bacteria but not adversely affect the human body. Fleming was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945.12-Virginia ApgarVirginia Apgar, 1909 – 1974, was a famous American doctor who founded the field of neonatology for the care of newborn infants, especially the ill or premature newborn. She was a leader in the fields of anesthesiology and teratology, the study of developmental defects. She developed the Apgar test to assess the health of babies immediately at birth and to study the effects of obstetric anesthesia on babies. Her work reduced worldwide infant mortality.Doctor Apgar graduated from Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons. After her residency in surgery, she trained in anesthesia and became director of the division of anesthesia at Columbia. At a time when she and women in general were discouraged from a career as a physician, she was the first woman in the positions she held. She published more than 60 scientific papers and articles and books for the general public.The Apgar test she invented was the first test made for newborn health. The test scores the health of the newborn baby on the basis of 5 observable criteria, Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration. Her name Apgar also became a mnemonic word based on these five criteria. The Apgar score indicates if a newborn needs immediate medical care. It is easily administered by trained observation.

It wasn't until the mid-1800s that there was any type of formal regulation of educational standards for aspiring physicians. There is sn excellent article on this by MedlinePlus:Doctor of medicine profession (MD)MDs may be found within a wide range of practice settings, including private practices, group practices, hospitals, health maintenance organizations, teaching facilities, and public health organizations.InformationThe practice of medicine in the United States dates back to colonial times (early 1600s). At the beginning of the 17th century, medical practice in England was divided into three groups: the physicians, the surgeons, and the apothecaries.Physicians were seen as elite. They most often held a university degree. Surgeons were typically hospital-trained and they did apprenticeships. They often served the dual role of barber-surgeon. Apothecaries also learned their roles (prescribing, making, and selling medicines) through apprenticeships, sometimes in hospitals.This distinction between medicine, surgery, and pharmacy did not survive in colonial America. When university-prepared MDs from England arrived in America, they were expected to also perform surgery and prepare medicines.The New Jersey Medical Society, chartered in 1766, was the first organization of medical professionals in the colonies. It was developed to "form a program embracing all the matters of highest concern to the profession: regulation of practice; educational standards for apprentices; fee schedules; and a code of ethics." Later this organization became the Medical Society of New Jersey.Professional societies began regulating medical practice by examining and licensing practitioners as early as 1760. By the early 1800s, the medical societies were in charge of establishing regulations, standards of practice, and certification of doctors.A natural next step was for such societies to develop their own training programs for doctors. These society-affiliated programs were called "proprietary" medical colleges.The first of these proprietary programs was the medical college of the Medical Society of the County of New York, founded March 12, 1807. Proprietary programs began to spring up everywhere. They attracted a large number of students because they eliminated two features of university-affiliated medical schools: a long general education and a long lecture term.To address the many abuses in medical education, a national convention was held in May 1846. Proposals from that convention included the following:A standard code of ethics for the professionThe adoption of uniform higher educational standards for MDs, including courses of premedical educationThe creation of a national medical associationOn May 5, 1847, nearly 200 delegates representing 40 medical societies and 28 colleges from 22 states and the District of Columbia met. They resolved themselves into the first session of the American Medical Association (AMA). Nathaniel Chapman (1780-1853) was elected as the first president of the association. The AMA has become an organization that has a great deal of influence over issues related to health care in the United States.The AMA set educational standards for MDs, including the following:A liberal education in the arts and sciencesA certificate of completion in an apprenticeship before entering the medical collegeAn MD degree that covered 3 years of study, including two 6-month lecture sessions, 3 months devoted to dissection, and a minimum of one 6-month session of hospital attendanceIn 1852, the standards were revised to add more requirements:Medical schools had to provide a 16-week course of instruction that included anatomy, medicine, surgery, midwifery, and chemistryGraduates had to be at least 21 years of ageStudents had to complete a minimum of 3 years of study, 2 years of which were under an acceptable practitionerBetween 1802 and 1876, 62 fairly stable medical schools were established. In 1810, there were 650 students enrolled and 100 graduates from medical schools in the United States. By 1900, these numbers had risen to 25,000 students and 5,200 graduates. Nearly all of these graduates were white males.Daniel Hale Williams (1856-1931) was one of the first black MDs. After graduating from Northwestern University in 1883, Dr. Williams practiced surgery in Chicago and was later a main force in establishing Provident Hospital, which still serves Chicago's South Side. Previously black physicians found it impossible to obtain privileges to practice medicine in hospitals.Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1920), after graduating from Geneva College of Medicine in upstate New York, became the first woman granted an MD degree in the United States.The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine opened in 1893. It is cited as being the first medical school in America of "genuine university-type, with adequate endowment, well-equipped laboratories, modern teachers devoted to medical investigation and instruction, and its own hospital in which the training of physicians and healing of sick persons combined to the optimal advantage of both." It is considered the first, and the model for all later research universities. Johns Hopkins Medical School served as a model for the reorganization of medical education. After this, many sub-standard medical schools closed.Medical schools had become mostly diploma mills, with the exception of a few schools in large cities. Two developments changed that. The first was the "Flexner Report," published in 1910. Abraham Flexner was a leading educator who was asked to study American medical schools. His highly negative report and recommendations for improvement led to the closing of many substandard schools and the creation of standards of excellence for a real medical education.The other development came from Sir William Osler, a Canadian who was one of the greatest professors of medicine in modern history. He worked at McGill University in Canada, and then at the University of Pennsylvania, before being recruited to be the first physician-in-chief and one of the founders of Johns Hopkins University. There he established the first residency training and was the first to bring students to the patient's bedside. Before that time, medical students learned from textbooks only until they went out to practice, so they had little practical experience. Osler also wrote the first comprehensive, scientific textbook of medicine and later went to Oxford as Regent professor, where he was knighted. He established patient-oriented care and many ethical and scientific standards.By 1930, nearly all medical schools required a liberal arts degree for admission and provided a 3- to 4-year graded curriculum in medicine and surgery. Many states also required candidates to complete a 1-year internship in a hospital setting after receiving a degree from a recognized medical school in order to license the practice of medicine.American doctors did not begin to specialize until the middle of the 19th century. People objecting to specialization said that "specialties operated unfairly toward the general practitioner, implying that he is incompetent to properly treat certain classes of diseases." They also said specialization tended "to degrade the general practitioner in the view of the public." However, as medical knowledge and techniques expanded many doctors chose to concentrate on certain specific areas and recognize that their skill set could be more helpful in some situations.Economics also played an important role, because specialists typically earned higher incomes than the generalist physicians. The debates between specialists and generalists continue, and have recently been fueled by issues related to modern health care reform.SCOPE OF PRACTICEThe practice of medicine includes the diagnosis, treatment, correction, advisement, or prescription for any human disease, ailment, injury, infirmity, deformity, pain, or other condition, physical or mental, real or imaginary.REGULATION OF THE PROFESSIONMedicine was the first of the professions to require licensing. State laws on medical licensing outlined the "diagnosis" and "treatment" of human conditions in medicine. Any individual who wanted to diagnose or treat as part of the profession could be charged with "practicing medicine without a license."Medicine, like many other professions, is regulated at several different levels:Medical Schools must adhere to the standards of the American Association of Medical CollegesLicensure is a process that takes place at the state level in accordance with specific state lawsCertification is established through national organizations with consistent national requirements for minimal professional practice standardsLicensure: All states require that applicants for MD licensure be graduates of an approved medical school and complete the United States Medical Licensing Exam (USMLE) Steps 1 to 3. Steps 1 and 2 are completed while in medical school and step 3 is completed after some medical training (usually between 12 to 18 months, depending on the state). People who earned their medical degrees in other countries also must satisfy these requirements before practicing medicine in the United States.With the introduction of telemedicine, there has been concern as to how to handle state licensure issues when medicine is being shared between states through telecommunications. Laws and guidelines are being addressed. Some states have recently established procedures for recognizing the licenses of physicians practicing in other states in times of emergency, such as after hurricanes or earthquakes.Certification: MDs who wish to specialize must complete an additional 3 to 9 years of postgraduate work in their specialty area, then pass board certification examinations. Doctors who claim to practice in a specialty should be board-certified in that specific area of practice. Not all "certifications" come from recognized academic agencies however. Most credible certifying agencies are part of the American Board of Medical Specialties. Many hospitals will not permit physicians or surgeons to practice on their staffs if they are not board certified in an appropriate specialty.ReferencesGoldman L, Schafer AI. Approach to medicine, the patient, and the medical profession: medicine as a learned and humane profession. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman-Cecil Medicine. 25th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2016:chap 1.Kaljee L, Stanton BF. Cultural issues in pediatric care. In: Kliegman RM, Stanton BF, St. Geme JW, Schor NF, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 20th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2016:chap 4.Krieg RM, Cooksey JA. Provident Hospital: A Living Legacy. Chicago, IL; The Provident Foundation, 1997.