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Harvard Business School Brief CasesAccountingBiovail Corporation: Revenue Recognition and FOB Sales AccountingBiovail Corporation, a major Canadian pharmaceutical company, announces that it will miss its quarterly earnings target by $25 to $45 million, blaming $10 to $15 million of the shortfall on a truck accident that occurred on the last day of the quarter. Explores the concepts of revenue recognition, the ethics of earnings management, relationships with analysts, and the enforcement role of the SEC.Danshui Plant No. 2A plant in southern China has a contract to assemble 2.4 million Apple iPhones. Three months into the contract, the plant is operating at a loss. The plant manager analyzes the budget and considers whether changing from a static to flexible budget can help uncover the performance problems.Depreciation at Delta Air Lines: The "Fresh Start"After Delta adopts fair value accounting as part of its "fresh start" emergence from bankruptcy, the company changes its approach to depreciating its aircraft. Introduces students to depreciation policy and links between accounting policies and financial reporting choices.Jimmy Fu and Moog, Inc.: Understanding Shareholders' EquityJimmy Fu is interviewing for a job at Moog, Inc. In the job offer, the vesting and termination language for the stock plan leads Jimmy to investigate the Shareholders' Equity section of the Moog balance sheet and he finds more activity than he expects.Luotang Power: Variances ExplainedThe general manager of a coal-fired power plant in central China prepares for a presentation to the board of directors. He believes his company performed well in the previous year in several key metrics but the performance is not reflected in the financial results.Lyons Document Storage Corporation: Bond MathA manager must analyze the refunding of bonds issued in 2000, when interest rates were higher. Students must calculate the present value of interest and principal payments.Merrimack Tractors and Mowers: LIFO or FIFO?A CFO proposes use of FIFO to maintain earnings growth, accepting possible tax consequences. The case demonstrates that firms often have choices about accounting policies.The Talbots, Inc. and Its Subsidiaries: Accounting for GoodwillFocusing on the firm's acquisition of J. Jill, the case demonstrates what goodwill is, how it originates, how it is measured at acquisition, and how it is amortized or impaired.FinanceBlaine Kitchenware: Capital StructureIn response to an unsolicited takeover, a kitchen appliance maker contemplates using excess liquidity and additional borrowing for a stock repurchase. The company must determine the effects of increasing leverage on the cost of capital, firm value, and share price.Ceres Gardening Company: Funding Growth in Organic ProductsAn aggressive player in the organic gardening industry offers steep discounts and vendor financing to its retailers in an effort to increase market penetration. Students analyze the company's financial statements and make projections.Flash Memory, Inc.A small firm in the computer and electronic device memory market must invest heavily in new product development to stay competitive. The Chief Financial Officer is in the process of preparing the investing and financing plans for the next three years and must consider alternatives for additional funding in light of increased working capital requirements.Groupe Ariel S.A.: Parity Conditions and Cross-Border ValuationGroupe Ariel evaluates a proposal from its Mexican subsidiary to purchase and install cost-saving equipment at a manufacturing facility. Ariel corporate policy requires a discounted cash flow (DCF) and an estimate for the net present value (NVP) for capital expenditures in foreign markets. A major challenge of the case is which currency to use, the Euro or the peso.Hansson Private Label, Inc.: Evaluating an Investment in ExpansionA manufacturer of private-label personal care products must decide whether to fund an unprecedented expansion of manufacturing capacity. This case requires students to complete a fundamental analysis of the project, including the development of cash flow projections and net present value calculations.Harmonic Hearing Co.Two employees from a small manufacturer of hearing aids consider purchasing the company from the founder. Two financing alternatives are presented: one is virtually all debt-financed, the other all equity. The financing structure will significantly affect future products and firm performance.Hill Country Snack Food Co.The CEO of a snack food company believes in maximizing shareholder value by maintaining large cash balances and funding new initiatives internally using equity finance over debt finance. As he approaches retirement, analysts and investors want the company to adopt a more aggressive capital structure.Jones Electrical DistributionDespite several years of rapid sales growth and good profits, Jones Electrical Distribution experiences short-term cash shortages. The company is unable to take discounts on accounts payable and increasingly relies on loans from the bank to cover expenses. Company owner Nelson Jones weighs the options for managing sales growth against additional financing needs.Mercury Athletic: Valuing the OpportunityThe head of business development at Active Gear Advantage, a mid-size athletic footwear company, sees the opportunity to acquire Mercury Athletic and double the size of his business. Students gain exposure to basic DCF valuation using WACC.Midland Energy Resources, Inc.: Cost of CapitalThe senior vice president of project finance for a global oil and gas company must determine the weighted average cost of capital for the company as a whole and each of its divisions. Students become familiar with WACC and CAPM and associated data and formulas.Monmouth, Inc.A leading producer of engines and massive compressors for the natural gas industry considers whether to acquire a tool company. Students must choose an approach for valuing the company and consider how the offer should be structured.New Heritage DollA mid-sized, privately-owned, domestic firm evaluates two investment alternatives. The case explores basic issues in capital budgeting and requires students to analyze financial information from competing capital budgeting projects and choose a single investment project.Pacific Grove Spice CompanyA manufacturer, marketer, and distributor of spices and seasonings utilizes debt to fund the necessary growth in assets to support sales. The bank is concerned about the total amount of interest-bearing debt on the firm's balance sheet and has asked the company to provide a plan to reduce it.Polar Sports, Inc.A fashion skiwear company generates over 80% of sales between September and January and relies on seasonal production to respond promptly to customer orders. The VP of operations considers the costs and benefits of switching to level production.Sterling Household Products CompanyA manufacturer of laundry soap, cosmetics, cleaning and disinfecting products, and other consumer goods consider acquiring the germicidal and sanitation product unit from a company in the health care industry. A complete investment analysis may reveal whether the purchase price adds enough value to the firm.Valuation of AirThread ConnectionsA senior associate in the business development group at American Cable Communications must prepare a preliminary valuation for acquiring AirThread Connections, a regional cellular provider. This case can be used as a capstone valuation exercise for first-year MBA students in an introductory finance course.Winfield Refuse Management: Raising Debt vs. EquityA small, publicly traded company specializing in non-hazardous waste management considers a major acquisition in the Midwestern U.S. The chief financial officer wants the company to reconsider a long-standing policy to avoid long term debt and fund the acquisition through a bond issue.General ManagementApplied Research Technologies, Inc.: Global Innovation's ChallengesStudents analyze the decisions and the leadership styles of both a unit manager and a division VP of ART, Inc., an organization whose culture of innovation has spawned many successful brands—but this same culture might also be putting one division and its leader at risk.Calveta Dining Services, Inc.: A Recipe for Growth?Calveta Dining Services enjoyed three decades of growth under its founder Antonio Calveta. Now that Antonio is retired, can his son Frank carry out Antonio's directive to double revenue within five years while still maintaining Calveta's distinctive pro-employee culture?Clayton Industries: Peter Arnell, Country Manager for ItalyIn Italy, the new country manager of a U.S.-based HVAC company is under pressure to solve a range of problems that thwart the home office's strategic plans. His options are constrained by a depressed economy, difficult union relations, rising materials prices, intense competition, and nationalistic buying preferences.A Day in the Life of Alex Sander: Driving in the Fast Lane at Landon Care ProductsA driven superstar performer at a cosmetics firm has an impressive record of accomplishments but is limited by an inability to function effectively in a team setting, as a 360 performance evaluation makes clear.Evergreen Natural Markets 2012Kathleen Norton, the CEO of a successful food retailer with a track record of growth through local acquisition, has her leadership skills tested when her company purchases seven stores outside of the home base.Sugar BowlShelby Givens, the Westlake Lanes general manager, has successfully transformed her family-owned bowling alley into an urban lounge called Sugar Bowl. When investors offer to buy the business, Givens must evaluate whether she should accept the offer or retain involvement in the venture she worked so hard to create.Westlake Lanes: How Can This Business Be Saved?A general manager tries to improve a failing business that is owned and operated by her family. She uses her recent MBA training to devise a short term turnaround strategy while also proposing a longer term transformation plan to the board.HR ManagementCeleritas, Inc.: Leadership Challenges in a Fast-Growth IndustryCeleritas is a leading data communications company in a crowded and highly competitive market. With sales suddenly declining after years of record growth, Celeritas has begun to lose its status as a top player. The CEO calls for an offsite meeting to address several problems he believes are causing the recent slide.Raleigh & Rosse: Measures to Motivate Exceptional ServiceIn January 2010, U. S. luxury goods retailer Raleigh & Rosse is being sued by its employees for encouraging "off the clock" hours. At the center of the class action lawsuit is the famous Raleigh & Rosse performance measurement system previously thought to be the core of the retailer's success.International BusinessBella Healthcare IndiaBella Healthcare India was originally established as a low-cost manufacturing facility for a U.S.-based cardiology equipment developer but has since evolved into its own research and development center. After a failed joint product development effort with its parent company in the U.S., is the Bella Bangalore team ready to launch a new product and if so, which project should it choose?Kent Chemical: Organizing for International GrowthWith a global expansion strategy placing increasing demands on his organization, the president of Kent Chemical International is proposing a third reorganization effort after two failed attempts to better align his business with its U.S.-based parent company.Levendary Cafe: The China ChallengeLevendary Cafe has grown from a small Colorado-based restaurant into a $10 billion business with international expansion plans. Despite its solid track record, Wall Street is nervous about Levendary and its new CEO, Mia Foster. Foster is working hard to prove herself worthy of the job and her first order of business is to address concerns about the Levendary Chinese expansion plan.Meli MarineAn inter-Asian container shipping company is facing an important strategic decision after an interesting acquisition opportunity presents itself— if the board purchases larger ships, should they enter the global Asian-North American shipping business?United Cereal: Lora Brill's Eurobrand ChallengeThe European division for a multinational breakfast foods company prepares to launch a new cereal product. The VP for the division must decide whether to make the new cereal the first branded cereal product for the European division and how to create an organizational structure to support the new product strategy.MarketingAlpen Bank: Launching the Credit Card in RomaniaAlpen Bank considers whether to launch a credit card business in Romania. The firm rejected the idea several years earlier because of poor economic conditions in Romania. However, the country is emerging from a recession and incomes are rising along with disposable income. Students decide whether to launch the new business and how to acquire new customers.Atius GolfA maker of high-performance golf balls considers introducing a new product line called Elevate to appeal to casual golfers. The new line will be available through "off-course" specialty stores and big box retailers at lower price. The board of directors is divided on whether to support the decision.Atlantic Computer: A Bundle of Pricing OptionsAtlantic Computer, a leading player in the high-end server market, has developed a new server, the Tronn, and a software tool, called the "Performance Enhancing Server Accelerator," or PESA, that allows the Tronn to perform up to four times faster than its standard speed. How should Atlantic price the Tronn and PESA?Brannigan Foods: Strategic Marketing PlanningThe vice president and general manager of the soup division is concerned about declining sales and profitability. Hoping to reverse the trends, he asks 4 managers to review an analysis of the soup industry and recommend a turnaround strategy. Students must perform a quantitative analysis of each proposal before making a final recommendation.Classic Knitwear and Guardian: A Perfect Fit?In response to shareholder demands for margin improvements, the CMO of Classic Knitwear, a private-label non-fashion knitwear manufacturer, considers partnering with another company to produce a new line of high-margin, insect-repellant clothing.Clean Edge Razor: Splitting Hairs in Product PositioningA health and beauty manufacturing company launches a new technologically advanced vibrating razor into the highly competitive men's market for shaving products. The product manager struggles with positioning the product either as a "niche" razor for the high-end market or as a mainstream razor for the average consumer.Cottle-Taylor: Expanding the Oral Care Group in IndiaThe director for oral care products in India develops a marketing plan to support 20% growth in India but her boss wants to see 30% growth. To reach the revised goal, she must develop a new marketing plan while considering many factors including the regional differences between rural and urban consumers and the level of acceptance for modern dental standards across India.Culinarian Cookware: Pondering Price PromotionFaced with ambiguous results from a previous price promotion, Culinarian must decide if a new promotion will damage its premium brand or improve brand awareness and stimulate sales. What role should price promotion play in the company's sales growth goals?The Fashion ChannelThe new Senior Vice President of Marketing for The Fashion Channel is preparing to recommend a change in the company's traditional marketing approach by introducing a market segmentation program. Students must evaluate consumer research results, calculate financial scenarios, and make their own recommendation.Flare Fragrances Company, Inc: Analyzing Growth OpportunitiesFlare Fragrances experiences a decline in annual sales growth and considers introducing a new line of perfume or expanding distribution. Students study a wide range of factors including brand management, consumer demographics, product positioning, and pricing.Giant Consumer Products: The Sales Promotion Resource Allocation DecisionIn an effort to boost sagging sales, the Frozen Food Division undertakes a risky trade promotion. Focuses on cannibalization, brand equity erosion, and strategic channel issues.Harrington Collection: Sizing Up the Active-Wear MarketIn the wake of slumping sales and sagging profit margins, a leading manufacturer and retailer of high-end women's apparel must decide whether to expand into the high-growth active-wear market. The case explores the financial implications, assesses trade and competitor reactions, considers the risks, and determines whether the company's Vigor division will be able to successfully launch and manage a new product line.Launching Krispy Natural: Cracking the Product Management CodeA market leader for the sweet snack market wants to enter the salty snacks market with a reinvented line of premium crackers. Market test results exceed expectations in one city and fall short in 3 others. The marketing director must interpret the test market results, consider possible competitive response, and develop a recommendation for a national rollout.Manchester Products: A Brand Transition ChallengeManchester, a furniture company, has acquired an extremely powerful brand but can use its name for only three years-so the VP of Marketing must design a plan that transitions the new brand's power back to the company. The case examines decision-making related to brand equity, communications, and other aspects of marketing strategy.MedNet.com Confronts "Click-Through" CompetitionIn January 2007, "MedNet.com" is a leading website that provides science-based health information free of charge to online visitors. Its business model relies on advertising sales, primarily to pharmaceutical companies. In the face of fierce advertising competition, MedNet is forced to defend this model. However, in defending the value MedNet delivers, company executives may be building the case for why niche sites may be a better investment for the advertiser's budget.Metabical: Positioning and Communications Strategy for a New Weight Loss DrugThe marketing director at a pharmaceutical company must carefully consider the positioning and communications strategy for the launch a new weight-loss drug. Poor positioning of the drug in the highly competitive market for weight-loss solutions could spell disaster.Metabical: Pricing, Packaging, and Demand Forecasting Recommendations for a New Weight-Loss DrugA pharmaceutical company develops a new weight loss drug called Metabical. The senior marketing manager explores three different pricing models and considers the effects on profitability before making a final recommendation.Mountain Man Brewing Co.: Bringing the Brand to LightMountain Man Beer Company brews just one beer, Mountain Man Lager, known as "West Virginia's beer," popular among blue-collar workers. When the company experiences declining sales, the CEO considers launching a new beer, Mountain Man Light, in the hope of attracting younger drinkers. Mountain Man Lager's brand equity is a key asset for the company. Will Mountain Man Light enhance, detract from, or irreversibly damage the brand?Natureview FarmNatureview Farm, a Vermont-based producer of organic yogurt with $13 million in revenues, is the leading national brand sold into natural foods stores. When the company faces financial pressure to increase revenues to $20 million due to a planned exit by its venture capital investors, the VP of marketing must decide whether to expand into the supermarket channel.Olympic Rent-A-Car U.S.: Customer Loyalty BattlesA rental car company must decide how to respond after a competitor changes its loyalty rewards program. Marketing and operations managers review the firm's financial performance and the current loyalty reward program as they consider their options.P.V. Technologies, Inc.: Were They Asleep at the Switch?A leading manufacturer of photovoltaic inverters used in solar energy technology receives a bad evaluation from its largest customer. The company must consider the consequences to its reputation while considering among four possible responses to the situation.Reed Supermarkets: A New Wave of CompetitorsThe marketing VP at a high-end, conventional supermarket chain is concerned about increased competition from dollar stores and limited-assortment stores offering very low price points. She must decide how to change the current marketing and positioning plan to increase market share.Reliance Baking Soda: Optimizing Promotional SpendingThe new Domestic Brand Director needs to create a marketing budget that delivers a profit increase of 10%, weighing the value of advertising, price increases, and the role of the brand within the company. Students are expected to create and defend a similar budget.Rosewood Hotels and Resorts: Branding to Increase Customer Profitability and Lifetime ValueRosewood Hotels & Resorts is a small firm running 12 individually branded luxury properties. Its new leadership is contemplating whether the firm should significantly increase the prominence of the corporate identity, making Rosewood a corporate brand. Students must calculate how customer lifetime value would be affected by a shift from individual branding to corporate branding.Saxonville Sausage CompanySaxonville Sausage, a $1.5 billion manufacturer of pork sausage products, is experiencing financial stress because its leading product lines have lately produced declining revenues-except an Italian sausage named Vivio, which has recently experienced a significant increase in revenues, as has the entire Italian sausage category nationwide. What steps should the company take to expand Vivio into a powerful national brand?Soren Chemical: Why Is the New Pool Product Sinking?Soren Chemicals launches a new water clarifier for residential swimming pools called Coracle and is surprised by poor sales. Coracle is chemically similar to the company's highly successful water clarifier for large pools at recreational facilities and offers the same superior product performance. The marketing manager suspects the go-to-market strategy may be flawed but can she diagnose the problem before the end of the selling season?The Springfield Nor'easters: Maximizing Revenues in the Minor LeaguesThe marketing director of a new minor-league baseball team must design, conduct, and then interpret survey research to determine optimal ticket pricing that will yield large attendance figures and contribute to the owner's goal of breaking even in the first year of play. The pricing assignment becomes more challenging when other variables like concessions revenue are considered. Students are asked to complete a quantitative assignment as part of case analysis, and they must also grapple with less quantifiable factors.TruEarth Healthy Foods: Market Research for a New Product IntroductionTruEarth Healthy Foods wants to build on its successful introduction of fresh whole grain pasta by introducing a similar product concept for pizza. Acting as brand managers, students analyze the data and decide whether to bring the new product to market.Operations ManagementAIC Netbooks: Optimizing Product AssemblyA manufacturer of printed circuit boards diversifies it product portfolio by launching its own line of mobile consumer electronics. After three months of production, the production manager must consider ways to increase efficiency and lower costs.Baria Planning Solutions, Inc.: Fixing the Sales ProcessA consulting firm that specializes in using spend analysis to help companies identify savings is concerned about the disappointing performance of the sales team in signing up new clients. The sales director must analyze the current process flow to identify the problems facing the sales organization.Bayonne Packaging, Inc.A printer and paper converter specializes in delivering innovative packaging solutions for its customers. Despite tripling sales, the firm posted its first loss in over 10 years. The VP of Operations must analyze the production process and recommend improvements.Bergerac Systems: The Challenge of Backward IntegrationA manufacturer of diagnostic instruments for veterinary practices relies on two suppliers for the plastic cartridges used for a range of blood and blood chemistry tests. The CEO is concerned about inconsistent deliveries and considers acquiring one of the suppliers or expanding existing capacity.FoldRite Furniture Company: Planning to Meet a Surge in DemandFoldRite improves manufacturing quality and efficiency by developing stylish, environmentally friendly products. Now a new plan is needed to meet high demand, control manufacturing and inventory costs, and mitigate risk.The Morrison CompanyA developer and manufacturer of radio frequency identification tags (RFID) experiences a dramatic increase in sales over the past year. The increase exacerbates existing manufacturing problems and has led to increased shipping delays and inadequate inventory on hand.Scientific Glass Incorporated: Inventory ManagementScientific Glassware provides specialized glassware for laboratory and research facilities. Excess inventory is tying up extra capital needed to fund the company's expansion plans. The inventory manager is tasked with developing a more effective strategy for managing inventory.Organizational BehaviorAndrew Ryan at VC BrakesAndrew Ryan's excitement over a change initiative at VC Brakes turns to concern when organizational challenges surface. A subsequent restructuring puts him on the wrong side of politics and he must decide whether to leave or stay with the losing initiative.BoldFlash: Cross-Functional Challenges in the Mobile DivisionA new leader makes organizational changes to improve the product development process, but the changes may not go far enough.Campbell and Bailyn's Boston Office: Managing the ReorganizationCompetitive pressures drive organizational changes at a securities brokerage firm, with serious potential consequences for customers, employees, and the firm as a whole.Engstrom Auto Mirror Plant: Motivating Through Good and Bad TimesA plant manager confronts morale issues when, on the heels of an industry downturn, an incentive program stops producing payouts that employees have come to expect.Jamie Turner at MLI, Inc.Set in an industrial lighting company, this Brief Case describes the evolution of an interpersonal mismatch between a previously successful manager, Jamie Turner, and his new boss.Johannes Linden: Managing the Global Executive CommitteeIn the wake of an unexpected drop in manufacturing costs, the director of a large Swiss appliance manufacturer must convince his Global Executive Committee to revise revenue forecasts and sales targets for the upcoming year.Kay Sunderland: Making the Grade at Attain LearningAccount manager Kay Sunderland is surprised that her colleague Mike Morgan is potentially jeopardizing an important account by ignoring their employer's communication policy. Sunderland must decide how to handle the situation with both the client and her colleague Morgan.Martha Rinaldi: Should She Stay or Should She Go?Martha Rinaldi has been an assistant product manager at leading beverage company Potomac Waters since graduating from business school. Rinaldi is frustrated by her relationships with her boss and a close co-worker.MediSys Corp.: The IntensCare Product Development TeamMedical equipment maker MediSys is developing an innovative system for monitoring intensive care patients. Six months into the project, the product development team struggles through significant problems with design, schedule, a large competitive threat, and their own group dynamics.RL Wolfe: Implementing Self-Directed TeamsPlastic pipe manufacturer RL Wolfe introduces the concept of self-directed teams (SDTs) to its Corpus Christi plant in 2004. By 2007, Corpus Christi is outperforming the firm's other plants, and the production director seeks to understand which aspects of SDTs are working, which are not, and whether the other plants might be persuaded to accept the SDT approach.Ron Ventura at Mitchell Memorial HospitalStar vascular surgeon Ron Ventura's contract is up for renewal. He has improved the vascular surgery practice and generated much new case flow but is abrasive. How should his boss approach the upcoming performance feedback interview?Teaching Note available.Stone Finch, Inc.: Young Division, Old DivisionTo stimulate innovation and hasten growth in a young technology solutions division, an aggressive CEO milks the firm's cash cow, an old manufacturing unit. That unit soon faces key employee departures and sinking morale - and the newer unit runs into similar difficulties.TerraCog Global Positioning Systems: Conflict and Communication on Project AerialWhen a new product launch is threatened by cost problems, the firm's units are unable to come together and make a critical decision and a young executive must lead them forward.Thomas Green: Power, Office Politics, and a Career in CrisisA promising career appears to be headed off the rails as conflict deepens between a young marketing manager and his boss. Can this career be saved?Treadway Tire Company: Job Dissatisfaction and High Turnover at the Lima PlantLine foremen in a manufacturing plant are caught in the middle of an adversarial relationship between workers and management.SalesDesigns by Kate: The Power of Direct SalesThe sales representatives at Designs by Kate sell private-label jewelry at hosted parties. They also recruit, train, and manage teams of new sales reps. Sales have started to decline and the company must revisit the commission structure to determine if it is still effective.Service ManagementComfort Class Transport: Does Customer Service Need an Overhaul?Customer satisfaction with vehicles and drivers at a chauffeured limousine transport company is high and management has plans to expand the company into new markets. However, underperformance in the customer service call center could threaten the company's future.Delwarca Software Remote Support UnitA software firm provides telephone support for customers facing complex software integration issues. The manager of the remote support unit implements a new call triage process that fails to decrease customer waiting times and overall dissatisfaction. He must analyze the process and make recommendations for improvement.Playa Dorada Tennis Club: Expansion StrategyPlaya Dorada Beach & Resort in Boca Raton, Florida faces a growing seasonal demand for tennis services. The director of the tennis operations analyzes court capacity and pricing structure as he considers plans for expansion.Porcini's Pronto: "Great Italian cuisine without the wait!"Looking for expansion opportunities, a chain of full-service Italian restaurants considers launching a new chain of lower-cost, limited-menu restaurants. The vice president of marketing must develop the concept and also analyze three expansion strategies before the project can be approved.WrapItUp: Developing a New Compensation PlanA restaurant chain based in California offers made-to-order sandwich wraps using fresh, healthy ingredients. Management pilots a profit-sharing program at two restaurants to address concerns that employee turnover is high, customer satisfaction is decreasing, and revenue growth is flat.

Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Ripple now operate in a multi-billion pound trading arena. In fact, more than $250 billion worth of cryptocurrencies has changed hands in the last 24 hours alone. As such, it makes sense that more and more people in the UK are looking to get a piece of the crypto action.With that being said, you’re not buying a traditional asset like stocks or bonds here. On the contrary, cryptocurrencies are a new, innovative, and somewhat complex financial instrument.To help clear the mist, this guide on How to Buy Cryptocurrency UK will show you what you need to do to make a purchase today. We also uncover some background information on what cryptocurrencies are, how you make money, and what risks you need to consider.Logically, everyone wants to invest in cryptocurrency and be rich overnight because it is the new wave, Yes, it has made a lot of people rich but you cannot be rich overnight as it is a process. The problem remains that a lot of people do not know the right questions to ask and also the right investment platform to invest. From my experience, investing with the platform (www. cryptomartfx. com) where you earn 10% of whatever you invest in 10days is a very reliable platform that i have personally tested several times and never been disappointed. Also, they offer referral services where you can refer people and also make money from the process. This is not an illusion as it is very real.NB- All of my writings can be verified with further research if you want.How to Buy Cryptocurrency UKThis is a step-by-step walkthrough of how to buy cryptocurrency in the UK right now. We’ve used our number one recommended broker eToro, due to its low fees, wide range of cryptocurrencies and tight security, but the process is similar on most brokers and exchanges.Step 1: Open a Brokerage Account at eToroVisit the eToro website, elect to open an account, and follow the on-screen instructions.You will be asked a range of questions pertaining to your personal information, contact details, and prior trading experience. All in all, this part of the process should take you no more than five minutes.Step 2: Download the eToro AppCryptocurrency prices can move in a super-volatile manner at the drop of a hat. As such, you don’t want to be outside of the house only to get back to find out your investment has nose-dived.With this in mind, it is well worth downloading the eToro investment app, too. This will not only send real-time pricing updates to your phone, but you can buy and sell bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies at the click of a button.Step 3: Deposit FundsYou will now need to make a deposit. As we covered earlier, you need to deposit at least $200 at eToro, albeit, the minimum cryptocurrency investment is just $25. You can fund your account instantly with a debit/credit card or an e-wallet like Paypal and Skrill.Step 4: Choose Which Cryptocurrency to BuyeToro allows you to buy 16 different cryptocurrencies. If you know which one you wish to buy, simply enter it into the search box and click on the result that loads up. In our example, we are buying Ripple.On the next page, click on the ‘Trade’ button.Step 5: Buy CryptocurrencyTo complete the cryptocurrency investment process, you simply need to enter the amount that you wish to buy.As you can see from the screenshot above, we are buying $25 worth of Ripple – which is the minimum. Finally, click on the ‘Open Trade’ button to buy cryptocurrency commission-freeWhat is Cryptocurrency?Whether you’re investing in stocks, ETFs, bonds, or any asset class for that matter – it is important that you understand the financial instrument you are interested in buying. After all, you will be risking your hard-earned money with the view of making a profit.So, cryptocurrencies are also referred to as digital currencies, as they allow you to send, receive, and transfer funds. Everything is digital, meaning that cryptocurrencies do not exist in their physical form. Cryptocurrencies possess a range of characteristics that set them apart from traditional currencies like the British pound or Euro.This includes:Cryptocurrencies are not owned or controlled by any government or central bank. Instead, they are decentralized.Most cryptocurrencies are backed by blockchain technology. This means that all transactions are secure and anonymousWhen cryptocurrency transfers are completed, the transaction is publicly viewable on the blockchain. This makes the network 100% transparent and free from abuse.Cryptocurrencies operate in a borderless nature. This means that transferring coins to the other side of the world will cost the same and a domestic transaction.Now, it is important to note that you have likely heard of Bitcoin (BTC). This is because Bitcoin was the first and still is the de-facto cryptocurrency of choice. It holds the largest market capitalization and has the greatest mass awareness. However, Bitcoin isn’t the only cryptocurrency.On the contrary, there are now well over 7,800 cryptocurrencies in existence – totaling a market valuation of over $580 billion. Of this figure, Bitcoin currently represents 62%.In terms of what you can do with a cryptocurrency – each project has a specific purpose. For example, while Bitcoin was created as a payments network, Ripple provides the technology for cross-border banking transactions. With that said, the vast majority of people buy cryptocurrency in the United Kingdom for speculative reasons.That is to say, many believe that it is inevitable that cryptocurrencies will play a major role in the future of money – so it is hoped that the value of their investment will increase over time. This works much the same as any other asset class – meaning that the fundamentals of investing in cryptocurrency are relatively straight forward.Cryptocurrency Prices and Making MoneyBaring in mind that people in the UK buy a cryptocurrency for financial gain, it makes sense that there is a huge marketplace that can facilitate this. Put simply, cryptocurrencies are listed on public exchanges. This allows people in the UK to buy, sell, and trade their preferred cryptocurrency.Once again, this works the same as traditional shares – which are listed on stock exchanges. Similarly, the value of your chosen cryptocurrency will go up and down on a second-by-second basis. As the industry is borderless, the markets are open 24 hours per day, 7 days per week.In terms of how cryptocurrency prices work, this is based on conventional demand and supply. That is to say, when there are more buyers than sellers, the price of the cryptocurrency will naturally rise. This is what allows you to make a profit, as you will hope to sell your cryptocurrency at a higher price than you paid.For example:Let’s suppose that you buy £1,000 worth of Bitcoin todayAt the time of the purchase, Bitcoin is worth $19,000You hold on to your Bitcoin for five yearsWhen you eventually get around to cashing out, Bitcoin is worth $55,000This represents a price increase of 189%As such your original £1,000 Bitcoin purchase grew to £2,890As you can see from the above example, we quantified the value of Bitcoin in US dollars. This is because the US dollar is the de-facto fiat currency used to value cryptocurrencies in the marketplace.As a UK investor, this shouldn’t concern you. After all, the best cryptocurrency trading sites in the UK allow you to deposit in British pounds with a debit/credit card, bank account, or e-wallet. Then, the broker in question will simply perform a currency conversion into US dollars.Why Buy Cryptocurrency?Cryptocurrencies do not come without fault. For example, they are speculative, high-risk, and in most cases – do not offer anything in the way of regular income. However, there are many reasons why people in the UK buy cryptocurrencies – and are now doing so in their droves.This includes the following:Cryptocurrency Prices Continue to Outperform Other AssetsLet’s start with the obvious – the growth of cryptocurrency prices over the past few years. Put simply, investors have seen some uncanny financial gains on popular coins like Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Ripple.For example, while Bitcoin was priced at less than 1 cent a mere decade ago, it has since hit all-time highs of $20,000. This represents financial returns in the millions of percent.Then you have the likes of Ethereum, which began life at around $2.70 per coin. Fast forward to late 2017 and the same coin would have cost you over $1,400. This represents a growth of over 50,000%.In more recent times, cryptocurrency prices are once again on an upward trajectory. For example, while Ripple entered 2020 at $0.19 – it has since reached $0.70. That’s gains of over 260% in less than 12 months of trading.Ultimately, there is no knowing just how big cryptocurrencies can one day get. This is especially the case with leading projects like Bitcoin and Ethereum. When you consider their global appeal and ability or solve age-old financial problems, the skies really are the limit.Traditional Investments are StrugglingSo how do cryptocurrencies compare to traditional investment classes? Well, it is no secret that leaving your money in a UK bank account will barely get you 1% in interest per year. The FTSE 100 is in dire straights too. For example, the index is worth less today than in 2015.In fact, the vast majority of stocks listed on the London Stock Exchange have failed to recover their COV-19 losses – some of which are in excess of 50%. Even dividend stocks are having a horrid time this year – with scores of FTSE 100 companies either cutting or outright suspending their payments.Taking all of this into account, people in the UK are looking at cryptocurrencies as an alternative to traditional investment classes.New and Innovative TechnologyAs we briefly noted earlier, each and every cryptocurrency has a specific objective or purpose. In the case of Bitcoin, its anonymous founder wanted to challenge the status quo of the global monetary system. Bitcoin does this by taking control away from traditional banks and financial instruments and back into your own hands.After all, Bitcoin – like most cryptocurrencies, are decentralized. As such, there is no single owner of the underlying network. Cryptocurrencies are also highly conducive for cross-border transactions.This is especially useful in the case of remitting money to the third-world, where more than 2 billion people still do not have access to banking facilities. By using cryptocurrency to transfer value, the fees are super low and the transfer often takes just a few minutes.The key point here is that when you buy cryptocurrency in the UK, you are essentially investing in a new, innovative, and highly disruptive technology. As we know from other revolutionary discoveries like online shopping or smartphones, this can often lead to serious financial gain for early backers.Barriers to Entry are LowRetail investors in the UK – meaning that you do not come from a professional or institutional trading background, are somewhat limited in the assets that can be accessed. Sure, the likes of stocks and ETFs are easy to buy – but bonds, government securities, emerging market equities are a lot more difficult to come by.With that said, you can easily buy cryptocurrency in the UK – with the process often taking a matter of minutes. As we mentioned earlier, all you need to do at eToro is make a deposit with your debit/credit card and decide how much you want to invest.Diversification is PossibleWhile most cryptocurrency investors will stick with Bitcoin, it is also worth considering a more diversified approach to the sector. After all, there are almost 8,000 cryptocurrencies in existence, so you can easily spread out the risk by buying multiple coins.With that said, you’ll likely only want to focus on major cryptocurrencies – as the vast majority of tiny projects with a minute market valuation. For example, you might allocate 60% of your UK cryptocurrency portfolio to Bitcoin, 20% to Ethereum, and 10% each on both Ripple and EOS.Cryptocurrencies are a Liquid AssetCryptocurrencies are an asset class with high liquidity, meaning that you can easily convert your coins back into cold-hard cash. This is because cryptocurrencies are traded on public exchanges 24 hours per day.As such, all you need to do is exit your position by converting your cryptocurrency back to pound sterling, and then withdraw the money back to your debit/credit card or bank account.This is crucial, as it means your money is never locked up in times of financial need.What Cryptocurrencies Can You Buy in the UK?Although there are thousands of different cryptocurrencies can that be purchased, most of these are ERC-20 tokens. For those unaware, this means that the cryptocurrency was built on top of the Ethereum blockchain. In other words, the underlying technology is not proprietary to the digital currency in question.With this in mind, very few UK cryptocurrency brokers will offer ERC-20 tokens – as demand is so low. Instead, you would need to use a crypto exchange to obtain one of these tokens – which can be a cumbersome process.This is because conventional cryptocurrency exchanges are typically unlicensed and thus – do not have the legal remit to support fiat deposits (debit card, bank transfer, etc.). Instead, you would need to buy a popular cryptocurrency like Bitcoin, transfer it into the exchange, and then convert it to your desired ERC-20 token.As such, you’re best to focus on cryptocurrencies that are listed in the top 20 in terms of market capitalization. This is because it is likely that your chosen UK broker offers some, if not most of these popular cryptocurrencies – which are listed below.BitcoinEthereumRipple (XRP)TetherLitecoinBitcoin CashChainlinkPolkadotBinance CoinStellarEOSTronMoneroTezosCardanoNEODashIOTAZCashEthereum ClassicFCA broker eToro, for example, offers 16 of the above 20 cryptocurrencies – all of which you can buy in the UK commission-free.Buying Cryptocurrency SafelyIf you’re wondering how to buy cryptocurrency safely, there are several precautions that you can take.This includes:Only Use a Regulated Cryptocurrency BrokerBy using an online broker that does not have the legal remit to sell cryptocurrencies – you are asking for big trouble. After all, you will be required to deposit your hard-earned money into the platform. As such, we would strongly suggest that you only buy cryptocurrency in the UK from a regulated provider.The likes of eToro are regulated by three tier-one licensing bodies. On top of the UK’s Financial Conduct Authoriity, this also includes ASIC (Australia) and CySEC (Cyprus). You also have an extra set of regulatory eyes keeping you safe – as eToro is registered with FINRA in the US.Dollar-Cost Average to Avoid VolatilityAs we briefly noted earlier, not only are cryptocurrency assets speculative, but they are highly volatile. This means that the value of your cryptocurrency investment can go up and down in a parabolic manner. This is likely to put newbie investors off, as the emotional side-effects of high volatility can be daunting.In order to counter this, it might be worth considering a dollar-cost average strategy when you buy cryptocurrency in the UK. Put simply, this means that instead of injecting a large lump sum into cryptocurrency, you invest small but regular amounts.For example, you might invest $25 per week when using eToro.In doing so, every time you make a purchase you will get a different cost price.Over the course of time, this cost price will average out nicely, subsequently ensuring that volatility has no impact in the long run.After all, even if your cryptocurrency goes down in value, dollar-cost averaging allows you to take advantage of this by making a purchase at a lower price!Consider a Hardware WalletAlthough a lot of people that buy cryptocurrency in the UK will choose to leave their coins at their chosen broker, some of you might want to withdraw them to a private wallet. In doing so, you will retain full control over your cryptocurrency, and thus – you are not relying on a third-party to store them safely.However, both desktop and mobile cryptocurrency wallets are vulnerable to remote hacking attempts. If successful, you could lose your entire cryptocurrency portfolio in one fell swoop. If you’re wondering how to buy cryptocurrency safely and then securely store it yourself, we would suggest considering a hardware wallet.This is as safe and secure as it gets in the cryptocurrency storage arena, as your hardware wallet is never connected to the internet. As such, this makes a remote hacking attempt virtually impossible. Industry leaders in this space include Trezor and Ledger Nano.Keep Your Cryptocurrency Wallet Credentials SecretThis particular point is relevant for all wallet types – whether that’s desktop, mobile, or hardware. In a nutshell, your cryptocurrency wallet will come with two crucial pieces of data – a private key and a passphrase.The former is what stands between you and your bitcoin wallet being accessed by a third-party – so it is absolutely crucial that you keep this safe, secure, and private.The passphrase – which is usually a series of words, is used as a backup in the event you lose or misplace your private key. With this in mind, you should consider keeping both in separate locations.What Payment Methods Can You Use to Buy Cryptocurrency?In a time not so long ago, cryptocurrency exchanges could not accept fiat currency deposits. This made it really hard to buy cryptocurrency in the UK from the comfort of your home. Then, a number of exchanges popped up that allowed you to deposit funds via bank transfer. At the now-defunct exchange MTGox, the bank deposit process often took up to one month to process.Fortunately, the cryptocurrency scene has since opened up to regulated brokerage sites – meaning that they have the legal remit to accept a full suite of popular payment methods. For example, the likes of eToro allow you to buy cryptocurrency in the UK with the following options:VisaVisa ElectronMasterCardMaestroPaypalSkrillNetellerTrustlyUK Bank TransferBest of all, each of the above payment methods – with the exception of a bank transfer, are instantly processed. This means that as soon as you confirm the deposit, you can buy cryptocurrency in the UK straight away.Risks of Buy CryptocurrencyAlthough we have covered the many benefits of buying cryptocurrency in the UK, it is only right that we also discuss the risks.This includes:You can Lose MoneySure, all investments can potentially result in you losing money. However, the risk of loss is substantially higher in the world of cryptocurrencies. This is especially the case with smaller coins – such as the previously discussed ERC-20 tokens.For example, there are thousands of cryptocurrencies that during the boom of 2017 saw triple and even quadruple-digit percentage gains.However, the vast majority of these collectively burned out – subsequently resulting in losses as high as 95%. This means that by investing £1,000 into one of these virtually-dead cryptocurrencies, you would now be left with just £50.Take note, such as nose-dive is not relevant to just ERC-20 tokens. On the contrary, major cryptocurrencies – including Bitcoin, have encountered huge losses in recent years. For example, had you bought 1 Bitcoin in late 2017, you would have paid a price of just under $20,000. Fast forward just 12 months and the same 1 Bitcoin was worth $3,000.This means net losses of 85%. As we now know, Bitcoin has since recovered. At the time of writing, the digital currency is inching very close to its previous all-time high of $20,000. All in all, this also highlights that you need to be patient when you buy cryptocurrencies in the UK – much like you do with stocks and shares.Cryptocurrency Regulation is a Grey AreaNot only is cryptocurrency regulation a grey area in the UK, but globally. This is because in most jurisdictions there is no cryptocurrency-specific legislation. Sure, you have the likes of Malta, Japan, and Gibraltar that have since enacted laws and regulations, but most countries – including the UK, haven’t.So what does this mean for you and your UK cryptocurrency investment?Well, the FCA has taken somewhat of a lead in providing cryptocurrency guidance. This does make sense when you consider the multi-billion pound trading scene that digital currencies operate in.However, this is largely linked to anti-money laundering regulations – such as brokers being required to verify all UK cryptocurrency buyers.The key problem is that the UK – or any nation for that matter, cannot truly regulate Bitcoin in the truest form.After all, it is a decentralized technology meaning that no single person or entity controls the network.On the other hand, there is always the risk that the UK government could one day ban cryptocurrency transactions outright.Although technically it could not prevent you from sending coins from one wallet to another, it could easily place an outright ban on brokers offering cryptocurrency services. If it did, this could have a major impact on your ability to get a return on your cryptocurrency investment.Risk of Hacking AttemptAlthough we briefly discussed third-party hacks earlier, it is important to clarify that should you encounter one yourself – your entire cryptocurrency balance could be stolen. This is because whoever has access to the wallet itself has the ability to transfer coins out. As soon as this happens, your coins will be gone forever.This is in stark contrast to having your bank account hacked. In the vast majority of cases, UK banks are legally required to reimburse you for the loss – and quickly. However, no such third-party exists when you decide to store cryptocurrencies in a private wallet, so do bear this in mind.

Oddly the name comes from a white man who was caricaturing a black man:Thomas Dartmouth Rice, a white man, was born in New York City in 1808. He devoted himself to the theater in his twenties, and in the early 1830s, he began performing the act that would make him famous: he painted his face black and did a song and dance he claimed were inspired by a slave he saw. The act was called “Jump, Jim Crow” (or “Jumping Jim Crow”).“He would put on not only blackface makeup, but shabby dress that imitated in his mind and white peoples minds of the time” the dress and aspect and demeanor of the southern enslaved black person,says Eric Lott, author of Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Classand professor of English and American Studies at the City University of New York Graduate Center.Rice’s routine was a hit in New York City, one of many of places in the North where working-class whites could see blackface minstrelsy, which was quickly becoming a dominant form of theater and a leading source for popular music in America. Rice took his act on tour, even going as far as England; and as his popularity grew, his stage name seeped into the culture. Who Was Jim Crow?Jim Crow was a way of life. It was an ideology of racial superiority similar to apartheid and was codified into law.The following discussion is long but this era deserves to be understood for the horrorshow it was.Jim Crow was the name of the racial caste system which operated primarily, but not exclusively in southern and border states, between 1877 and the mid-1960s. Jim Crow was more than a series of rigid anti-black laws. It was a way of life. Under Jim Crow, African Americans were relegated to the status of second class citizens. Jim Crow represented the legitimization of anti-black racism. Many Christian ministers and theologians taught that whites were the Chosen people, blacks were cursed to be servants, and God supported racial segregation. Craniologists, eugenicists, phrenologists, and Social Darwinists, at every educational level, buttressed the belief that blacks were innately intellectually and culturally inferior to whites. Pro-segregation politicians gave eloquent speeches on the great danger of integration: the mongrelization of the white race. Newspaper and magazine writers routinely referred to blacks as niggers, coons, and darkies; and worse, their articles reinforced anti-black stereotypes. Even children's games portrayed blacks as inferior beings. All major societal institutions reflected and supported the oppression of blacks.The Jim Crow system was undergirded by the following beliefs or rationalizations: whites were superior to blacks in all important ways, including but not limited to intelligence, morality, and civilized behavior; sexual relations between blacks and whites would produce a mongrel race which would destroy America; treating blacks as equals would encourage interracial sexual unions; any activity which suggested social equality encouraged interracial sexual relations; if necessary, violence must be used to keep blacks at the bottom of the racial hierarchy. The following Jim Crow etiquette norms show how inclusive and pervasive these norms were:• A black male could not offer his hand (to shake hands) with a white male because it implied being socially equal. Obviously, a black male could not offer his hand or any other part of his body to a white woman, because he risked being accused of rape.• Blacks and whites were not supposed to eat together. If they did eat together, whites were to be served first, and some sort of partition was to be placed between them.• Under no circumstance was a black male to offer to light the cigarette of a white female -- that gesture implied intimacy.• Blacks were not allowed to show public affection toward one another in public, especially kissing, because it offended whites.• Jim Crow etiquette prescribed that blacks were introduced to whites, never whites to blacks. For example: "Mr. Peters (the white person), this is Charlie (the black person), that I spoke to you about."• Whites did not use courtesy titles of respect when referring to blacks, for example, Mr., Mrs., Miss., Sir, or Ma'am. Instead, blacks were called by their first names. Blacks had to use courtesy titles when referring to whites, and were not allowed to call them by their first names.• If a black person rode in a car driven by a white person, the black person sat in the back seat, or the back of a truck.• White motorists had the right-of-way at all intersections.Stetson Kennedy, the author of Jim Crow Guide(1990), offered these simple rules that blacks were supposed to observe in conversing with whites:1) Never assert or even intimate that a white person is lying.2) Never impute dishonorable intentions to a white person.3) Never suggest that a white person is from an inferior class.4) Never lay claim to, or overly demonstrate, superior knowledge or intelligence.5) Never curse a white person.6) Never laugh derisively at a white person.7) Never comment upon the appearance of a white female.Jim Crow etiquette operated in conjunction with Jim Crow laws (black codes). When most people think of Jim Crow they think of laws (not the Jim Crow etiquette) which excluded blacks from public transport and facilities, juries, jobs, and neighborhoods. The passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution had granted blacks the same legal protections as whites. However, after 1877, and the election of Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, southern and border states began restricting the liberties of blacks. Unfortunately for blacks, the Supreme Court helped undermine the Constitutional protections of blacks with the infamous Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) case, which legitimized Jim Crow laws and the Jim Crow way of life.In 1890, Louisiana passed the "Separate Car Law," which purported to aid passenger comfort by creating "equal but separate" cars for blacks and whites. This was a ruse. No public accommodations, including railway travel, provided blacks with equal facilities. The Louisiana law made it illegal for blacks to sit in coach seats reserved for whites, and whites could not sit in seats reserved for blacks. In 1891, a group of blacks decided to test the Jim Crow law. They had Homer A. Plessy, who was seven-eighths white and one-eighth black (therefore, black), sit in the white-only railroad coach. He was arrested. Plessy's lawyer argued that Louisiana did not have the right to label one citizen as white and another black for the purposes of restricting their rights and privileges. In Plessy, the Supreme Court stated that so long as state governments provided legal process and legal freedoms for blacks, equal to those of whites, they could maintain separate institutions to facilitate these rights. The Court, by a 7-2 vote, upheld the Louisiana law, declaring that racial separation did not necessarily mean an abrogation of equality. In practice, Plessy represented the legitimization of two societies: one white, and advantaged; the other, black, disadvantaged and despised.Blacks were denied the right to vote by grandfather clauses (laws that restricted the right to vote to people whose ancestors had voted before the Civil War), poll taxes (fees charged to poor blacks), white primaries (only Democrats could vote, only whites could be Democrats), and literacy tests ("Name all the Vice Presidents and Supreme Court Justices throughout America's history"). Plessy sent this message to southern and border states: Discrimination against blacks is acceptable.Jim Crow states passed statutes severely regulating social interactions between the races. Jim Crow signs were placed above water fountains, door entrances and exits, and in front of public facilities. There were separate hospitals for blacks and whites, separate prisons, separate public and private schools, separate churches, separate cemeteries, separate public restrooms, and separate public accommodations. In most instances, the black facilities were grossly inferior -- generally, older, less-well-kept. In other cases, there were no black facilities -- no Colored public restroom, no public beach, no place to sit or eat. Plessy gave Jim Crow states a legal way to ignore their constitutional obligations to their black citizens.Jim Crow laws touched every aspect of everyday life. For example, in 1935, Oklahoma prohibited blacks and whites from boating together. Boating implied social equality. In 1905, Georgia established separate parks for blacks and whites. In 1930, Birmingham, Alabama, made it illegal for blacks and whites to play checkers or dominoes together. Here are some of the typical Jim Crow laws, as compiled by the Martin Luther King, Jr., National Historic Site Interpretive Staff:• Barbers. No colored barber shall serve as a barber (to) white girls or women (Georgia).• Blind Wards. The board of trustees shall...maintain a separate building...on separate ground for the admission, care, instruction, and support of all blind persons of the colored or black race (Louisiana).• Burial. The officer in charge shall not bury, or allow to be buried, any colored persons upon ground set apart or used for the burial of white persons (Georgia).• Buses. All passenger stations in this state operated by any motor transportation company shall have separate waiting rooms or space and separate ticket windows for the white and colored races (Alabama).• Child Custody. It shall be unlawful for any parent, relative, or other white person in this State, having the control or custody of any white child, by right of guardianship, natural or acquired, or otherwise, to dispose of, give or surrender such white child permanently into the custody, control, maintenance, or support, of a negro (South Carolina).• Education. The schools for white children and the schools for negro children shall be conducted separately (Florida).• Libraries. The state librarian is directed to fit up and maintain a separate place for the use of the colored people who may come to the library for the purpose of reading books or periodicals (North Carolina).• Mental Hospitals. The Board of Control shall see that proper and distinct apartments are arranged for said patients, so that in no case shall Negroes and white persons be together (Georgia).• Militia. The white and colored militia shall be separately enrolled, and shall never be compelled to serve in the same organization. No organization of colored troops shall be permitted where white troops are available and where whites are permitted to be organized, colored troops shall be under the command of white officers (North Carolina).• Nurses. No person or corporation shall require any White female nurse to nurse in wards or rooms in hospitals, either public or private, in which negro men are placed (Alabama).• Prisons. The warden shall see that the white convicts shall have separate apartments for both eating and sleeping from the negro convicts (Mississippi).• Reform Schools.The children of white and colored races committed to the houses of reform shall be kept entirely separate from each other (Kentucky).• Teaching. Any instructor who shall teach in any school, college or institution where members of the white and colored race are received and enrolled as pupils for instruction shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall be fined... (Oklahoma).• Wine and Beer. All persons licensed to conduct the business of selling beer or wine...shall serve either white people exclusively or colored people exclusively and shall not sell to the two races within the same room at any time (Georgia).The Jim Crow laws and system of etiquette were undergirded by violence, real and threatened. Blacks who violated Jim Crow norms, for example, drinking from the white water fountain or trying to vote, risked their homes, their jobs, even their lives. Whites could physically beat blacks with impunity. Blacks had little legal recourse against these assaults because the Jim Crow criminal justice system was all-white: police, prosecutors, judges, juries, and prison officials. Violence was instrumental for Jim Crow. It was a method of social control. The most extreme forms of Jim Crow violence were lynchings.Lynchings were public, often sadistic, murders carried out by mobs. Between 1882, when the first reliable data were collected, and 1968, when lynchings had become rare, there were 4,730 known lynchings, including 3,440 black men and women. Most of the victims of Lynch Law were hanged or shot, but some were burned at the stake, castrated, beaten with clubs, or dismembered. In the mid-1800s, whites constituted the majority of victims (and perpetrators); however, by the period of Radical Reconstruction, blacks became the most frequent lynching victims. This is an early indication that lynching was used as an intimidation tool to keep blacks, in this case the newly freed people, "in their places." The great majority of lynchings occurred in southern and border states, where the resentment against blacks ran deepest. According to the social economist Gunnar Myrdal (1994): "The southern states account for nine-tenths of the lynchings. More than two thirds of the remaining one-tenth occurred in the six states which immediately border the South".Many whites claimed that although lynchings were distasteful, they were necessary supplements to the criminal justice system because blacks were prone to violent crimes, especially the rapes of white women. Arthur Raper investigated nearly a century of lynchings and concluded that approximately one-third of all the victims were falsely accused.Under Jim Crow any and all sexual interactions between black men and white women was illegal, illicit, socially repugnant, and within the Jim Crow definition of rape. Although only 19.2 percent of the lynching victims between 1882 to 1951 were even accused of rape, lynch law was often supported on the popular belief that lynchings were necessary to protect white women from black rapists. Myrdal (1994) refutes this belief in this way: "There is much reason to believe that this figure has been inflated by the fact that a mob which makes the accusation of rape is secure from any further investigation; by the broad Southern definition of rape to include all sexual relations between Negro men and white women; and by the psychopathic fears of white women in their contacts with Negro men". Most blacks were lynched for demanding civil rights, violating Jim Crow etiquette or laws, or in the aftermath of race riots.Lynchings were most common in small and middle-sized towns where blacks often were economic competitors to the local whites. These whites resented any economic and political gains made by blacks. Lynchers were seldomly arrested, and if arrested, rarely convicted. Raper (1933) estimated that "at least one-half of the lynchings are carried out with police officers participating, and that in nine-tenths of the others the officers either condone or wink at the mob action". Lynching served many purposes: it was cheap entertainment; it served as a rallying, uniting point for whites; it functioned as an ego-massage for low-income, low-status whites; it was a method of defending white domination and helped stop or retard the fledgling social equality movement.Lynch mobs directed their hatred against one (sometimes several) victims. The victim was an example of what happened to a black man who tried to vote, or who looked at a white woman, or who tried to get a white man's job. Unfortunately for blacks, sometimes the mob was not satisfied to murder a single or several victims. Instead, in the spirit of pogroms, the mobs went into black communities and destroyed additional lives and property. Their immediate goal was to drive out -- through death or expulsion -- all blacks; the larger goal was to maintain, at all costs, white supremacy. These pogrom-like actions are often referred to as riots; however, Gunnar Myrdal (1944) was right when he described these "riots" as "a terrorization or massacre...a mass lynching". Interestingly, these mass lynchings were primarily urban phenomena, whereas the lynching of single victims was primarily a rural phenomena.James Weldon Johnson, the famous black writer, labeled 1919 as "The Red Summer." It was red from racial tension; it was red from bloodletting. During the summer of 1919, there were race riots in Chicago, Illinois; Knoxville and Nashville, Tennessee; Charleston, South Carolina; Omaha, Nebraska; and two dozen other cities. W.E.B. DuBois (1986), the black social scientist and civil rights activist, wrote: "During that year seventy-seven Negroes were lynched, of whom one was a woman and eleven were soldiers; of these, fourteen were publicly burned, eleven of them being burned alive. That year there were race riots large and small in twenty-six American cities including thirty-eight killed in a Chicago riot of August; from twenty-five to fifty in Phillips County, Arkansas; and six killed in Washington".The riots of 1919 were not the first or last "mass lynchings" of blacks, as evidenced by the race riots in Wilmington, North Carolina (1898); Atlanta, Georgia (1906); Springfield, Illinois (1908); East St. Louis, Illinois (1917); Tulsa, Oklahoma (1921); and Detroit, Michigan (1943). Joseph Boskin, author of Urban Racial Violence (1976), claimed that the riots of the 1900s had the following traits:1) In each of the race riots, with few exceptions, it was white people that sparked the incident by attacking black people.2) In the majority of the riots, some extraordinary social condition prevailed at the time of the riot: prewar social changes, wartime mobility, post-war adjustment, or economic depression.3) The majority of the riots occurred during the hot summer months.4) Rumor played an extremely important role in causing many riots. Rumors of some criminal activity by blacks against whites perpetuated the actions of the white mobs.5) The police force, more than any other institution, was invariably involved as a precipitating cause or perpetuating factor in the riots. In almost every one of the riots, the police sided with the attackers, either by actually participating in, or by failing to quell the attack.6) In almost every instance, the fighting occurred within the black community.Boskin omitted the following: the mass media, especially newspapers often published inflammatory articles about "black criminals" immediately before the riots; blacks were not only killed, but their homes and businesses were looted, and many who did not flee were left homeless; and, the goal of the white rioters, as was true of white lynchers of single victims, was to instill fear and terror into blacks, thereby buttressing white domination. The Jim Crow hierarchy could not work without violence being used against those on the bottom rung. George Fredrickson (1971), a historian, stated it this way: "Lynching represented...a way of using fear and terror to check 'dangerous' tendencies in a black community considered to be ineffectively regimented or supervised. As such it constituted a confession that the regular institutions of a segregated society provided an inadequate measure of day-to-day control".Many blacks resisted the indignities of Jim Crow, and, far too often, they paid for their bravery with their lives. What was Jim CrowBlack Like Me:In late 1959, John Howard Griffin went to a friend's house in New Orleans, Louisiana. Once there, under the care of a dermatologist, Griffin underwent a regimen of large oral doses of the anti-vitiligo drug methoxsalen, and spending up to fifteen hours daily under an ultraviolet lamp. When he could pass as an African American, Griffin began a six-week journey in the South. Don Rutledge traveled with him, documenting the experience with photos.During his trip, Griffin abided by the rule that he would not change his name or alter his identity; if asked who he was or what he was doing, he would tell the truth. In the beginning, he decided to talk as little as possible to ease his transition into the social milieu of southern U.S. blacks. He became accustomed everywhere to the "hate stare" received from whites.After he disguised himself, many people who knew Griffin as a white man did not recognize him. Sterling Williams, a black shoeshine man in the French Quarter whom Griffin regarded as a casual friend, did not recognize him. Because Griffin wanted assistance in entering into the black community, he decided to tell Sterling about his identity and project. He first hinted that he wore the same unusual shoes as somebody else, but Sterling still did not recognize him until Griffin told him.In New Orleans, a black counterman at a small restaurant chatted with Griffin about the difficulties of finding a place to go to the bathroom, as facilities were segregated and blacks were prohibited from many. He turned a question about a Catholic church into a joke about "spending much of your time praying for a place to piss".On a bus trip, Griffin began to give his seat to a white woman, but disapproving looks from black passengers stopped him. He thought he had a momentary breakthrough with the woman, but she insulted him and began talking with other white passengers about how impudent the blacks were becoming. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Like_MeHe wasn’t the first. Ray Sprigle spent thirty days undercover as a black man and published his experience as I Was a Negro in the South for 30 Days starting in 1948. Read it here: I was a Negro in the South for 30 DaysSouthern Belles in 19601956195619561956Teach them youngPoliceman enforcing the law in 1961Jim Crow laws - WikipediaJim Crow Laws | American Experience | PBSJim Crow law | History & Factshttps://www.amazon.com/Love-Thef...https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_ss_c_1_13?url=search-alias%3Daps&field-keywords=black+like+me+by+john+howard+griffin&sprefix=black+like+me%2Caps%2C263&crid=1O05BLY3F6OGR