Oak Pollen Movement: Fill & Download for Free

Outside the window my desk sits in front of.It was yesterday, in fact. I was doing something or the other on the computer (I would like to say I was working, but there is a pretty good chance that would be a fib. I could just have easily been browsing Quora lol), and I noticed movement in the window in front of me.I looked up and saw a snake noodling his way up the window pane. His lower half was resting on top of the window air conditioning unit, and he was just sort of snaking about, snake-like.I think he was probably a white oak snake, but the outside window pane is rather dirty from the pollen and sap produced by the big trees overhanging the window. (I don’t even have the gall to pretend I am the sort of person who washes her outside windows on a weekly basis. Wish I were, but that just is never going to be the case.)Anyway, he was a cute little fellow. About a foot long, about as thick as a ball point pen, just sort of peeking in at me. I peeked back, and made a mental note to be sure he was gone before turning the air conditioner on (I didn’t want to scare the bejeezus out of him.)He hung out there for, oh, about an hour, tending to whatever pressing serpent business brought him to my window, and then slithered off and on his way.I have been glancing at the window all day, but he hasn’t made a repeat appearance,I rather hope he does come back over the weekend, so my husband gets a chance to see him, He was really cute, in a scaly sort of fashion.

It is important to replace your cabin air filter. How often should you replace the cabin air filter for your vehicles? It depends. At the very least, the cabin air filter should be replaced once a year.Before we completely answer this question, better to know some about cabin air filters. Reading the following, you will know:What is a cabin air filter?Located on most vehicles behind the glove compartment since 2000, the cabin air filter is responsible for filtering the air that enters the cabin of the vehicle through the heating and AC (air conditioning) system. The device is crucial to maintaining healthy air quality in the car because it filters out dust, bugs, pollution, pollen, and other substances. Over time, the car air filter will inevitably blockage, which will affect the car air quality.What does the cabin air filter do in a car?Your car's cabin air filter has a very important job to do. It purifies the air entering the vehicle through heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems. It traps dust, pollen and other substances in the air, ensuring that passengers breathe clean air, which is especially helpful for people with allergies or other breathing problems.The cabin air filter works just like the air filter in your home heating and air-conditioning system, filtering out all harmful substances. A dirty, clogged cabin filter will fail to capture those allergens, dirt and dust in the air, causing you to breathe dirtier air than outside. This is certainly not healthy for anyone, especially those with environmental allergies and asthma.If you are concerned about your health and the health of your passengers, it is important to change the cabin air filters. When you're driving, the exhaust from the car in front of you, along with pollen and other harmful substances, is pulled into your car, just like you're driving in a tunnel. And because you're in a fairly compact, enclosed space, the concentration of these things might be six to ten times higher than what's outside.Why do we need a cabin filter? How important is the cabin air filter in a car?For the sake of our health, this would be a quick and easy answer. Because in the past, cars sent air into the cabin through a fan but did not filter the air inside. Even after the first air-conditioned car appeared, the air remained unfiltered.Until the late 1990s, various studies showed that passengers driving in crowded cities were more susceptible to air and dust pollution, and the number of drivers dying from lung disease was increasing. This is the birth of the pollen filter, which is the only barrier between the external air we breathe and the internal air we breathe.What is the role of an air filter?It's called a pollen filter, and you could say this filter keeps pollen from getting into the car. But more than that. Because this filter is very important, especially in dusty cities, it filters and retains everything that goes into the air inlet, near the windscreen, or near the wiper.Because big cities are not entirely clean, you will probably find dust, dust, pollen, scales, plants, dry leaves, insects, and so on. This is not without its benefits. If you travel to a small mountain town in Switzerland, the pollen filter is always clean. On the contrary, in a polluted city, when you make a change, you will find it full, loaded like a Christmas tree.What is the difference between a cabin air filter vs an air filter?There isn’t a huge difference between the two vehicle filters. The engine’s air filter ensures clean air gets to the engine. Whereas, the cabin air filter prevents any dirty air from entering the vehicle which, in turn, protects you and your passengers from pollutants and allergens.Where is the cabin air filter located?Where the cabin air filter is located determines how easy it is to replace. If it is located behind the dashboard, gaining access may be more difficult than if it is located in the engine compartment. You can find out more by reading the owner’s manual for your vehicle.Types of car cabin air filtersExternal cabin filters & Internal cabin filtersCabin filters are of several types, either by positioning in the car or by the material from which they are composed. First of all, we need to know that there are external and internal cabin filters.That is filters that are replaced by the inside of the car, usually under the glove box or behind the central console with the air heater and external filters, which we replace outside the cabin, under the engine hood.Simple pollen filtersAnd the other classification is made of simple pollen filters, usually from a hybrid textile plus paper and filters with carbon inserts, to eliminate unpleasant odors. Due to carbon, pathogens and bacteria have much lower chances of penetrating the filter.Why is it important to change your cabin air filter?Do I really need to replace the cabin air filter?When replacing cabin air filters, we can see that the cabin filters were filled with different things, completely different from the pollen or dust we expected. Some of the filters are filled with bones, fruit, food scraps and so on.In some cases, the animals even died there, unable to leave the cramped quarters.When we travel in dusty cities, when we don't wash our cars often, the dangers of cabin filters become apparent. Dust is deposited on the filter surface, no longer allowing free airflow. If you don't wash the car often, leaves and dust mix, forming mud at the bottom of the windshield and eventually reaching the filter.In addition to leaves, soot from diesel engines, other garbage and some ash from friendly neighbors' Windows, there is also moisture from rain, which forms a nasty smell on filters and quickly becomes moldy.Replacing many such filters in service, we saw cabin filters filled with different things, totally different from the pollen or dust we expected. There were some filters full of bones, fruit, food scraps and so on.Thus you can know that it is definitely necessary to replace cabin air filters for your cars.Can cabin air filters cause a bad smell?The answer is positive.Of course, when you turn on the air conditioner in your car, you can sometimes feel a bad smell. But the smell isn't dangerous, and only mold spores reach our lungs through filters. Illnesses are not uncommon, especially allergies, because we breathe in air filled with mold and bacteria.The downside is that children are most vulnerable to polluted air, and if we drive a car with a pollen filter, we risk harming them.Will a dirty cabin filter affect AC (air conditioning)?Yes, it will. A loaded and dirty cabin air filter is responsible for a bad AC operation. Depending on how clogged the cabin air filters are, airflow may be significantly reduced and affect the functioning of the air conditioning system.Why should I change the cabin air filter?The vehicle's cabin air filter needs to be replaced regularly. A dirty, clogged cabin filter would fail to capture allergens, dirt and dust in the air. That means people in cars are breathing air filled with all kinds of environmental pollutants. In addition, the performance of your vehicle's heating and air conditioning systems can be affected when cabin filters are blocked. Remember, high-quality cabin air filters allow you to breathe easily. The quality of the filter is equally important. Therefore, it is also important to choose a good quality cabin air filter when you decide to replace your cabin air filter.Changing your cabin air filters can make a big difference in the performance of your car. Here are some top reasons:What problems can a dirty cabin air filter cause?①　PollutionPollution is the most common cause of frequent changes in cabin air filters. Because filters are basically all that blocks the air outside the road and inside the car, they can block a lot of smoke and dirty exhaust from other vehicles on the road. Changing your air filters regularly will help ensure that these unwanted pollutants don't get into your car's cabin.②　DebrisBranches and leaves seem unlikely to be found in your cabin air filters -- these are larger objects that many people don't think get sucked into the filters. However, many drivers find their air filters clogged with leaves, branches, acorns and other natural debris, especially if they park in areas with lots of trees or bushes. These can have a huge impact on your air system and need to be removed.③　The AllergenIn addition to pollutants and debris, in-car air filters significantly reduce the amounts of allergens that enter the vehicle. Without air filters, it's easy for pollen to get into your car, and the less you change the filters, the more pollen accumulates, which can lead to more pollen getting into your car.In your cabin air filters, allergen accumulation is more common in states with plenty of pollen seasons, especially areas with lots of oak trees. No matter where you live, it's important to change your air filters so you don't have to deal with any allergens that get into your car.④　Reduce the efficiencyWhen your cabin air filters get clogged, your air conditioner has to work hard to push cold air through the filters. This can lead to noise or ineffective air-conditioning systems. In the hot summer months, this can be a huge pain. If your air filters are full of debris and dust, your cabin will take longer to cool.⑤　Engine StrainBecause your air conditioner or heater has to work harder to cool or heat your cabin, your engine has to work harder to drive these systems. Surprisingly, clogged filters can actually affect your fuel efficiency because your engine has to pay more energy.Benefits of changing cabin air filtersA cabin air filter that isn’t well maintained can make your driving experience unpleasant, and sometimes, unhealthy for both you and your passengers. Here are some of the reasons why regularly changing your cabin air filters after every year:Better comfort and less odor - Eliminate odors caused by mold build-up on the filterWhen you change the cabin air filters, you'll immediately notice the difference between your driving comfort and the efficiency of your defrosting, heating, and cooling systems. A new cabin air filter will also keep the interior clean and eliminate any odor.①　Quieter AC system - Optimal airflow to the HVAC (Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning) systemIf your cabin's air filters are full of harmful debris, this usually means your air conditioner will have to work harder to expel warm or cool air. The result is too much noise, making your journey more stressful and uncomfortable.②　Significantly reduces safety and visibility problemsCleaning your air filter can really improve your vehicle when it comes to defrosting any fog from your Windows. This is especially important because every driver needs to see clearly and accurately through the windshield and the middle and rearview mirrors before departure, so unblocking the cabin filters is crucial.③　Keep cabin air fresh and free from harmful contaminants④　Ensure quiet operation of the interior blower fan⑤　Reduce the amount of dust and dirt in the cabinWhat if you don’t change your cabin air filter enough?If you don't change the air filters in the cabin regularly, the danger is everywhere. Here are some of the risks associated with dirty cabin air filters:①　Health problemsA fully functional cabin air filter is essential to keep the pollutants inside the vehicle. Air filters in cars that are dirty or clogged cannot filter out these contaminants, which can cause problems for people with allergies or breathing difficulties. A good rule of thumb is to change your cabin's air filters every February, before the spring allergy season, especially if you live in a neighborhood with lots of trees. A new cabin air filter will stop pollen from getting into the car, causing people in the car to start sneezing or worse.②　The HVAC system will not operate normallyCabin air filters that remain in place beyond their service life can make it more difficult for a vehicle's HVAC system to work, causing the engine to burn. Dirty or blocked cabin air filters will reduce the amount of air coming out of vents. This affects the air temperature in the cabin, which depends on the steady flow of air through the heater core, the evaporator, or both. Not replacing the cabin air filters will make your HVAC system more difficult to operate.③　Window fog cleaning ability is poorWhen airflow is affected, another problem is that windows cannot be cleaned quickly. In addition, air quality was reduced due to changes in cockpit air filters, resulting in condensation on the windshield. Once the cabin air filters have been changed, the fog on the windshield will be reduced.④　Foul odorsNo, the horrible smell from your exhaust is not from the place you've just driven past. That's because you didn't replace the air filters in the cabin. Dirty or overly clogged cabin air filters can produce a musty, dusty smell, especially when the HVAC system is on. Changing the air filters in the cabin regularly will ensure that your passengers don't have to roll down their windows in the dead of winter to get fresh air.How often should I replace the cabin air filter?After reading the importance of replacing your cabin air filter, you may now be asking, “How often should I replace the cabin air filter?” Here we go.How do you check a cabin air filter?You can refer to your owner’s manual to know the signs that tell you when your car’s cabin air filter needs to be replaced. In addition, knowing signs as follows also helps you to know if your cabin air filter needs changing.①　The airflow reduces or becomes weak, even when the heat or air conditioner is set to high.②　A whistling sound comes from the cabin air intake ducts.③　Musty, unpleasant odors come through the air in your vehicle.④　Excessive noise happens when the heating or cooling system is running.⑤　Dust increasingly settles on vehicle surfaces.When should the cabin filter be changed?The frequency for changing the cabin air filters depends on the area in which you live. If you have to drive on dirt roads, you may have to replace the filters more often. Even if the revision of a car is done at a certain interval, and if you live in a crowded area and full of dust and dirt, the change of this filter should be done much more often, without having to wait for the cabin filter to change when you change the engine oil. Most automotive manufacturers recommend replacing the cabin air filter every 15,000 to 30,000 miles. At the very least, the cabin air filter should be replaced once a year.The time period for replacing your cabin air filter is also dependent on the make, model, and year of your vehicle, so you may need to check your owner’s manual for verification.You may also notice any of the above-mentioned signs. When you notice one of these, it’s a pretty good indication that it’s time to have your cabin air filter replaced.Is it better to change cabin air filters in winter?A survey of maintenance issues found that 49% of cabin air purifiers were sold in the spring. Increasing the amount of pollen, coupled with the benefits cabin air filters offer to allergy sufferers, makes it relatively easy to sell. However, one might argue that winter is a more important season for changing your car's filters.There are three main reasons to change cabin air filters in winter:①　Increase particulate emissionsWhen the car is idle on a cold winter morning, the exhaust exhausts harmful gases that are harmful to the driver's respiratory system. The most damaging component of tailpipe emissions is particulates. Particulate matter from cars, ranging in diameter from 2 to 10 microns, can exacerbate lung pollution when inhaled.Particulate emissions from vehicle exhaust are higher when engines are kept at low temperatures. According to a study of light-vehicle emissions in Kansas City, scientists have found that particulate emissions increase exponentially as temperatures drop. In fact, the study found that particulate emissions doubled for every 20 degrees Fahrenheit that temperatures dropped.The only thing that stops exhaust fumes from getting into the car is the in-car air filter. Some cabin air filters can even block particles as small as 1 micron in diameter.②　Performance of the deicing deviceIn winter, the benefits of cleaning air filters are obvious. A blockage in the cabin air filter can limit the defroster's performance, making it difficult to see out of the windshield. If the cabin air filter is blocked, it creates a limit that reduces the amount of hot air that the blower can deliver to the windshield, reducing visibility and increasing the time it takes for Windows to thaw.③　Summer and fall can be cruel to cabin air filtersAfter months of battling pollen, dust, leaves, bugs and other debris, winter is the perfect time to start over with your cabin's air filters.The debris accumulates and limits the flow of air through the filter, causing heating and cooling problems. With no leaves, pollen or bugs to contend with over the next few months, changing the cabin air filters in winter would immediately solve the heating problem and help prevent cooling problems as soon as spring rolls arrive.Can we clean or wash the cabin air filter and reuse it?We could clean the old cabin filter to save some money. But it's not worth it because of its low price, a new filter is always cleaner than a "cleaned" filter. The washability of the cabin air filter depends on its material. In general, it is not suggested to wash it.How much does it cost to replace your cabin air filter?The cost and labor of changing a cabin air filter depend on several factors, including the manufacture and model of the car, and the accessibility of the air filter housing.Cabin air filters are neither expensive nor easy to replace. It costs between $15 and $50.If you're willing to leave this task to a professional, thankfully, it won't cost you much to replace the cabin air filters, with extras and labor costing anywhere from $40 to $100.If you can successfully replace it yourself, you can save at least $50 in labor costs.Cabin Air Filter Changing GuideHow to change a cabin air filter by yourself?Changing the cabin air filter is the easiest compared to changing the other filters of your vehicle, including the oil filter, fuel filter and engine air filter. Of course, you are better to check your owner’s manual to find the cabin air filter guide. The following instructions are applied to the cabin air filter located behind the glove box. The specific location might be beneath the dashboard, usually on the passenger side. Without any tools, just open a small door panel to remove the filter under the dashboard. The filter located under the hood may require the removal of additional components. To get close to them, you may need to remove a cowl vent louver housing, windshield wiper blade, washing machine bottle or other items. Check out your owner’s manual for details.Estimate time: 15 minutesSupplies: New Cabin Air FilterTools: a spare rag, a vacuum cleaner, a set of screwdrivers, some goggles and a breathing maskStep 1: Make sure the safetyPark your car on flat, dry surface and make sure the brakes are on. In some cases, you may need a screwdriver or socket, but most installations can be done by hand.Sometimes the filter can be dirty, so you may need to wear safety gloves and goggles, or even cover the passenger side floor mat with a layer to prevent dust or debris from falling out when you remove the old filter.Step 2: Get to the old cabin air filterOpen and remove glove boxes frequently to access cabin air filters. The owner’s manual should contain detailed information about removal. This may require a screwdriver, or simply press one or both labels.Some vehicles can be entered without removing the glove box, but others can be entered into the cabin air filter from under the hood. The owner's manual or maintenance guide will have detailed information on the location and movement for your vehicle.Step 3: Open the glove boxIf you need to take out the glove box, you must be careful. First, open the glove box and take out the contents. Then remove the limit stop arm on the right side of the glove box. Slide it off the pin.Next up is to release the glove box.Grab the front and back of the glove box and squeeze each other until the side clips open. Now that both sides are free, you can lower the entire glove box so that you can see the faceplate into the cabin air filter passage.Step 4: Remove the old cabin air filterLift the latches on the side of the faceplate and slide it the way to open the filter compartment. Now you can simply take out the old cabin air filter and be careful not to put any dust, dirt and garbage from the filter into your car. When you remove the old filter, pay attention to the location of the old filter, such as the direction of the arrow. They indicate the direction of the flow.Step 5: Clean the filtration chamber and check for seals and gasketsBefore you install a new, new cabin air filter, vacuum the filter chamber and then wipe it with a damp cloth to remove any impurities. Check the condition of gaskets and seals to make sure they do not need to be replaced.Step 6: Install new cabin air filtersMake sure the new cabin air filters match the old ones. Airflow direction is usually indicated by the arrow on the filter. Check again to make sure the arrow on the new filter points in the same direction as the old filter you took out, and then slide the new filter.Step 7: Replace and secure glove boxesOnce the strainer is in place, simply replace the faceplate, put the glove box back in place, reinstall the limit valve, and put everything back in the glove box.Important Tips for replacing cabin air filters:①　The car owner’s manual will confirm that you have a cabin air filter and its location. For some vehicles, the manual may refer to the filter as a "micro cabin air filter," or even an "air conditioning" or a "dust filter."②　There are two types of cabin air filters to consider - particulate filters and odor/particulate combination filters.③　Professionals can help you choose the right filter for your vehicle.④　Record the date and mileage every time you change the cabin air filter, so you know when it's time to change.

The earliest well-dated image of a wheeled vehicle, radiocarbon dated to 3500-3350 BCE, is on the Bronocice pot, a Funnelbeaker culture ceramic vase discovered in 1976 during the archaeological excavation of a large Neolithic settlement in Bronocice by the Nidzica River, circa 50 km north-east of Kraków. The vase is preserved in the Archaeological Museum in Kraków. [POLAND]Images on the Bronice pot include five rudimentary representations of what seems to be a wagon. They represent a vehicle with a shaft for a draught animal, and four wheels. The lines connecting them probably represent axles. The circle in the middle possibly symbolizes a container for harvest. These images suggest the existence of wagons in Central Europe as early as in the 4th millennium BCE. The wagons were presumably drawn by aurochs, ancestors of domestic cattle, whose remains were found with the pot. Their horns were worn out as if tied with a rope, possibly a result of using a kind of yoke,Other images on the pot include a tree, a river and what may be fields intersected by roads or ditches or the layout of a village. The Earliest Images of a Wheeled Vehicle.Bronocice potBronocice potThe Bronocice pot, discovered in a village in Gmina Działoszyce, Świetokrzyskie Voivodeship in Małopolska, near Nida River, Poland, is a ceramic vase incised with one of the earliest known depictions of what may be a wheeled vehicle. It was dated by the radiocarbon method to the mid-fourth millennium BC, and is attributed to the Funnelbeaker archaeological culture. Today it is housed in the Archaeological Museum of Kraków (Muzeum Archeologiczne w Krakowie), Poland.An incised wagon motif was found on a Funnel Beaker vessel in a pit. An animal bone associated with the pot in the pit was dated by radiocarbon method, around 3400 BC (Bakker et al. 1999). The vessel represents one of the earliest pieces of evidence for the presence of wheeled wagons in Europe." Milisauskas, together with Janusz Kruk, attributed the Neolithic Bronocice findings to the Lublin-Volhynian culture (between 3100 and 2200 BC), "contemporary to the younger stage of the development of Tiszapolgar cycle in the Cisa River Basin... the culture is certainly older than the decadent period of the Funnelbeaker culture in Małopolska."The Bronocice pot inscription markings may represent a kind of "pre-writing" symbolic system that was suggested by Marija Gimbutas in her model of Old European language, similar to Vinča culture logographics (5700–4500 BC).Position of BronociceHistorical implicationsThe image on the pot is one of the oldest well-dated representations of a four-wheeled vehicle in the world. It suggests the existence of wagons in Central Europe as early as in the late 4th millennium BC. They were presumably drawn by aurochs whose remains were found with the pot. Their horns were worn out as if tied with a rope, possibly a result of using a kind of yoke.Based on Bronocice discovery, several researchers (Asko Parpola and Christian Carpelan), pointed out that "Indo-European languages possess inherited vocabulary related to wheeled transport", thus providing new research information about the origin of the Indo-European. They argue that "the wheeled vehicles were first invented around the middle of the fourth millennium BC." In his review Theoretical Structural Archeology, Geoff Carter, writes: "The site was occupied during the Funnel Beaker or TBR culture phase, one of a complex group of cultures that succeeded the LBK in northern Europe, in the Fifth and Fourth Millennia BC. Bones from the pit in which the pot was found gave radiocarbon dates of around 3635-3370 BC". This makes it contemporaneous with the earliest depictions of wheeled wagons found on clay tablet pictographs at the Eanna district of Uruk, in the Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), dated c. 3500–3350 BC. Several historians argue that there was a diffusion of the wheeled vehicle from the Near East to Europe around the mid-4th millennium BC. Bronocice pot - Wikipedia-Ljubljana Marshes WheelThis Ljubljana Marshes Wheel with axle is the oldest wooden wheel yet discovered dating to Copper Age (c. 3,130 BC)Ljubljana Marshes Wheel, from around 3150 BC (restored model of the oldest exactly radiocarbon dated wooden wheel part in the world).Ljubljana Marshes WheelThe Ljubljana Marshes Wheel is a wooden wheel that was found in the Ljubljana Marshes some 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, in 2002. Radiocarbon dating, performed in the VERA laboratory (Vienna Environmental Research Accelerator) in Vienna, showed that it is approximately 5,150 years old, which makes it the oldest wooden wheel yet discovered. It was discovered by a team of Slovene archeologists from the Ljubljana Institute of Archaeology, a part of the Research Center at the Slovene Academy of Arts and Sciences, under the guidance of Anton Velušček.The wooden wheelThe wooden wheel belonged to a prehistoric two-wheel cart – a pushcart. Similar wheels have been found in the hilly regions of Switzerland and southwest Germany, but the Ljubljana Marshes wheel is bigger and older. It shows that wooden wheels appeared almost simultaneously in Mesopotamia and Europe.It has a radius of 72 centimetres (28 3⁄8 in) and is made of ash wood, and its 124-centimetre-long (48 7⁄8 in) axle is made of oak. The axle was attached to the wheels with oak wood wedges, which meant that the axle rotated together with the wheels. The wheel was made from a tree that grew in the vicinity of the pile dwellings and at the time of the wheel construction was approximately 80 years old.It appears that the wheel itself is primarily made of two planks of wood which are held together with four cross braces. The cross braces appear to have been held in place simply by a tenon arrangement, the braces being fitted into tenoned slots carved into the two main wheel sections. Ljubljana Marshes Wheel - WikipediaEtymologyThe English word wheel comes from the Old English word hweol, hweogol, from Proto-Germanic *hwehwlan, *hwegwlan, from Proto-Indo-European *kwekwlo-, an extended form of the root *kwel- "to revolve, move around". Cognates within Indo-European include Icelandic hjól "wheel, tyre", Greek κύκλος kúklos, and Sanskrit chakra, the latter two both meaning "circle" or "wheel".HistoryThe place and time of an "invention" of the wheel remains unclear, because the oldest hints do not guarantee the existence of real wheeled transport, or are dated with too much scatter. Mesopotamian civilization is credited with the invention of the wheel. The invention of the solid wooden disk wheel falls into the late Neolithic, and may be seen in conjunction with other technological advances that gave rise to the early Bronze Age. This implies the passage of several wheel-less millennia even after the invention of agriculture and of pottery, during the Aceramic Neolithic.4500–3300 BC (Copper Age): invention of the potter's wheel; earliest solid wooden wheels (disks with a hole for the axle); earliest wheeled vehicles; domestication of the horse3300–2200 BC (Early Bronze Age)2200–1550 BC (Middle Bronze Age): invention of the spoked wheel and the chariotA depiction of an onager-drawn cart on the Sumerian "battle standard of Ur" (c. 2500 BC)The Halaf culture of 6500–5100 BC is sometimes credited with the earliest depiction of a wheeled vehicle, but this is doubtful as there is no evidence of Halafians using either wheeled vehicles or even pottery wheels. Precursors of wheels, known as "tournettes" or "slow wheels", were known in the Middle East by the 5th millennium BC. One of the earliest examples was discovered at Tepe Pardis, Iran, and dated to 5200–4700 BC. These were made of stone or clay and secured to the ground with a peg in the center, but required significant effort to turn. True potter's wheels, which are freely-spinning and have a wheel and axle mechanism, were developed in Mesopotamia (Iraq) by 4200–4000 BC. The oldest surviving example, which was found in Ur (modern day Iraq), dates to approximately 3100 BC. Wheel has been also found in the Indus Valley Civilization, a 4th millennium BCE civilization covering areas of present-day India and Pakistan.The oldest indirect evidence of wheeled movement was found in the form of miniature clay wheels north of the Black Sea before 4000 B.C. From the middle of the 4th millennium BC onward, the evidence is condensed throughout Europe in the form of toy cars, depictions, or ruts. In Mesopotamia, depictions of wheeled wagons found on clay tablet pictographs at the Eanna district of Uruk, in the Sumerian civilization are dated to c. 3500–3350 BC. In the second half of the 4th millennium BC, evidence of wheeled vehicles appeared near-simultaneously in the Northern (Maykop culture) and South Caucasus and Eastern Europe (Cucuteni-Trypillian culture). Depictions of a wheeled vehicle appeared between 3631 and 3380 BC in the Bronocice clay pot excavated in a Funnelbeaker culture settlement in southern Poland. In nearby Olszanica, a 2.2 m wide door was constructed for wagon entry; this barn was 40 m long with 3 doors, dated to 5000 B.C - 7000 years old, and belonged to neolithic Linear Pottery culture.[14] Surviving evidence of a wheel-axle combination, from Stare Gmajne near Ljubljana in Slovenia (Ljubljana Marshes Wooden Wheel), is dated within two standard deviations to 3340–3030 BC, the axle to 3360–3045 BC. Two types of early Neolithic European wheel and axle are known; a circumalpine type of wagon construction (the wheel and axle rotate together, as in Ljubljana Marshes Wheel), and that of the Baden culture in Hungary (axle does not rotate). They both are dated to c. 3200–3000 BC. Some historians believe that there was a diffusion of the wheeled vehicle from the Near East to Europe around the mid-4th millennium BC.-SpokeHistoryThe spoked wheel was invented to allow the construction of lighter and swifter vehicles. Chalcolithic paintings in various regions of India such as Chibbar Nulla, Chhatur Bhoj Nath Nulla, Kathotia, etc depict the usage of chariots with spoked wheels. Spoked wheels were also found in Sintashta culture, dating to ca. 2000 BC. Soon after this, horse cultures of the Caucasus region used horse-drawn spoked-wheel war chariots for the greater part of three centuries. They moved deep into the Greek peninsula where they joined with the existing Mediterranean peoples to give rise, eventually, to classical Greece after the breaking of Minoan dominance and consolidations led by pre-classical Sparta and Athens. Celtic chariots introduced an iron rim around the wheel in the 1st millennium BC. The spoked wheel was in continued use without major modification until the 1870s, when wire wheels and rubber tires were invented.Sintashta cultureThe Sintashta culture, also known as the Sintashta-Petrovka culture or Sintashta-Arkaim culture, is a Middle Bronze Age archaeological culture of the northern Eurasian steppe on the borders of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, dated to the period 2200–1800 BCE, or as recent publication by Stephan Lindner claims, based on another series of 19 calibrated radiocarbon datings, that the whole Sintashta-Petrovka complex belongs to c. 2050-1750 BCE.[6] In 2020 Ventresca Miller et al. still claimed a period of 2400-1800 BCE, based on 44 earlier C14 calibrated datings by Russian Academy of Sciences, which some other researchers consider to be outdated. The culture is named after the Sintashta archaeological site, in Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia.The Sintashta culture is thought to represent an eastward migration of peoples from the Corded Ware culture. It is widely regarded as the origin of the Indo-Iranian languages. The earliest known chariots have been found in Sintashta burials, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the Old World and played an important role in ancient warfare. Sintashta settlements are also remarkable for the intensity of copper mining and bronze metallurgy carried out there, which is unusual for a steppe culture.Sintashta culture - WikipediaSpoke - Wikipedia-Spoked wheel with bronze sheeting from Árokalja, from around 1000 BC.-In Britain, a large wooden wheel, measuring about 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter, was uncovered at the Must Farm site in East Anglia in 2016. The specimen, dating from 1,100 to 800 BC, represents the most complete and earliest of its type found in Britain. The wheel's hub is also present. A horse's spine found nearby suggests the wheel may have been part of a horse-drawn cart. The wheel was found in a settlement built on stilts over wetland, indicating that the settlement had some sort of link to dry land.Well preserved: The wheel is 3,000 years old (Image: PA)Duncan Wilson, chief executive of Historic England, said: "This remarkable but fragile wooden wheel is the earliest complete example ever found in Britain."The existence of this wheel expands our understanding of Late Bronze Age technology and the level of sophistication of the lives of people living on the edge of the Fens 3,000 years ago."The ancient wooden wheel is one metre in diameter and is so well preserved it still contains part of the axle.ConclusionThe oldest wheel found in archeological excavations was discovered in what was Mesopotamia and is believed to be over 5,500 years old. It was not used for transportation, though, but rather as a potter's wheel. The combination of the wheel and axle made possible early forms of transportation, which became more sophisticated over time with the development of other technologies.Key Takeaways: The Wheel• The earliest wheels were used as potter's wheels. They were invented in Mesopotamia about 5,500 years ago.• The wheelbarrow—a simple cart with a single wheel—was invented by the ancient Greeks.• Though wheels are mainly used for transportation, they are also used to navigate, spin thread, and generate wind and hydroelectric power.The Inventor of the WheelThe wheel is not like the telephone or the lightbulb, a breakthrough invention that can be credited to a single (or even several) inventors. There is archaeological evidence of wheels dating back to at least 5,500 years ago, but no one knows exactly who invented them. Wheeled vehicles appeared later in various areas across the Middle East and Eastern Europe. The invention of the wheelbarrow—a one-wheeled cart used to transport goods and raw materials—is usually credited to the ancient Greeks. However, earlier evidence of wheeled carts has been found in Europe and China.The wheel alone, without any further innovation, would not have done much for mankind. Rather, it was the combination of the wheel and axle that made early forms of transportation possible, including carts and chariots. The Bronocice pot, a piece of pottery discovered in Poland and dating to at least 3370 B.C., is believed to feature the earliest depiction of a wheeled vehicle. The evidence suggests that small wagons or carts, likely drawn by cattle, were in use in Central Europe by this time in human history.The word for wheel or ‘vehicle’ is similar across languages in the Middle East, the Caucasus, and even as far as Western Europe. The word ‘wheel’ in English is directly related to the Proto-Indo-European word for a wheel. This suggests that the wheel was invented by Proto-Indo-European people.The second piece of evidence is the fact that the earliest archaeological evidence of the usage of a wheel comes from the Tripolyte culture of Western Ukraine.The geography of the region supports this as the origin of a wheel, with forests providing large trees for axles and wheels, and yet close to the plains where a wheel would be useful for long-distance travel.The Tripolyte culture was one of the most advanced cultures of the Copper Age, meaning that they would have had the technical abilities to conceive of and develop, a wheel-ChariotA necessary precursor to the invention of the chariot is the domestication of animals, specifically horses – a major step in the development of civilization. Despite the large impact horse domestication has had in transport and communication, tracing its origins has been challenging. Evidence supports horses having been domesticated in the Eurasian Steppes, with studies suggesting the Botai culture in modern day Kazakhstan being the first, about 3500 BC.The origins of chariots and their use in warfare are obscure. However, linguistic evidence suggests the inventors were Indo-European people from Eurasia.The spread of spoke-wheeled chariots has been closely attributed to the Indo-European migrations from the Pontic Steppes. The earliest known chariots have been found in Sintashta culture burial sites, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the Old World and played an important role in ancient warfare. These self designated Aryan people migrated southward into South Asia, ushering in the Vedic period around 1750 BC. Shortly after this, evidence of chariots appears in Asia-Minor about 1700 BC. Chariot use made its way into Egypt around 1650 BC during the Hyksos invasion of Egypt and establishment of the fourteenth dynasty. In 1659 BC the Indo-European Hittites sacked Babylon, which demonstrated the superiority of chariots in antiquity.Eurasian SteppesThe invention of the wheel used in transportation most likely took place in Mesopotamia or the Eurasian Steppes in modern-day Russia. Evidence of wheeled vehicles appears from the mid 4th millennium BC near-simultaneously in the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture), and in Central Europe. These earliest depicted vehicles may have been ox carts.The oldest known chariots have been found in burials of the Sintashta culture in modern-day Russia.[3] Starokorsunskaya kurgan in the Kuban region of Russia contains a wagon grave (or chariot burial) of the Maikop Culture (which also had horses). The two solid wooden wheels from this kurgan have been dated to the second half of the fourth millennium. Soon thereafter the number of such burials in this Northern Caucasus region multiplied.As David W. Anthony writes in his book The Horse, the Wheel, and Language, in Eastern Europe, the earliest well-dated depiction of a wheeled vehicle (a wagon with two axles and four wheels) is on the Bronocice pot (c. 3500 BC). It is a clay pot excavated in a Funnelbeaker settlement in Swietokrzyskie Voivodeship in Poland. The oldest securely dated real wheel-axle combination in Eastern Europe is the Ljubljana Marshes Wheel (c. 3150 BC).Nomadic tribes of the Pontic steppes, like Scythians such as Hamaxobii, would travel in wagons, carts, and chariots during their migrations.-Early wheeled vehicles in the Near EastRelief of early war wagons on the Standard of Ur, c. 2500 BCAccording to Christoph Baumer, the earliest discoveries of wheels in Mesopotamia come from the first half of the third millennium BC – more than half a millennium later than the first finds from the Kuban region. At the same time, in Mesopotamia, some intriguing early pictograms of a sled that rests on wooden rollers or wheels have been found. They date from about the same time as the early wheel discoveries in Europe and may indicate knowledge of the wheel.The earliest fully developed spoke-wheeled horse chariots are from the chariot burials of the Andronovo (Timber-Grave) sites of the Sintashta-Petrovka Proto-Indo-Iranian culture in modern Russia and Kazakhstan from around 2000 BC. This culture is at least partially derived from the earlier Yamna culture. It built heavily fortified settlements, engaged in bronze metallurgy on an industrial scale, and practiced complex burial rituals reminiscent of Hindu rituals known from the Rigveda and the Avesta.Over the next few centuries, the Andronovo culture spread across the steppes from the Urals to the Tien Shan, likely corresponding to the time of early Indo-Iranian cultures.Chariots figure prominently in Indo-Iranian mythology. Chariots are also an important part of both Hindu and Persian mythology, with most of the gods in their pantheon portrayed as riding them. The Sanskrit word for a chariot is rátha- (m.), which is cognate with Avestan raθa- (also m.), and in origin a substantiation of the adjective Proto-Indo-European *rot-h₂-ó- meaning "having wheels", with the characteristic accent shift found in Indo-Iranian substantivisations. This adjective is in turn derived from the collective noun *rot-eh₂- "wheels", continued in Latin rota, which belongs to the noun *rót-o- for "wheel" (from *ret- "to run") that is also found in Germanic, Celtic and Baltic (Old High German rad n., Old Irish roth m., Lithuanian rãtas m.).The earliest depiction of vehicles in the context of warfare is on the Standard of Ur in southern Mesopotamia, c. 2500 BC. These are more properly called wagons or carts and were double-axled and pulled by oxen or a hybrid of a donkey and a female onager, named Kunga in the city of Nagar which was famous for breeding them. The hybrids were used by the Eblaite, early Sumerian, Akkadian and Ur III armies. Although sometimes carrying a spearman with the charioteer (driver), such heavy wagons, borne on solid wooden wheels and covered with skins, may have been part of the baggage train (e.g., during royal funeral processions) rather than vehicles of battle in themselves.The Sumerians had a lighter, two-wheeled type of cart, pulled by four asses, and with solid wheels. The spoked wheel did not appear in Mesopotamia until the mid-2000s BC.-HittitesHittite chariot (drawing of an Egyptian relief)The oldest testimony of chariot warfare in the ancient Near East is the Old Hittite Anitta text (18th century BC), which mentions 40 teams of horses (in the original cuneiform spelling: 40 ṢÍ-IM-TI ANŠE.KUR.RAḪI.A) at the siege of Salatiwara. Since the text mentions teams rather than chariots, the existence of chariots in the 18th century BC is uncertain. The first certain attestation of chariots in the Hittite empire dates to the late 17th century BC (Hattusili I). A Hittite horse-training text is attributed to Kikkuli the Mitanni (15th century BC).The Hittites were renowned charioteers. They developed a new chariot design that had lighter wheels, with four spokes rather than eight, and that held three rather than two warriors. It could hold three warriors because the wheel was placed in the middle of the chariot and not at the back as in Egyptian chariots. Typically one Hittite warrior steered the chariot while the second man was usually the main archer; the third warrior would either wield a spear or sword when charging at enemies or hold up a large shield to protect himself and the others from enemy arrows.Hittite prosperity largely depended on their control of trade routes and natural resources, specifically metals. As the Hittites gained dominion over Mesopotamia, tensions flared among the neighboring Assyrians, Hurrians, and Egyptians. Under Suppiluliuma I, the Hittites conquered Kadesh and, eventually, the whole of Syria. The Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC is likely to have been the largest chariot battle ever fought, involving over 5,000 chariots.[30]-Minoan-Mycenaen-GreekProcession of chariots on a Late Geometric amphora from Athens (ca. 720–700 BC).The goddess Nike riding on a two-horse chariot, from an Apulian patera (tray), Magna Graecia, 4th century BC.The later Greeks of the first millennium BC had a (still not very effective) cavalry arm (indeed, it has been argued that these early horseback riding soldiers may have given rise to the development of the later, heavily armed foot-soldiers known as hoplites), and the rocky terrain of the Greek mainland was unsuited for wheeled vehicles. Consequently, in historical Greece the chariot was never used to any extent in war. Nevertheless, the chariot retained a high status and memories of its era were handed down in epic poetry. Linear B tablets from Mycenaean palaces record large inventories of chariots, sometimes with specific details as to how many chariots were assembled or not (i.e. stored in modular form). Later the vehicles were used in games and processions, notably for races at the Olympic and Panathenaic Games and other public festivals in ancient Greece, in hippodromes and in contests called agons. They were also used in ceremonial functions, as when a paranymph, or friend of a bridegroom, went with him in a chariot to fetch the bride home.Herodotus (Histories, 5. 9) Reports that chariots were widely used in the Pontic–Caspian steppe by the Sigynnae.-Central and Northern EuropeThe gilded side of the Trundholm sun chariotThe Trundholm sun chariot (Danish: Solvognen), is a Nordic Bronze Age artifact discovered in Denmark. It is a representation of the sun chariot, a bronze statue of a horse and a large bronze disk, which are placed on a device with spoked wheels.The sculpture was discovered with no accompanying objects in 1902 in a peat bog on the Trundholm moor in Odsherred in the northwestern part of Zealand, (approximately 55°55′N 11°37′E). It is now in the collection of the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen.The Trundholm sun chariot is dated to c. 1400 BC (see Nordic Bronze Age). The horse drawing the solar disk runs on four wheels, and the Sun itself on two. All wheels have four spokes. The "chariot" comprises the solar disk, the axle, and the wheels, and it is unclear whether the sun is depicted as the chariot or as the passenger. Nevertheless, the presence of a model of a horse-drawn vehicle on two spoked wheels in Northern Europe at such an early time is astonishing.A petroglyph in a double burial, c. 1000 BC (the Nordic Bronze Age)In addition to the Trundholm chariot, there are numerous petroglyphs from the Nordic Bronze Age that depict chariots. One petroglyph, drawn on a stone slab in a double burial from c. 1000 BC, depicts a biga with two four-spoked wheels.The use of the composite bow in chariot warfare is not attested in northern Europe.Possible function as a calendarRotating imageThe sculpture is dated by the National Museum to about 1400 BC, though other dates have been suggested. It was found before pollen-dating was developed, which would have enabled a more confident dating.A model of a horse-drawn vehicle on spoked wheels in Northern Europe at such an early time is surprising; they would not be expected to appear until the end of the Late Bronze Age, which ranges from 1100 BC to 550 BC. This and aspects of the decoration may suggest a Danubian origin or influence in the object, although the Nationalmuseet is confident it is of Nordic origin.[5]Klavs Randsborg, professor of archeology at the University of Copenhagen, has pointed out that the sum of an addition of the number of spirals in each circle of the disk, multiplied by the number of the circles in which they are found, counted from the middle (1x1 + 2x8 + 3x20 + 4x25), results in a total of 177, which comes very close to the number of days in six synodic months, only 44 min 2.8 s shorter each.The synodic cycle is the time that elapses between two successive conjunctions of an object in the sky, such as a specific star with the Sun. It is the time that elapses before the object will reappear at the same point in the sky when observed from the Earth, so it is the apparent orbital period observed from Earth.He asserts his belief that this demonstrates that the disk was designed by a person with some measure of astronomic knowledge and that the sculpture may have functioned as a calendar. Trundholm sun chariot - WikipediaSun chariot in Indo-European mythologyMain article: Sun chariotNorse mythologyThe chariot has been interpreted as a possible Bronze Age predecessor to Skinfaxi, the horse that pulled Dagr, the personification of day, across the sky.Celtic PantheonThe sky god Taranis is typically depicted with the attribute of a spoked wheel.Hindu mythologySurya's chariotMain article: Historical Vedic religionThe Rigveda in Hindu mythology also reflects the myth of the Sun chariot. RV 10.85 mentions the sun god's bride as seated on a chariot pulled by two steeds. The relevant verses are the following (trans. Griffith):10. Her spirit was the bridal car; the covering thereof was heaven: Bright were both Steeds that drew it when Surya approached her husband's home.11. Thy Steeds were steady, kept in place by holy verse and Sama-hymn: All car were thy two chariot wheels: thy path was tremulous in the sky,12. Clean, as thou wentest, were thy wheels, wind was the axle fastened there. Surya, proceeding to her Lord, mounted a spirit-fashioned car.Greek mythologyIn Greek mythology, the solar deity Helios was said to wear a radiant crown as his horse-drawn chariot raced across the sky, bringing daylight.-Contnued …ChariotWestern Europe and British IslesThe Celts were famous for their chariots and modern English words like car, carriage and carry are ultimately derived from the native Brythonic language (Modern Welsh: Cerbyd). The word chariot itself is derived from the Norman French charriote and shares a Celtic root (Gaulish: karros). Some 20 iron-aged chariot burials have been excavated in Britain, roughly dating from between 500 BC and 100 BC. Virtually all of them were found in East Yorkshire – the exception was a find in 2001 in Newbridge, 10 km west of Edinburgh.The Celtic chariot, which may have been called karbantos in Gaulish (compare Latin carpentum), was a biga that measured approximately 2 m (6 ft 6 3⁄4 in) in width and 4 m (13 ft 1 1⁄2 in) in length.British chariots were open in front. Julius Caesar provides the only significant eyewitness report of British chariot warfare:Their mode of fighting with their chariots is this: firstly, they drive about in all directions and throw their weapons and generally break the ranks of the enemy with the very dread of their horses and the noise of their wheels; and when they have worked themselves in between the troops of horse, leap from their chariots and engage on foot. The charioteers in the meantime withdraw some little distance from the battle, and so place themselves with the chariots that, if their masters are overpowered by the number of the enemy, they may have a ready retreat to their own troops. Thus they display in battle the speed of horse, [together with] the firmness of infantry; and by daily practice and exercise attain to such expertness that they are accustomed, even on a declining and steep place, to check their horses at full speed, and manage and turn them in an instant and run along the pole, and stand on the yoke, and thence betake themselves with the greatest celerity to their chariots again.Chariots play an important role in Irish mythology surrounding the hero Cú Chulainn.Chariots could also be used for ceremonial purposes. According to Tacitus (Annals 14.35), Boudica, queen of the Iceni and a number of other tribes in a formidable uprising against the occupying Roman forces, addressed her troops from a chariot in 61 AD:"Boudicca curru filias prae se vehens, ut quamque nationem accesserat, solitum quidem Britannis feminarum ductu bellare testabatur"Boudicca, with her daughters before her in a chariot, went up to tribe after tribe, protesting that it was indeed usual for Britons to fight under the leadership of women.The last mention of chariot use in battle seems to be at the Battle of Mons Graupius, somewhere in modern Scotland, in 84 AD. From Tacitus (Agricola 1.35–36) "The plain between resounded with the noise and with the rapid movements of chariots and cavalry." The chariots did not win even their initial engagement with the Roman auxiliaries: "Meantime the enemy's cavalry had fled, and the charioteers had mingled in the engagement of the infantry."Later through the centuries, the chariot became commonly known as the "war wagon". The "war wagon" was a medieval development used to attack rebel or enemy forces on battle fields. The wagon was given slits for archers to shoot enemy targets, supported by infantry using pikes and flails and later for the invention of gunfire by hand-gunners; side walls were used for protection against archers, crossbowmen, the early use of gunpowder and cannon fire.It was especially useful during the Hussite Wars, ca. 1420, by Hussite forces rebelling in Bohemia. Groups of them could form defensive works, but they also were used as hardpoints for Hussite formations or as firepower in pincer movements. This early use of gunpowder and innovative tactics helped a largely peasant infantry stave off attacks by the Holy Roman Empire's larger forces of mounted knights.-EtruriaThe only intact Etruscan chariot dates to c. 530 BC and was uncovered as part of a chariot burial at Monteleone di Spoleto. Currently in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, it is decorated with bronze plates decorated with detailed low-relief scenes, commonly interpreted as depicting episodes from the life of Achilles.Detail of the Monteleone Chariot at the Met (c. 530 BC)-RomeA winner of a Roman chariot raceIn the Roman Empire, chariots were not used for warfare, but for chariot racing, especially in circuses, or for triumphal processions, when they could be drawn by as many as ten horses or even by dogs, tigers, or ostriches[citation needed]. There were four divisions, or factiones, of charioteers, distinguished by the colour of their costumes: the red, blue, green and white teams. The main centre of chariot racing was the Circus Maximus,[39] situated in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine Hills in Rome. The track could hold 12 chariots, and the two sides of the track were separated by a raised median termed the spina. Chariot races continued to enjoy great popularity in Byzantine times, in the Hippodrome of Constantinople, even after the Olympic Games had been disbanded, until their decline after the Nika riots in the 6th century. The starting gates were known as the Carceres.An ancient Roman car or chariot drawn by four horses abreast together with the horses drawing it was called a Quadriga, from the Latin quadriugi (of a team of four). The term sometimes meant instead the four horses without the chariot or the chariot alone. A three-horse chariot, or the three-horse team drawing it, was a triga, from triugi (of a team of three). A two-horse chariot, or the two-horse team drawing it, was a biga, from biugi.Chariot - Wikipedia-GearHistoryEarly examples of gears date from the 4th century BC in China (Zhan Guo times – Late East Zhou dynasty), which have been preserved at the Luoyang Museum of Henan Province, China. The earliest preserved gears in Europe were found in the Antikythera mechanism, an example of a very early and intricate geared device, designed to calculate astronomical positions. Its time of construction is now estimated between 150 and 100 BC. Gears appear in works connected to Hero of Alexandria, in Roman Egypt circa AD 50, but can be traced back to the mechanics of the Alexandrian school in 3rd-century BC Ptolemaic Egypt, and were greatly developed by the Greek polymath Archimedes (287–212 BC).Single-stage gear reducerThe segmental gear, which receives/communicates reciprocating motion from/to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a circular gear/ring having cogs on the periphery, was invented by Arab engineer Al-Jazari in 1206. The worm gear was invented in the Indian subcontinent, for use in roller cotton gins, some time during the 13th–14th centuries. Differential gears may have been used in some of the Chinese south-pointing chariots, but the first verifiable use of differential gears was by the British clock maker Joseph Williamson in 1720.Examples of early gear applications include:1386 CE: The Salisbury Cathedral clock: it is the world's oldest still working geared mechanical clock.c. 13th–14th centuries: The worm gear was invented as part of a roller cotton gin in the Indian subcontinent.c. 1221 CE The geared astrolabe was built in Isfahan showing the position of the moon in the zodiac and its phase, and the number of days since new moon.c. 1206 CE:Al-Jazari invented the segmental gear as part of a water-lifting device.725 CE: The first geared mechanical clocks were built in China.c. 200–265 CE: Ma Jun used gears as part of a south-pointing chariot.2nd century BC: The Antikythera mechanismIn nature: in the hind legs of the nymphs of the planthopper insect Issus coleoptratus.Gear - Wikipedia-List of archaeoastronomical sites by country[I’ll just concentrate on Europe]BulgariaMagura Cave, Bronze Age "paintings of staggered black and white squares could have been used to count the days in a calendar month", possibly indicating the number of days in the solar tropical year.FinlandThe so-called Giants' Churches (Finn. jätinkirkko), which are large, from c. 20 metres (66 ft) to over 70 metres (230 ft) long rectangular or oval stone enclosures built in the Neolithic (c. 3000–1800 BC), have axis and doorway orientations towards the sunrises and sunsets of the solstices and other calendrically significant days. For example, the Kastelli of Raahe, which is one of the largest Giants' Churches, had its five "gates", i.e. wall openings, oriented towards the midsummer sunset, the winter solstice sunrise, winter solstice sunset, the sunrises of the mid-quarter days of early May (Walpurgis, Beltaine) and August (Lammas), as well as the sunrise 11 days before the vernal equinox in 2500 BC.FranceBelchen SystemCarnac stonesGermanyBelchen SystemGoseck circleGlaubergMagdalenenberg (disputed)IrelandNewgrange, once a year, at the winter solstice, the rising sun shines directly along the long passage into the chamber for about 17 minutes and illuminates the chamber floor. (Generally accepted). It was built during the Neolithic period, around 3200 BC, making it older than Stonehenge and the Egyptian pyramids.Knowth is a Neolithic passage grave and ancient monument estimated to date from c. 3200 BC.Dowth in Boyne Valley, County Meath is a Neolithic passage tomb date with Astronomical alignments from between approximately 3200 and 2900 BC.Loughcrew near Oldcastle, County Meath is a group of megalithic tombs dating back to the 4th millennium BC, designed to receive the beams of the rising sun on the spring and autumnal equinox - the light shining down the passage and illuminating the art on the backstone.CarrowkeelMound of the HostagesDrombeg stone circle, at the winter solstice, the sun sets into a v formed by two distant overlapping hills and makes an alignment with the altar stone and the two main uprights. Due to the nature of the site and the western hills, local sunset is c. 15:50.Beltany stone circleBeaghmore Stone Circles, a complex of early Bronze Age megalithic features, stone circles and cairns. Some archaeologists believe that the circles have been constructed in relation to the rising of the sun at the solstice, or to record the movements of the sun and moon acting as observatories for particular lunar, solar or stellar events. Three of the stone rows point to the sunrise at the time of the solstice and another is aligned towards moonrise at the same period.ItalyAlatriNuragheMaltaMegalithic Temples of MaltaMnajdraTal-Qadi TempleNetherlandsFunnel Beaker Culture megalith graves ("hunebedden") in the eastern Netherlands might be oriented on moonrises.North MacedoniaKokino Situated 1030 m above sea level on the Tatićev Kamen Summit near Kumanovo.(disputed)PortugalAlmendres CromlechAnta Grande do ZambujeiroDolmen of Cunha BaixaRomaniaSarmizegetusa RegiaRussiaArkaimSpainAntequera Dolmens SitePeña de los EnamoradosDolmen of MengaSwedenAle's StonesSwitzerlandBelchen SystemColumna JovisUnited KingdomAveburyBallochroyBoscawen-Un Winter Solstice sunrise out of the Lamorna GapBryn Celli Ddu – aligned with the summer solstice such that light illuminates a quartz rich stone at the back of the chamberCallanish StonesDurrington WallsMaeshowe, it is aligned so that the rear wall of its central chamber, a rough cube of five yards square held up by a bracketed wall, is illuminated on the winter solstice.Prehistoric OrkneySt Edward the Confessor's Church, Leek. Traditional site for observing a double sunset.Stonehenge (Generally accepted).WoodhengeList of archaeoastronomical sites by country - Wikipedia-World's oldest calendar' discovered in Scottish fieldWarren FieldWarren Field is the location of a mesolithic calendar monument built about 8,000 BCE. It includes 12 pits believed to correlate with phases of the Moon and used as a lunar calendar. It is considered to be the oldest lunar calendar yet found. It is near Crathes Castle, in the Aberdeenshire region of Scotland, in the United Kingdom. It was originally discovered from the air as anomalous terrain by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland. It was first excavated in 2004.The pits align on the south east horizon and a prominent topographic point associated with sunrise on the midwinter solstice (thus providing an annual astronomical correction concerning the passage of time as indicated by the Moon, the asynchronous solar year and the associated seasons). The Aberdeenshire time reckoner predates the Mesopotamian calendars by nearly 5,000 years. It was also interpreted as a seasonal calendar because the local prehistoric communities, which relied on hunting migrating animals needed to carefully note the seasons to be prepared for a particular food source. The Warren Field site is particularly significant for its very early date and the fact that it was created by hunter-gatherer peoples, rather than sedentary farmers usually associated with monument building.Warren Field - Wikipedia-Medieval technology [brief summary/key factors]Medieval to early modernOne of the most significant development of the Medieval era was the development of economies where water and wind power were more significant than animal and human muscle power. Most water and wind power was used for milling grain. Water power was also used for blowing air in blast furnace, pulping rags for paper making and for felting wool. The Domesday Book recorded 5,624 water mills in Great Britain in 1086, being about one per thirty families.Medieval EuropeMain article: Medieval technologyClock from Salisbury Cathedral ca. 1386While medieval technology has been long depicted as a step backwards in the evolution of Western technology, a generation of medievalists (like the American historian of science Lynn White) stressed from the 1940s onwards the innovative character of many medieval techniques. Genuine medieval contributions include for example mechanical clocks, spectacles and vertical windmills. Medieval ingenuity was also displayed in the invention of seemingly inconspicuous items like the watermark or the functional button. In navigation, the foundation to the subsequent age of exploration was laid by the introduction of pintle-and-gudgeon rudders, lateen sails, the dry compass, the horseshoe and the astrolabe.Significant advances were also made in military technology with the development of plate armour, steel crossbows and cannon. The Middle Ages are perhaps best known for their architectural heritage: While the invention of the rib vault and pointed arch gave rise to the high rising Gothic style, the ubiquitous medieval fortifications gave the era the almost proverbial title of the 'age of castles'.Papermaking, a 2nd-century Chinese technology, was carried to the Middle East when a group of Chinese papermakers were captured in the 8th century. Papermaking technology was spread to Europe by the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. A paper mill was established in Sicily in the 12th century. In Europe the fiber to make pulp for making paper was obtained from linen and cotton rags. Lynn Townsend White Jr. credited the spinning wheel with increasing the supply of rags, which led to cheap paper, which was a factor in the development of printing.-Renaissance technologyMain article: Renaissance technologyA water-powered mine hoist used for raising ore, ca. 1556Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as millwrights, clock makers, instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.A standard reference for the state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise De re metallica (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years. Among the water powered mechanical devices in use were ore stamping mills, forge hammers, blast bellows, and suction pumps.Dome of Florence CathedralDesign for a flying machine (c.1488) by da VinciDue to the casting of cannon, the blast furnace came into widespread use in France in the mid 15th century. The blast furnace had been used in China since the 4th century BC.The invention of the movable cast metal type printing press, whose pressing mechanism was adapted from an olive screw press, (c. 1441) lead to a tremendous increase in the number of books and the number of titles published. Movable ceramic type had been used in China for a few centuries and woodblock printing dated back even further.The era is marked by such profound technical advancements like linear perceptivity, double shell domes or Bastion fortresses. Note books of the Renaissance artist-engineers such as Taccola and Leonardo da Vinci give a deep insight into the mechanical technology then known and applied. Architects and engineers were inspired by the structures of Ancient Rome, and men like Brunelleschi created the large dome of Florence Cathedral as a result. He was awarded one of the first patents ever issued in order to protect an ingenious crane he designed to raise the large masonry stones to the top of the structure. Military technology developed rapidly with the widespread use of the cross-bow and ever more powerful artillery, as the city-states of Italy were usually in conflict with one another. Powerful families like the Medici were strong patrons of the arts and sciences. Renaissance science spawned the Scientific Revolution; science and technology began a cycle of mutual advancement.-Age of ExplorationMain article: Age of ExplorationAn improved sailing ship, the (nau or carrack), enabled the Age of Exploration with the European colonization of the Americas, epitomized by Francis Bacon's New Atlantis. Pioneers like Vasco da Gama, Cabral, Magellan and Christopher Columbus explored the world in search of new trade routes for their goods and contacts with Africa, India and China to shorten the journey compared with traditional routes overland. They produced new maps and charts which enabled following mariners to explore further with greater confidence. Navigation was generally difficult, however, owing to the problem of longitude and the absence of accurate chronometers. European powers rediscovered the idea of the civil code, lost since the time of the Ancient Greeks.-Pre-Industrial RevolutionNewcomen steam engine for pumping minesThe stocking frame, which was invented in 1598, increased a knitter's number of knots per minute from 100 to 1000.Mines were becoming increasingly deep and were expensive to drain with horse powered bucket and chain pumps and wooden piston pumps. Some mines used as many as 500 horses. Horse-powered pumps were replaced by the Savery steam pump (1698) and the Newcomen steam engine (1712).-Industrial Revolution (1760–1830s)Main article: Industrial RevolutionThe revolution was driven by cheap energy in the form of coal, produced in ever-increasing amounts from the abundant resources of Britain. The British Industrial Revolution is characterized by developments in the areas of textile machinery, mining, metallurgy and transport the steam engine and the invention of machine tools.A Watt steam engineBefore invention of machinery to spin yarn and weave cloth, spinning was done using the spinning wheel and weaving was done on a hand-and-foot-operated loom. It took from three to five spinners to supply one weaver. The invention of the flying shuttle in 1733 doubled the output of a weaver, creating a shortage of spinners. The spinning frame for wool was invented in 1738. The spinning jenny, invented in 1764, was a machine that used multiple spinning wheels; however, it produced low quality thread. The water frame patented by Richard Arkwright in 1767, produced a better quality thread than the spinning jenny. The spinning mule, patented in 1779 by Samuel Crompton, produced a high quality thread. The power loom was invented by Edmund Cartwright in 1787.The Iron BridgeIn the mid 1750s the steam engine was applied to the water power-constrained iron, copper and lead industries for powering blast bellows. These industries were located near the mines, some of which were using steam engines for mine pumping. Steam engines were too powerful for leather bellows, so cast iron blowing cylinders were developed in 1768. Steam powered blast furnaces achieved higher temperatures, allowing the use of more lime in iron blast furnace feed. (Lime rich slag was not free-flowing at the previously used temperatures.) With a sufficient lime ratio, sulfur from coal or coke fuel reacts with the slag so that the sulfur does not contaminate the iron. Coal and coke were cheaper and more abundant fuel. As a result, iron production rose significantly during the last decades of the 18th century. Coal converted to coke fueled higher temperature blast furnaces and produced cast iron in much larger amounts than before, allowing the creation of a range of structures such as The Iron Bridge. Cheap coal meant that industry was no longer constrained by water resources driving the mills, although it continued as a valuable source of power.The preserved RocketThe steam engine helped drain the mines, so more coal reserves could be accessed, and the output of coal increased. The development of the high-pressure steam engine made locomotives possible, and a transport revolution followed. The steam engine which had existed since the early 18th century, was practically applied to both steamboat and railway transportation. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first purpose built railway line, opened in 1830, the Rocket locomotive of Robert Stephenson being one of its first working locomotives used.Manufacture of ships' pulley blocks by all-metal machines at the Portsmouth Block Mills in 1803 instigated the age of sustained mass production. Machine tools used by engineers to manufacture parts began in the first decade of the century, notably by Richard Roberts and Joseph Whitworth. The development of interchangeable parts through what is now called the American system of manufacturing began in the firearms industry at the U.S Federal arsenals in the early 19th century, and became widely used by the end of the century.