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Start with the b sound and followed by 35 symbols represented in Pinyin or Zhuyin. This Chinese phonetic order is also called “Bopomofo.”Bopomofo - WikipediaVersion:1.0 StartHTML:000000201 EndHTML:000190300 StartFragment:000147254 EndFragment:000190244 StartSelection:000147254 EndSelection:000190239 SourceURL:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BopomofoMain article: Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation § Phonetic symbolsThe Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation, led by Wu Zhihui from 1912 to 1913, created a system called Zhuyin Zimu,[5]which was based on Zhang Binglin's shorthand. A draft was released on July 11, 1913, by the Republic of China National Ministry of Education, but it was not officially proclaimed until November 23, 1928.[5]It was later renamed first Guoyin Zimu and then, in April 1930, Zhuyin Fuhao. The last renaming addressed fears that the alphabetic system might independently replace Chinese characters.[7]Modern use in Taiwan[edit]Direction sign for children in Taipei including bopomofoZhuyin remains the predominant phonetic system in teaching reading and writing in elementary school in Taiwan. It is also one of the most popular ways to enter Chinese characters into computers and smartphones and to look up characters in a dictionary.In elementary school, particularly in the lower years, Chinese characters in textbooks are often annotated with Zhuyin as ruby characters as an aid to learning. Additionally, one children's newspaper in Taiwan, the Mandarin Daily News, annotates all articles with Zhuyin ruby characters.In teaching Mandarin, Taiwan institutions and some overseas communities such as Filipino Chinese due to geographical proximity use Zhuyin as a learning tool.Etymology[edit]Table showing Zhuyin in Gwoyeu RomatzyhBopomofo in Regular, Handwritten Regular & Cursive formatsThe Zhuyin characters were created by Zhang Binglin, taken mainly from "regularized" forms of ancient Chinese characters, the modern readings of which contain the sound that each letter represents. It is to be noted that the first consonants are articulated from the front of the mouth to the back, /b/, /p/, /m/, /f/, /d/, /t/, /n/, /l/ etc.Origin of zhuyin symbolsConsonantsZhuyinOrigin[citation needed]IPAPinyinWGExampleㄅFrom 勹, the ancient form and current top portion of 包 bāopbp八 bāㄅㄚㄆFrom 攵, the combining form of 攴 pūpʰppʻ杷 páㄆㄚˊㄇFrom 冂, the archaic character and current radical 冖 mìmmm馬 mǎㄇㄚˇㄈFrom 匚 fāngfff法 fǎㄈㄚˇㄉFrom 𠚣, archaic form of 刀 dāo. Compare the Shuowen seal.tdt地 dìㄉㄧˋㄊFrom ㄊ tū, upside-down form of 子 zǐ (andin seal script)[8]tʰttʻ提 tíㄊㄧˊㄋFrom/𠄎, ancient form of 乃 nǎi (be)nnn你 nǐㄋㄧˇㄌFrom 𠠲, archaic form of 力 lìlll利 lìㄌㄧˋㄍFrom the obsolete character 巜 guì/kuài "river"kgk告 gàoㄍㄠˋㄎFrom the archaic character 丂 kǎokʰkkʻ考 kǎoㄎㄠˇㄏFrom the archaic character and current radical 厂 hǎnxhh好 hǎoㄏㄠˇㄐFrom the archaic character 丩 jiūtɕjch叫 jiàoㄐㄧㄠˋㄑFrom the archaic character 𡿨 quǎn, graphic root of the character 巛 chuān (modern 川)tɕʰqchʻ巧 qiǎoㄑㄧㄠˇㄒFrom 丅, an ancient form of 下 xià.ɕxhs小 xiǎoㄒㄧㄠˇㄓFrom/𡳿, archaic form of 之 zhī.ʈʂzhi, zh-ch知 zhīㄓ;主 zhǔㄓㄨˇㄔFrom the character and radical 彳 chìʈʂʰchi, ch-chʻ吃 chīㄔ;出 chūㄔㄨㄕFrom 𡰣, an ancient form of 尸 shīʂshi, sh-sh是 shìㄕˋ;束 shùㄕㄨˋㄖModified from the seal scriptform of 日 rì (day/sun)ɻ~ʐri, r-j日 rìㄖˋ;入 rùㄖㄨˋㄗFrom the archaic character and current radical 卩 jié, dialectically zié ([tsjě]; tsieh² in Wade–Giles)tszi, z-ts字 zìㄗˋ;在 zàiㄗㄞˋㄘFrom 𠀁, archaic form of 七 qī, dialectically ciī ([tsʰí]; tsʻi¹ in Wade–Giles). Compare semi-cursive formand seal-script.tsʰci, c-tsʻ詞 cíㄘˊ;才 cáiㄘㄞˊㄙFrom the archaic character 厶 sī, which was later replaced by its compound 私 sī.ssi, s-s四 sìㄙˋ;塞 sāiㄙㄞRhymes and medialsZhuyinOriginIPAPinyinWGExampleㄚFrom 丫 yāaaa大 dàㄉㄚˋㄛFrom the obsolete character 𠀀 hē, inhalation, the reverse of 丂 kǎo, which is preserved as a phonetic in the compound 可 kě.[9]ooo多 duōㄉㄨㄛㄜDerived from its allophone in Standard Chinese, ㄛ oɤeo/ê得 déㄉㄜˊㄝFrom 也 yě (also). Compare the Warring States bamboo formeêeh爹 diēㄉㄧㄝㄞFrom 𠀅 hài, archaic form of 亥.aiaiai晒 shàiㄕㄞˋㄟFrom 乁 yí, an obsolete character meaning 移 yí "to move".eieiei誰 shéiㄕㄟˊㄠFrom 幺 yāoauaoao少 shǎoㄕㄠˇㄡFrom 又 yòuououou收 shōuㄕㄡㄢFrom the archaic character 𢎘 hàn "to bloom", preserved as a phonetic in the compound 犯 fànananan山 shānㄕㄢㄣFrom 𠃉, archaic variant of 鳦 yǐ or 乚 yà[10](乚 is yǐn according to other sources[11])ənenên申 shēnㄕㄣㄤFrom 尢 wāngaŋangang上 shàngㄕㄤˋㄥFrom 𠃋, archaic form of 肱 gōng[12]əŋengêng生 shēngㄕㄥㄦFrom 儿, the bottom portion of 兒 ér used as a cursive and simplified formaɚerêrh而 érㄦˊㄧFrom 一 yī (one)iyi, -ii以 yǐㄧˇ;逆 nìㄋㄧˋㄨFrom 㐅, ancient form of 五 wǔ (five). Compare the transitory form 𠄡.uw, wu, -uu/w努 nǔㄋㄨˇ;我 wǒㄨㄛˇㄩFrom the ancient character 凵 qū, which remains as a radicalyyu, -üü/yü雨 yǔㄩˇ;女 nǚㄋㄩˇㄭFrom the character 帀. It represents the minimal vowel of ㄓ，ㄔ，ㄕ，ㄖ，ㄗ，ㄘ，ㄙ， though it is not used after them in transcription.[13]ɻ̩~ʐ̩, ɹ̩~z̩-iih/ŭ資 zīㄗ;知 zhīㄓ;死 sǐㄙˇThis would be the dictionary order for Chinese.

Being as objective as I can, my recommendation for the English mono-lingual with no particular connection to China, is to choose Spanish because it is easier to learn for an English speaking person. English and Spanish have the same Latin roots and share many words. They have the same alphabet. This means you can make up every word you need to know, and have a stab at pronouncing them, using letters we are familiar with. In Mandarin there is a different symbol for each word. To be proficient you need to learn thousands of different symbols. Furthermore when speaking, intonation, plays a major part – much more so than in English. This is extremely difficult for an English speaker to master. Even the Chinese know that their language, as beautiful as it is, is very tough for a foreigner to learn.If all goes well, make Mandarin your third language, and why not keep on learning many more!Personal circumstances may dictate which is the best language to learn. If your ethnic background is Chinese or Hispanic then of course you should learn the language closest to you. This little report is really written for an English speaking monolingual looking to learn a second language.Why Spanish and Mandarin? Because it usually boils down to these two. Learning any language is satisfying and bestows many benefits on the learner….but these two languages have in built global advantages and may even boost your career.Mandarin is often recommended as the best language to learn – and indeed many classes have sprouted up to meet the demand. The interest in the language is clear. China is becoming an economic powerhouse and, what is more, it is the most populous country in the world with 1.3 billion people. That may be so but it is not quite as clear cut as that.China is an economic power house. How do Spanish speaking countries compete?Mandarin is the main language of China but not the only one. There are 5 other major languages as well as many dialects. It is spoken in one other country – Taiwan. Even so, it is estimated 800 million people speak it – and maybe even a billion worldwide. It is big!Economically, China has a GDP of US$ 5500 billion and rising fast. If you want to be part of the economic future then learning Mandarin makes some sense. But lets take a closer look at Spanish.Pronouncing Spanish based on the written word is much simpler than pronouncing English based on written English. This is because, with few exceptions, each letter in the Spanish alphabet represents a single sound, and even when there are several possible sounds, simple rules tell us which is the correct one. In contrast, many letters and letter combinations in English represent multiple sounds (such as the ou and gh in words like cough, rough, through, though, plough, etc.).One letter, one soundPronouncing Spanish based on the written word is much simpler than pronouncing English based on written English. Each vowel represents only one sound. With some exceptions (such as w and x), each consonant also represents one sound. Many consonants sound very similar to their English counterparts.As the table indicates, the pronunciation of some consonants (such as b) does vary with the position of the consonant in the word, whether it is between vowels or not, etc. This is entirely predictable, so it doesn't really represent a breaking of the "one letter, one sound" rule.Word stress[In Spanish there are two levels of stress when pronouncing a syllable: stressed and unstressed. To illustrate: in the English word "thinking", "think" is pronounced with stronger stress than "ing". If both syllables are pronounced with the same stress, it sounds like "thin king".With one category of exceptions (-mente adverbs), all Spanish words have one stressed syllable. If a word has an accent mark (´; explicit accent), the syllable with the accent mark is stressed and the other syllables are unstressed. If a word has no accent mark (implicit accent), the stressed syllable is predictable by rule (see below). If you don't put the stress on the correct syllable, the other person may have trouble understanding you. For example: esta, which has an implicit accent in the letter e, means "this (feminine)"; and está, which has an explicit accent in the letter a, means "is." Inglés means "English," but ingles means "groins."Adverbs ending in -mente are stressed in two places: on the syllable where the accent falls in the adjectival root and on the men of -mente. For example: estúpido → estúpidamente.The vowel of an unstressed syllable should be pronounced with its true value, as shown in the table above. Don't reduce unstressed vowels to neutral schwa sounds, as occurs in English.Rules for pronouncing the implicit accentThere are only the following rules for pronouncing the implicit accent. The stressed syllable is in bold letters:If a word ends with a vowel or with n or s , the next-to-last syllable is stressed.Examples:cara (ca-ra) (face)mano (ma-no) (hand)amarillo (a-ma-ri-llo) (yellow)hablan (ha-blan) (they speak)martes (mar-tes) (Tuesday)If a word ends with a consonant other than n or s, the last syllable is stressed.Examples:farol (fa-rol) (street lamp)azul (a-sul) (blue)español (es-pa-ñol) (Spanish)salvador (sal-va-dor) (savior).A syllable usually contains exactly one vowel. If there are two adjacent vowels, they count as two distinct syllables if both are one of a,e and o. If, however, at least one of them is i or u, they count as only one syllable. If, according to the two rules above, that syllable is stressed, the first of the two vowels is stressed if it is one of a, e and o, while the second vowel is stressed if the first one is one of iand u.Examples:correo (co-rre-o) (mail)hacia (ha-cia) (in the direction of)fui (fu-i) (I was) (Note that this word has only one syllable.)Any exception to these rules is marked by writing an acute accent (máximo, paréntesis, útil, acción). In those exceptions, the stressed syllable is the one where the acute accent (called tilde in Spanish) appears.The diaeresis ( ¨ )[edit]In the clusters gue and gui, the u is not pronounced; it serves simply to give the g a hard-g sound, like in the English word gut (gue → [ge]; gui → [gi]).However, if the u has a the diaeresis mark (¨), it is pronounced like an English w (güe → [gwe]; güi → [gwi]). This mark is rather rare.Examples:pedigüeño = beggaragüéis (2nd person plural, present subjunctive of the verb aguar). Here, the diaeresis preserves the u (or [w]) sound in all the verb tenses of aguar.argüir (to deduce)pingüino = penguinLetter-sound correspondences in Spanishnciation of the letter (English approximation)A aaaLike a in fatherB bbe, be larga, be altabLike b in bad.βBetween vowels, the lips should not be fully closed when pronouncing the sound (somewhat similar to the vin value, but much softer).C cceθ/sBefore the vowels e and i, like th in thin (most of Spain) or like c in center (Parts of Andalucía, Canary Islands and Americas).kEverywhere else; like c in coffeeCh chchetʃLike ch in church.D ddedDoes not have an exact English equivalent. Sounds similar to the d in day, but instead of the tongue touching the roof of the mouth behind the teeth, it should touch the teeth themselves.ðBetween vowels, the tongue should be lowered so as to not touch the teeth (somewhat similar to the th in the).E eeeLike e in ten, and the ay in say.F fefefLike f in four.G ggegLike g in get.ɰBetween vowels (where the second vowel is a, o or u), the tongue should not touch the soft palate (no similar sound in English, but it's somewhat like Arabic ghain).xBefore the vowels e and i, like a Spanish j (see below).H hhacheSilent, unless combined with c (see above). Hu- or hi- followed by another vowel at the start of the word stand for /w/ (English w) and /j/ (English y). Also used in foreign words like hámster, where it is pronounced like a Spanish j (see below).I iiiLike e in he. Before other vowels, it approaches y in you.J jjotaxLike the ch in loch, although in many dialects it may sound like English h.K kkakLike the k in ask. Only used in words of foreign origin - Spanish prefers c and qu (see above and below, respectively).L lelelDoes not have an exact English equivalent. It is similar to the English "l" in line, but shorter, or "clipped." Instead of the tongue touching the roof of the mouth behind the teeth, it should touch the tip of the teeth themselves.Ll lldoble ele, elleʎ/ʝPronounced, mostly in Northern Spain, like gl in the Italian word gli. Does not have an English equivalent, but it's somewhat similar to li in million. In other parts of Spain and in Latin America, ll is commonly pronounced as /ʝ/ (somewhat similar to English y, but more vibrating). In Argentina and Uruguay it can be like sh in "flash" or like the s in the English "vision".M mememLike m in more.N nenenLike n in no. Before p, b, f and v (and in some regions m) sounds as m in important. For example un pasosounds umpaso. Before g, j, k sound (c, k , q), w and hu sounds like n in anchor: un gato, un juego, un cubo, un kilo, un queso, un whisky, un hueso. Before y sound (y or ll), it sounds like ñ, see below.Ñ ñeñeɲLike gn in the Italian word lasagna. As it's always followed by a vowel, the most similar sound in English is /nj/ (ny) + vowel, as in canyon, where the y is very short. For example, when pronouncing "años", think of it as "anyos", or an-yos. To practice, repeat the onomatopoeia of chewing: "ñam, ñam, ñam".O oooLike o in more, without the following r sound.P ppepLike p in port.Q qcukLike q in quit. As in English, it is always followed by a u, but before e or i, the u is silent (líquido is pronounced /'Li.ki.ðo/). The English /kw/ sound is normally written cu in Spanish (cuanto), although qucan be used for this sound in front of a or o (quásar, quórum).R rere, erreɾThis has two pronunciations, neither of which exist in English. The 'soft' pronunciation [ɾ] sounds like American relaxed pronunciation of tt in "butter", and is written r (always written r).rThe 'hard' pronunciation [r] is a multiply vibrating sound, similar to Scottish rolled r (generally written rr). 'Hard' r is also the sound of [r] at the start of a word or after l, n or s.S sesesLike s in six. In many places it's aspirated in final position, although in Andalusia it is not itself pronounced, but changes the sound of the preceding vowel. (See regional variations). In most parts of Spain, it's pronounced as a sound between [s] and [ʃ].T ttetDoes not have an exact English equivalent. Like to the t in ten, but instead of the tongue touching the roof of the mouth behind the teeth, it should touch the teeth themselves.U uuwbefore another vowel (especially after c), like w in twig.In the combinations gue,gui and qu, it is silent unless it has a diaresis (güe, güi), in which case it is as above: w (only in the combinations güe and güi and not in the combination qü).uEverywhere else, like oo in pool, but shorter.V vuve, ve, ve corta, ve bajab, βIdentical to Spanish b (see above). The pronunciation "v" is regarded as an over-cultism[citation needed].W wuve doble, doble ve, doble ub, β, wUsed only in words of foreign origin (Spanish prefers u). Pronunciation varies from word to word: watt is pronounced like bat or huat, but kiwi is always pronounced like quihui.X xequisksLike ks (English x) in extra. In some cases it may be pronounced like gs or s.ʃIn words of Amerindian origin, like sh in she.xNote that x used to represent the sound of sh, which then evolved into the sound now written with j. A few words have retained the old spelling, but have modern pronunciation /x/. Most notably, México and its derivatives are pronounced like Méjico.Y yi griega, yeiIt sounds as a vowel [i]: a. when it is a word itself (y /i/, meaning "and" in English), b. at the end of a word like in rey /rei/ ("king"), c. in the middle of a compound word like in Solymar (sol y mar /so.li'mar/, meaning "sun and sea"), d. at the beginning of a word followed by a consonant in words or names that have retained an old spelling (Yfrán /i'fɾan/).ʝIt sounds as a consonant [ʝ] in any other position: reyes /'re.ʝes/, yeso /'ʝhttp://e.so/. This standard pronunciation for y as a consonant does not have a perfect English equivalent, but it is somewhat similar to English y (just more vibrating). In Argentina and Uruguay y is pronounced similar to the English sh (/ʃ/) in she, or /ʒ/ (like English s in vision).Z zzeta, cedaθ, sAlways the same sound as a soft c i.e. either /θ/ (most of Spain) or /s/ (elsewhere). See c for details.Here is the traditional Spanish alphabet. The current Spanish alphabet is made up of the letters with numbers above them, and is also sorted in that order. Please read the notes and sections below. (Blue and red letters are a part of the normal English alphabet).123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627abcchdefghijklllmnñopqrstuvwxyzNotes about ÑN and Ñ are considered two different letters. They are alphabetized as separate letters, so Ñ always comes after N, regardless of where it appears in the word. Ex: muñeca comes after municipal.Notes about CH and LLCH and LL are no longer distinct letters of the alphabet. In 1994, the Real Academia Española (Spanish Royal Academy) declared that they should be treated as digraphs for collation purposes. Accordingly, words beginning with CH and LL are now alphabetized under Cand L, respectively. In 2010, the Real Academia Española declared that CH and LL would no longer be treated as letters, bringing the total number of letters of the alphabet down to 27.Notes about K and WK and W are part of the alphabet but are mostly seen in foreign derived words and names, such as karate and whiskey. For instance, kilo is commonly used to refer to a kilogram.Spanish pronunciation of the letterAlthough the above will help you understand, proper pronunciation of Spanish consonants is a bit more complicated:Most of the consonants are pronounced as they are in American English with these exceptions:b like the English b at the start of a word and after m or n, (IPA: /b/). Elsewhere, especially between vowels, it is softer, often like a blend between English v and b. (IPA: /β/)c before i and e like English th in "think" (in Latin America it is like English s) (European IPA: /θ/; Latin American IPA: /s/)c before a, o, u and other consonants, like English k (IPA: /k/)The same sound for e and i is written like que and qui, where the u is silent (IPA: /ke/ and /ki/).ch like ch in “cheese” (IPA: /tʃ/)d at the start of a word and after n, like English d in "under" (IPA: /d/)d between vowels (even if these vowels belong to different words) similar to English th in "mother" (IPA: /ð/); at the end of words like "universidad" you may hear a similar sound, too.g before e or i like the Dutch g (IPA: /x/)g before a, o, u, like g in “get” (IPA: /g/)The same sound for e and i is written like gue and gui, where the u is silent (IPA: /ge/ and /gi/). If the word needs the u to be pronounced, you write it with a diaeresis e.g. pingüino, lengüeta.h is always silent (except in the digraph ch)j like the h in hotel, or like the Scottish pronunciation of ch in "loch" (IPA: /h/ or /x/)ll is pronounced like gli in Italian "famiglia," or as English y in “yes” (IPA: /ʎ/)ñ like nio in “onion” (or gn in French cognac) (IPA: /ɲ/)q like the English k; occurs only before ue or ui (IPA: /k/)r at the beginning of a word; after l, n, or s; or when doubled (rr), it is pronounced as a full trill (IPA: /r/), elsewhere it is a single-tap trill (IPA: /ɾ/)v is pronounced like b, there is no distinction whatsoever between B and V. (IPA: /b/)x is pronounced much like an English x, except a little more softly, and often more like gs. (IPA: /ks/)z like the English th (in Latin America, like the English s) (European IPA: /θ/; Latin American IPA: /s/)Vowels[edit]The pronunciation of vowels is as follows:a [a] "La Mano" as in "Kahn" (ah)e [e] "Mente" as in "hen" (eh)i [i] "Sin" as the ea in "lean" (e)o [o] "Como" as in "more" (without the following 'r')u [u] "Lunes" as in "toon" or "loom" (oo)The "u" is always silent after a g or a q (as in "qué" pronounced keh).Spanish also uses the ¨ (diaeresis) diacritic mark over the vowel u to indicate that it is pronounced separately in places where it would normally be silent. For example, in words such as vergüenza ("shame") or pingüino ("penguin"), the u is pronounced as in the English "w" and so forms a diphthong with the following vowel: [we] and [wi] respectively. It is also used to preserve sound in stem changes and in commands: averiguar (to research) - averigüemos (let's research).The y [ʝ] "Reyes" is similar to the y of "yet", but more voiced (in some parts of Latin America it is pronounced as s in "vision" [ʒ] or sh in "flash" [ʃ]) At the end of a word or when it means "and" ("y") it is pronounced like i.Acute accents[edit]Spanish uses the ´ (Acute) diacritic mark over vowels to indicate a vocal stress on a word that would normally be stressed on another syllable; Stress is contrastive. For example, the word ánimo is normally stressed on a, meaning "mood, spirit." While animo is stressed on ni meaning "I cheer." And animó is stressed on mó meaning "he cheered."Additionally the acute mark is used to disambiguate certain words which would otherwise be homographs. It's used in various question word or relative pronoun pairs such as cómo (how?)& como (as), dónde(where?) & donde (where), and some other words such as tú(you) & tu (your), él (he/him) & el (the).AEIOUáéíóuWell, I know it is a lot to learn and to fully grasp with so much information, but in fact, a long explanation was necessary for the sole purpose of clarifying certain peculiarities about the Spanish linguistics. Your mother language is Mandarin, which it makes things even more complicated to understand, since Spanish is a Latin based Language, which has evolved throughout the centuries and became the catalyst for the inception of many other languages, which are known today as “Romance Languages.” Let’s face it even the Chinese know that their language, as beautiful as it is, is very tough for a foreigner to learn. For example; in Mandarin there is a different symbol for each word. To be proficient you need to learn thousands of different symbols. Furthermore when speaking, intonation, plays a major part – much more so than in English. This is extremely difficult for an English speaker to master.Well, I hope this helps you, to understand and clarify some of your inquiring about the language, and intricacies of how the grammar, orthography and linguistics of the Spanish language works.

A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. The word "megalithic" describes structures made of such large stones, utilizing an interlocking system without the use of mortar or concrete, as well as representing periods of prehistory characterised by such constructions. For later periods the term monolith, with an overlapping meaning, is more likely to be used.The word "megalith" comes from the Ancient Greek "μέγας" (transl. megas meaning "great") and "λίθος" (transl. lithos meaning "stone"). Megalith also denotes an item consisting of rock(s) hewn in definite shapes for special purposes.It has been used to describe buildings built by people from many parts of the world living in many different periods. A variety of large stones are seen as megaliths, with the most widely known megaliths not beingsepulchral.The construction of these structures took place mainly in the Neolithic (though earlier Mesolithic examples are known) and continued into the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age.At a number of sites in eastern Turkey, large ceremonial complexes from the 9th millennium BChave been discovered.They belong to the incipient phases of agriculture and animal husbandry. Large circular structures involving carved megalithic orthostats are a typical feature; e.g. at Nevalı Çori and Göbekli Tepe. Although these structures are the most ancient megalithic structures known so far, it is not clear that any of the European Megalithic traditions (see below) are actually derived from them. At Göbekli Tepe, four stone circles have been excavated from an estimated 20. Some measure up to 30 metres across. As well as human figures, the stones carry a variety of carved reliefs depicting boars, foxes, lions, birds, snakes and scorpions.Dolmens and standing stones have been found in large areas of the Middle East starting at the Turkish border in the north of Syria close to Aleppo, southwards down to Yemen. They can be encountered in Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. The largest concentration can be found in southern Syria and along the Jordan Rift Valley, however they are being threatened with destruction. They date from the late Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age.egaliths have also been found on Kharg Island and pirazmian in Iran and at Barda Balka in Iraq.Standing stone in Amman, Jordan, now destroyed.A semicircular arrangement of megaliths was found in Israel at Atlit Yam, a site that is now under the sea. It is a very early example, dating from the seventh millennium BC.The most concentrated occurrence of dolmens in particular is in a large area on both sides of the Jordan Rift Valley, with greater predominance on the eastern side. They occur first and foremost on the Golan Heights, the Hauran, and in Jordan, which probably has the largest concentration of dolmen in the Middle East. In Saudi Arabia, only very few dolmen have been identified so far in the Hejaz. They seem, however, to re-emerge in Yemen in small numbers, and thus could indicate a continuous tradition related to those of Somalia and Ethiopia.The standing stone has a very ancient tradition in the Middle East, dating back fromMesopotamian times. Although not always 'megalithic' in the true sense, they occur throughout the Orient, and can reach 5 metres or more in some cases (such as Ader in Jordan). This phenomenon can also be traced through many passages from the Old Testament, such as those related to Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, who poured oil over a stone that he erected after his famous dream in which angels climbed to heaven (Genesis 28:10-22). Jacob is also described as putting up stones at other occasions, whereas Moses erected twelve pillars symbolizing the tribes of Israel. The tradition of venerating (standing) stones continued in Nabatean times and is reflected in, e.g., the Islamic rituals surrounding the Kaaba and nearby pillars. Related phenomena, such as cupholes, rock-cut tombs and circles also occur in the Middle East.The most common type of megalithic construction in Europe is the portal tomb – a chamber consisting of upright stones (orthostats) with one or more large flat capstones forming a roof. Many of these, though by no means all, contain human remains, but it is debatable whether use as burial sites was their primary function. The megalithic structures of Malta are believed to be the oldest in Europe, in particular Skorba Temple. Though generally known as dolmens, the correct term accepted by archaeologists is portal tomb. However many local names exist, such as anta in Galicia and Portugal, stazzone in Sardinia, hunebed in the Netherlands, Hünengrab in Germany,dysse in Denmark, and cromlech in Wales. It is assumed that most portal tombs were originally covered by earthen mounds.The second-most-common tomb type is the passage grave. It normally consists of a square, circular, or cruciform chamber with a slabbed or corbelled roof, accessed by a long, straight passageway, with the whole structure covered by a circular mound of earth. Sometimes it is also surrounded by an external stone kerb. Prominent examples include the sites of Brú na Bóinne and Carrowmore in Ireland, Maes Howe in Orkney, and Gavrinis in France.The third tomb type is a diverse group known as gallery graves. These are axially arranged chambers placed under elongated mounds. The Irish court tombs, British long barrows, and GermanSteinkisten belong to this group.Another type of megalithic monument, the single standing stone, or menhir as it is known in France, is very common throughout Europe, where some 50,000 examples have been noted. Some of these are thought to have an astronomical function as a marker or foresight. In some areas, long and complex alignments of such stones exist, the largest known example being located at Carnac inBrittany, France.In parts of Britain and Ireland a relatively common type of megalithic construction is the stone circle, of which examples include Stonehenge, Avebury, Ring of Brodgar and Beltany. These, too, display evidence of astronomical alignments, both solar and lunar. Stonehenge, for example, is famous for its solstice alignment. Examples of stone circles are also found in the rest of Europe. The circle at Lough Gur, near Limerick in Ireland has been dated to the Beaker period, approximately contemporaneous with Stonehenge. The stone circles are assumed to be of later date than the tombs, straddling theNeolithic and the Bronze Ages.Megalithic tombs are aboveground burial chambers, built of large stone slabs (megaliths) laid on edge and covered with earth or other, smaller stones. They are a type of chamber tomb, and the term is used to describe the structures built across Atlantic Europe, the Mediterranean, and neighbouring regions, mostly during the Neolithic period, by Neolithic farming communities. They differ from the contemporary long barrows through their structural use of stone.There is a huge variety of megalithic tombs. The free-standing single chamber dolmens andportal dolmens found in Brittany, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden, Wales, and elsewhere consist of a large flat stone supported by three, four, or more standing stones. They were covered by a stone cairn or earth barrow.Construction of a megalith graveIn Italy, dolmens can be found especially in Sardinia. There are more than 100 dolmen dating to the Neolithic (3500-2700 BC) and the most famous is called Dolmen di Sa Coveccada (near Mores ). During the Bronze Age, the Nuragic civilization built c. 800 Giants' grave, a type of megalithic gallery grave that can be found throughout Sardinia with different structures. The earliest megalithic tombs in Sardinia are the circular graves of the so-called Arzachena culture, also found in Corsica, southern France and eastern Spain.Dolmen are also in Apulia and in Sicily. In this latter region, they are small structures located in Mura Pregne (Palermo), Sciacca (Agrigento), Monte Bubbonia (Caltanissetta), Butera (Caltanissetta), Cava Lazzaro (Siracusa), Cava dei Servi (Ragusa), Avola (Siracusa), Argimusco in Montalbano Elicona(Messina) . Dating to the early Bronze Age (2200-1800 BC), the prehistoric Sicilian buildings were covered by a circular mound of earth. In the dolmen of Cava dei Servi, the archaeologists found numerous human bone fragments and some splinters of Castelluccian ceramics (Early Bronze Age)which confirmed the burial purpose of the artefact. Examples with outer areas, not used for burial, are also known. The Court Cairns of southwestScotland and northern Ireland, the Severn-Cotswold tombs of southwest England and theTransepted gallery graves of the Loire region in France share many internal features, although the links between them are not yet fully understood. That they often have antechambers or forecourts is thought to imply a desire on the part of the builders to emphasize a special ritual or physical separation of the dead from the living.Saint-Michel tumulus, megalith grave in BrittanyThe Passage graves of Orkney, Ireland's Boyne Valley, and north Wales are even more complex and impressive, with cross-shaped arrangements of chambers and passages. The workmanship on the stone blocks at Maeshowe for example is unknown elsewhere in northwest Europe at the time.Megalithic tombs appear to have been used by communities for the long-term deposition of the remains of their dead, and some seem to have undergone alteration and enlargement. The organization and effort required to erect these large stones suggest that the societies concerned placed great emphasis on the proper treatment of their dead. The ritual significance of the tombs is supported by the presence of megalithic art carved into the stones at some sites. Hearths and deposits of pottery and animal bone found by archaeologists around some tombs also implies that some form of burial feast or sacrificial rites took place there.Further examples of megalithic tombs include the stalled cairn at Midhowe in Orkney and the passage grave at Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey. There are also extensive grave sites with up to 60 megaliths atLouisenlund and Gryet on the Danish island of Bornholm.Despite its name, the Stone Tomb inUkraine was not a tomb but rather a sanctuary.In association with the megalithic constructions across Europe, there are often large earthworks of various designs – ditches and banks (like the Dorset Cursus), broad terraces, circular enclosures known as henges, and frequently artificial mounds such as Silbury Hill in England and Monte d'Accoddi in Sardinia (the prehistoric step pyramid) . A lot of spirals are found through of Sardinia: the best known is Perda Pinta of Mamoiada.It seems that spirals were an important motif for the megalith builders (see Megalithic Temples of Malta). They have been found carved into megalithic structures all over Europe, along with other symbols such as lozenges, eye-patterns, zigzags in various configurations, and cup and ring marks. While not a written script in the modern sense of the term, these symbols are considered to have conveyed meaning to their creators, and are remarkably consistent across the whole of Europe.Spread of megalithic architecture in EuropeIn Europe megaliths are, in general, constructions erected during the Neolithic or late stone age andChalcolithic or Copper Age (4500-1500 BC). The megalithic structures of Malta are believed to be the oldest in Europe. Perhaps the most famous megalithic structure is Stonehenge in England. In Sardinia, in addition to dolmens, menhirs and circular graves there are also more than 8000 megalithic structure made by a Nuragic civilisation, called Nuraghe : buildings similar to towers (sometimes with really complex structures) made using only rocks. They are often near giant's grave or the other megalithic monuments.Tumulus of Kercado, near Carnac. Smaller but older structure in the area. (Part of the Cairn is visible)The French Comte de Caylus was the first to describe the Carnac stones. Pierre Jean-Baptiste Legrand d'Aussy introduced the terms menhir and dolmen, both taken from the Breton language, into antiquarian terminology. He mistakenly interpreted megaliths as gallic tombs. In Britain, theantiquarians Aubrey and Stukeley conducted early research into megaliths. In 1805, Jacques Cambry published a book called Monuments celtiques, ou recherches sur le culte des Pierres, précédées d'une notice sur les Celtes et sur les Druides, et suivies d'Etymologie celtiques, where he proposed a Celtic stone cult. This completely unfounded connection between druids and megaliths has haunted the public imagination ever since.In Belgium, there is a megalithic site at Wéris, a little town situated in the Ardennes. In the Netherlands, megalithic structures can be found in the northeast of the country, mostly in the province of Drenthe. Knowth is a passage grave of the Brú na Bóinne neolithic complex in Ireland, dating from c.3500-3000 BC. It contains more than a third of the total number of examples ofmegalithic art in all Europe, with over 200 decorated stones found during excavations.Timeline of megalithic constructionMesolithicc. 9500 BC: Construction in Asia Minor (Göbekli Tepe); from proto-Hattian or else a yet-to-be-discovered culture (the oldest religious structure in the world).Submerged by around 9350 ± 200 yr B.P: a 12m long monolith probably weighing around 15000 kg found 40m under water in theStrait of Sicily south-west of Sicily whose function is unknown.Neolithicc. 7000 BC: Construction in proto-Canaanite Israel (Atlit Yam).c. 6000 BC: Constructions in Portugal (Almendres Cromlech, Évora)c. 5000 BC: Emergence of the Atlantic Neolithic period, the age of agriculture along the western shores of Europe during the sixth millennium BC pottery culture of La Almagra, Spain near by, perhaps precedent from Africa.c. 4850 BC: Constructions in Malta (Skorba temples).c. 4800 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Barnenez) and Poitou (Bougon).c. 4500 BC: Constructions in south Egypt (Nabta Playa).c. 4000 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Carnac), Portugal (Great Dolmen of Zambujeiro, Évora), France (central and southern),Corsica, Spain (Galicia), England and Wales, Constructions in Andalusia, Spain (Villa Martín, Cádiz), Construction in proto-CanaaniteIsrael c. 4000~3000 BC: Constructions in the rest of the proto-Canaanite Levant, e.g. Rujm el-Hiri and dolmens.c. 3700 BC: Constructions in Ireland (Knockiveagh and elsewhere).c. 3600 BC: Constructions in England (Maumbury Rings and Godmanchester), and Malta (Ġgantija and Mnajdra temples).c. 3500 BC: Constructions in Spain (Málaga and Guadiana), Ireland (south-west), France (Arles and the north), Malta (and elsewhere in the Mediterranean), Belgium (north-east), and Germany (central and south-west).c. 3400 BC: Constructions in Sardinia (circular graves), Ireland (Newgrange), Netherlands (north-east), Germany (northern and central) Sweden and Denmark.c. 3300 BC: Constructions in France (Carnac stones)c. 3200 BC: Constructions in Malta (Ħaġar Qim and Tarxien).c. 3100 BC: Constructions in Russia (Dolmens of North Caucasus)c. 3000 BC: Constructions in Sardinia (earliest construction phase of the prehistoric altar of Monte d'Accoddi), France (Saumur,Dordogne, Languedoc, Biscay, and the Mediterranean coast), Spain (Los Millares), Sicily, Belgium (Ardennes), and Orkney, as well as the first henges (circular earthworks) in Britain.Chalcolithicc. 2500 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Le Menec, Kermario and elsewhere), Italy (Otranto), Sardinia, and Scotland (northeast), plus the climax of the megalithic Bell-beaker culture in Iberia, Germany, and the British Isles (stone circle at Stonehenge). With the bell-beakers, the Neolithic period gave way to the Chalcolithic, the age of copper.c. 2400 BC: The Bell-beaker culture was dominant in Britain, and hundreds of smaller stone circles were built in the British Isles at this time.Bronze Agec. 2000 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Er Grah), Italy : (Bari); Sicily (Cava dei Servi, Cava Lazzaro);, and Scotland (Callanish). The Chalcolithic period gave way to the Bronze Age in western and northern Europe.c. 1800 BC: Constructions in Italy (Giovinazzo, in Sardinia started the nuragic civilisation).c. 1500 BC: Constructions in Portugal (Alter Pedroso and Mourela).c. 1400 BC: Burial of the Egtved Girl in Denmark, whose body is today one of the best-preserved examples of its kind.c. 1200 BC: Last vestiges of the megalithic tradition in the Mediterranean and elsewhere come to an end during the general population upheaval known to ancient history as the Invasions of the Sea Peoples.[citation needed]African megalithsNabta Playa megalithNabta Playa at the southwest corner of the western Egyptian desert was once a large lake in theNubian Desert, located 500 miles south of modern-day Cairo. By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples in Nabta Playa had fashioned an astronomical device that accurately marks the summersolstice.Findings indicate that the region was occupied only seasonally, likely only in the summer when the local lake filled with water for grazing cattle. There are other megalithic stone circles in the southwestern desert.Namoratunga, a group of megaliths dated 300 BCE, was used by Cushitic-speaking people as an alignment with star systems tuned to a lunar calendar of 354 days. This discovery was made by B. N. Lynch and L. H. Robins of Michigan State University. Additionally, Tiya in central Ethiopia has a number old megaliths. Some of these ancient structures feature engravings, and the area is a World Heritage Site. Megaliths are also found within the Valley of Marvels in the East Hararghe area.Asian megalithsNorthern-style megalithic burial from Jukrim-ri, Gochang-eub, North Jeolla Province, Korea.Megalithic burials are found in Northeast and Southeast Asia. They are found mainly in the Korean Peninsula. They are also found in the Liaoning, Shandong, and Zhejiang in China, the East Coast ofTaiwan, Kyūshū and Shikoku in Japan, Đồng Nai Province in Vietnam and parts of Pakistan and India. Some living megalithic traditions are found on the island of Sumba and Nias in Indonesia. The greatest concentration of megalithic burials is in Korea. Archaeologists estimate that there are 15,000 to 100,000 southern megaliths in the Korean Peninsula. Typical estimates hover around the 30,000 mark for the entire peninsula, which in itself constitutes some 40% of all dolmens worldwide (see Dolmen).Northern styleNortheast Asian megalithic traditions originated in northeast China, in particular the Liao River basin. The practice of erecting megalithic burials spread quickly from the Liao River Basin and into the Korean Peninsula, where the structure of megaliths is geographically and chronologically distinct. The earliest megalithic burials are called "northern" or "table-style" because they feature an above-ground burial chamber formed by heavy stone slabs that form a rectangular cist. An oversized capstone is placed over the stone slab burial chamber, giving the appearance of a table-top. These megalithic burials date to the early part of the Mumun Pottery Period (c. 1500-850 BC) and are distributed, with a few exceptions, north of the Han River. Few northern-style megaliths in northeast China contain grave goods such as Liaoning bronze daggers, prompting some archaeologists to interpret the burials as the graves of chiefs or preeminent individuals.However, whether a result of grave-robbery or intentional mortuary behaviour, most northern megaliths contain no grave goods.Southern styleSouthern-style megalithic burials are distributed in the southern Korean Peninsula. It is thought that most of them date to the latter part of the Early Mumun or to the Middle Mumun Period.Southern-style megaliths are typically smaller in scale than northern megaliths. The interment area of southern megaliths has an underground burial chamber made of earth or lined with thin stone slabs. A massive capstone is placed over the interment area and is supported by smaller propping stones. Most of the megalithic burials on the Korean Peninsula are of the southern type.Representations of a dagger (right) and two human figures, one of which is kneeling (left), carved into the capstone of Megalithic Burial No. 5, Orim-dong, Yeosu, Korea.As with northern megaliths, southern examples contain few, if any, artifacts. However, a small number of megalithic burials contain fine red-burnished pottery, bronze daggers, polished groundstone daggers, and greenstone ornaments. Southern megalithic burials are often found in groups, spread out in lines that are parallel with the direction of streams. Megalithic cemeteries contain burials that are linked together by low stone platforms made from large river cobbles. Broken red-burnished pottery and charred wood found on these platforms has led archaeologists to hypothesize that these platform were sometimes used for ceremonies and rituals. The capstones of many southern megaliths have 'cup-marks' carvings. A small number of capstones have human and dagger representations.Capstone-styleThese megaliths are distinguished from other types by the presence of a burial shaft, sometimes up to 4 m in depth, which is lined with large cobbles.A large capstone is placed over the burial shaft without propping stones. Capstone-style megaliths are the most monumental type in the Korean Peninsula, and they are primarily distributed near or on the south coast of Korea. It seems that most of these burials date to the latter part of the Middle Mumun (c. 700-550 BC), and they may have been built into the early part of the Late Mumun. An example is found near modern Changwon at Deokcheon-ni, where a small cemetery contained a capstone burial (No. 1) with a massive, rectangularly shaped, stone and earthen platform. Archaeologists were not able to recover the entire feature, but the low platform was at least 56 X 18 m in size.Living megalith culture of IndonesiaPeople on Nias Island inIndonesia move a megalith, c. 1915. Digitally restored.Toraja monolith, c. 1935.The Indonesian archipelago is the host of Austronesianmegalith cultures both past and present. Living megalith cultures can be found on Nias, an isolated island off the western coast of North Sumatra, the Batak people in the interior of North Sumatra, on Sumba island in East Nusa Tenggara and also Toraja people from the interior of South Sulawesi. These megalith cultures remained preserved, isolated and undisturbed well into the late 19th century.Several megalith sites and structures are also found across Indonesia. Menhirs, dolmens, stone tables, ancestral stone statues, and step pyramid structure called Punden Berundak were discovered in various sites inJava, Sumatra, Sulawesi, and the Lesser Sunda Islands.The Punden step pyramid and menhir can be found in Pagguyangan Cisolok and Gunung Padang, West Java. The Gunung Padang Site is the biggest megalithic site in Southeast Asia. The Cipari megalith site also in West Java displays monoliths, stone terraces, and sarcophagi. The basic design of later Hindu-Buddhist temples structure in Java after the adoption of Hinduism and Buddhism by the native population has the punden step pyramid concept underlying. The 8th century Borobudur and 15th-century Candi Sukuh, for example, featured the step-pyramid structure. Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi houses ancient megalith relics such as ancestral stone statues, mostly located in the Bada, Besoa and Napu valleys.Madia Gonds of Maharashtra, IndiaA study mentions living megalithic practices amongst the Madia Gonds. The Madia Gonds live in Bhamragad Taluka of Gadchiroli District of Maharashtra, India.Melanesian megalithsMegaliths occur in many parts of Melanesia, mainly in Milne Bay Province, Fiji and Vanuatu. Few excavations has been made and little is known about the structures. The megalith tomb Otuyam at Kiriwina has been dated to be approximately 2000 years old which indicates that megaliths are an old custom in Melanesia. However very few megaliths have been dated. The constructions have been used for different rituals. For example, tombs, sacrifices and rituals of fecundity. Dance sites exist next to some megaliths. In some places in Melanesia rituals are continued to be held at the sacred megalith sites. The fact that the beliefs are alive is a reason that most excavations have been stopped at the sites.Micronesian megalithsMegalithic structures in Micronesia reach their most developed form on the islands of Pohnpei and Kosrae in the Eastern Caroline Islands. On these two islands there was extensive use of prismatic basalt columns to build upland building complexes such as those at Salapwuk on Pohnpei and Menka on Kosrae. These building sites, remote from the ocean, appear to have been abandoned early. Megalithic building then shifted to constructing networks of artificial islands on the coast that supported a multitude of common, royal and religious structures. Dating of the structures is difficult but the complex at Nan Madol on Pohpei was probably inhabited as early as 800 c.a. probably as an artificial islands with the more elaborate buildings and religious structures added to the site from 1000 - 1400 c.e. Nan Madol almost certainly served as the economic, government and religious site for a centralized monarchy which is historically named the 'Saudeleurs'. By legend the Saudeleurs were from elsewhere, possibly in the south or west but no specific origin has ever been established. Nan Madol lost prominence and was later abandoned after the overthrow of the Saudeleur dynasty. The oral history suggests this overthrow was by a group of warriors from Kosrae. The megalithic site at Lelu on the island of Kosrae, based on dating studies and oral history, rose to prominence about 1400 c.e. corresponding roughly with the fall of Nan Madol and endured for the next three hundred years or so. It was largely abandoned by the time of European contact. The architecture at these Micronesian sites is characteristic and has little in common with other megalithic sites. Prismatic basalt columns were brought from a great distance to the artificial islands and the rock was stacked in a layers of stretchers and runners filled in the center with coral debris. This structure allowed creation of walls up to 10 meters in height with great durability. The presence of step pyramids in the south western corner of Nan Madol as well as in Lelu suggests some Melanesian influence but other structures such as the royal residence, the religious structures and common areas as well as the elaborate interconnecting system of canals has no parallel elsewhere in the Pacific region.Modern theoriesMegaliths were used for a variety of purposes ranging from serving as boundary markers of territory, to a reminder of past events, and to being part of the society's religion.Common motifs including crooks and axes seem to be symbols of political power, much like the crook was a symbol of Egyptian pharaohs. Amongst the indigenous peoples of India, Malaysia, Polynesia, North Africa, North America, and South America, the worship of these stones, or the use of these stones to symbolize a spirit or deity, is a possibility. In the early 20th century, some scholars believed that all megaliths belonged to one global "Megalithic culture"by Grafton Elliot Smith and William James Perry), but this has long been disproved by modern dating methods. Nor is it believed any longer that there was a European megalithic culture, although regional cultures existed, even within such a small areas as the British Isles. The archaeologist Euan Mackie wrote "Likewise it cannot be doubted that important regional cultures existed in the Neolithic period and can be defined by different kinds of stone circles and local pottery styles (Ruggles & Barclay 2000: figure 1). No-one has ever been rash enough to claim a nationwide unity of all aspects of Neolithic archaeology!"