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In one way, the Navajo and in another way the Southern Ute are examples of tribes who have done well.After the Long Walk the Navajo succeeded again and again in getting their land base expanded. Most tribes lost much or all of their treaty lands between 1868 and 1960. This did not happen for the Navajo. Time and again their culture, strategies and leaders found allies in the US government and out of it who applied pressure. The first reservation boundaries were in 1868. The US government had wanted to force all the Navajo to move to Oklahoma, then known as Indian Territory. The Navajo leaders said they would rather die. The large number of deaths and corruption at the interment camps that had held the 9,000 Navajo for 4 years had become a scandal. A number of Anglos were very taken with Navajo culture and argued their case. The first reservation in 1868 was a small part of their original land centered on Canyon de Chelly.The first expansion was in 1878. It was expanded about 13 or 14 times. The last major expansion was in 1930s. In recent years they have been buying land as well. Here is the map of land additions.In 1887 the Navajo lost some land in the eastern New Mexico area. Powerful New Mexico political interested opposed the land given to them in the area. Some areas were rescinded. The Dawes Act passed and land was allotted to some families there. The government said that land "left over" after all members had received allotments was to be considered "surplus". This was sold to non Navajo or given to state or BLM or other uses. Some places the subsurface and surface rights are owned by different entities. The allotment program continued until 1934. The eastern part is today called the “Checkerboard Rez”.Here is the map of today’s reservation. The area that is tan in the lower left is not Navajo land but the Hopi reservation. The Navajo Nations today is the size of Holland and Belgium combined or the states of Mass, Conn, VT, NH, and RI combined.With that expansion of land base into a portion of their original territory came some natural resources. For the time from 1868 to about 1970 they could not negotiate royalties on their own. Many disgraceful deals were made by the US Secretary of the Interior and the BIA. What money that was collected as royalties was often mismanaged or lost. The courts finally recognized this and a portion of those funds that should have been in trust have been returned under the Cobell settlement in 2009. The tribe is using some of that money to buy back land. The tribe has over time been able to strike better deals for its coal, oil and natural gas. It now has the largest contiguous irrigated farm in the US. Navajo Agricultural Products IndustryThe Navajo have also grown in population. After the Long Walk the population was about 11,000 people. Around 1908 they had grown to 29,000. Today there are 332,129 enrolled members in 2010. About 160,000 to 200,000 live on the reservation or right near it. The Navajo language is still spoken by about 60% of the population and one can hear it everywhere. Traditional religion is still practiced by at least 1/3 of the population. They now have full control of their government. The new religion (for the Navajo since the 30s) of Native American Church (NAC) is practiced by many as well. Navajo art and culture are alive and thriving. There is modern Navajo bands and music and art as well. They have a regular justice department but have also developed an alternative court system based on traditional values. They have radio and a newspaper. They run schools and have a tribal college, Dine College, which was the first tribal college in the country in 1968. They also have Navajo Technical University in 3 locations.The other tribe that has done very well are the Southern Ute. https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/ They gained control over their gas resources in the 1970s. They built their own companies in the 1990s. They created a sovereign wealth Permanent Fund and other investments. Southern Ute Indian Tribe As late as the 1950s, many Southern Ute had no running water or income. Today tribal businesses are in 14 states and range from Gulf crude to upscale San Diego real estate. The 1,400 or so tribal members are, collectively, worth billions. Up into the 1960s because of bad federal policy and poor oversight, many Southwestern tribes, got bad deals. When a company wanted to gouge a reservation's land for coal, or drill for oil and gas, it would negotiate not with the tribe, but with the Department of Interior, which leased the land to the highest bidder. The tribes had to approve the leases but were otherwise powerless, and they generally lacked the expertise and data to make good energy decisions. The federal government managed, audited and collected royalties on the leases. Much of that was not collected as it should have been and what was collected was mismanaged. This was later the subject of the Cobell suit and other cases against the US.In the 1960s the tribe received less than $500,000 per year in royalties. This was a small fraction of what the oil companies were making and far less than it was owed. In the late 1960 through the 70s laws changed. The Southern Utes joined 24 other tribal leaders to form the Council of Energy Resource Tribes, or CERT, modeled after the international OPEC cartel, to consolidate their political power. In 1982, in an effort to improve oversight, Congress created the Minerals Management Service and passed the Indian Mineral Development Act, which gave tribes the power to negotiate mineral leases. That same year, the U.S. Supreme Court made a favorable ruling in a case involving the Apaches, saying that tribes could levy a severance tax on oil and gas produced on their lands. The Southern Ute started auditing their own gas. Even today the oil companies try to cheat. In 2010,based on information from Southern Ute auditors, the feds fined BP America $5.2 million for underreporting the amount of gas it had been producing on Southern Ute lands.“The Tribe’s business portfolio originated with the formation of Red Willow Production Company in 1992 and the purchase of Red Cedar Gathering Company in 1994. Red Willow was originally formed to buy back natural gas leases and to upgrade the performance of gas wells on the Reservation. However, Red Willow could not convince local gathering companies to increase their capacity to transport the Tribe’s new volumes of gas to the interstate pipelines. To solve this problem, the Tribe partnered with the Stephens Group in 1994, and purchased Red Cedar to gather, process and transport natural gas from the Reservation”When Red Willow took over 54 gas wells in 1995, it quadrupled their production within nine months.….The Growth Fund’s business portfolio initially contained only Red Willow, Red Cedar and a few small Tribal Organizations: Department of Energy, Utilities Division and the Sky Ute Fairgrounds….Tribal Council instructed the Growth Fund to diversify operations off of the Reservation and into other ventures and investments. Since 2001, Red Willow has expanded its operations into nine states and the Gulf of Mexico, and Aka Energy was created to gather and treat natural gas off of the Reservation…..the Tribe established the Tierra Group to manage the Tribe’s real estate portfolio. Later, GF Properties Group was formed and Tierra folded under GF Properties which now manages the Tribe’s commercial/office, apartment, industrial, hotel, mixed-use and master planned communities. GF Private Equity Group was formed to invest in private equity funds and businesses.The Permanent Fund and the Growth Fund: The Permanent Fund invests energy royalties and casino profits in securities, which generate a steady revenue to pay for government and social services.Other revenue goes into the Growth Fund, which in turn invests in what is now a myriad of companies in energy, real estate and private equity. That fund then distributes dividends to tribal members between the ages of 26 and 59 and retirement benefits to those over 60. The numbers vary year by year. Most yeas is is about $70,000. The tribe's net worth now stands at somewhere between $3.5 billion and $14 billion.How Colorado’s Southern Utes Took Control of Their Economic Destiny - IndianCountryToday.comBusiness Empire Transforms Life for Colorado Ute TribeNB: It has been noted by L. Dale Richesin that there should be a mention of the 13 Alaska Native Regional Corporations. I agree. They are enormous economic players in Alaska and the NW and are diversifying in investments across the country. Here is his list of the top three. Which Native American tribe ended up the best off?The ANCSA Corps were created in the Alaska Settlement Act in 1971. The regional Native corporations and several village corporations employ 58,000 people worldwide, with about 16,000 of those jobs in Alaska. Native corporations are the largest private landowners in Alaska, with title to a total of 44 million acres. The Act gave even more land to the state of Alaska. Most of the land had been considered federal before that. In Alaska, tribal members are shareholders in the Regional Corps. There are also about 198 or so Alaska Village corporations that people are shareholders in as well. Alaska Native Village Corporation Association There is only one small reservation in SE Alaska. The political structure of tribal life for the 229 tribes in Alaska is therefore slightly different. List of Alaska Native tribal entities - WikipediaAlaskan Tribes: By Regional OrganizationsAny tribe that is dong well now however, should be very careful and beware. Two of the most wealthy tribes in the past 100 years lost most of what they had when Anglo Americans decided to change the game and take it from them. In the 1950s the Klamath Tribes of Oregon was the most wealthy in the US. In 1870 they had started n to the lumber business with a sawmill. By 1896 the sale to parties outside of the reservation was estimated at a quarter of a million board feet. In 1911 the rail came and they increased more. They were the only tribe in the United States that paid for all the federal, state and private services used by our members.In 1954, the Klamath Tribes were terminated from federal recognition as a tribe by an act of congress. A report from the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) which concluded that the Klamath Tribes were NOT ready for termination and recommended against it. Despite this consistent official opposition from the Tribes and the BIA, congress adopted the Klamath Termination Act. Powerful politicians did not like Native people doing well. Oregon Senator Richard L. Neuberger, (Democrat) and Oregon Representative Albert Ullman, (Democrat) worked together to try to delay implementation of the Klamath termination law. They failed because of Senator Arthur V. Watkins, a Republican from Utah. He had the belief that Native people should be assimilated and all special status lifted. He worked with William H. Harrison (Wyoming), Orme Lewis of Arizona, EY Berry of SD, Patrick McCarran of Nevada, Karl Mundt of SD, William Langer of ND, and Henry Jackson of Washington. They lost their land base of approximately 1.8 million acres was taken by condemnation and the Klamaths were terminated as a Tribe. They became impoverished. It was not until 1986 that they were successful in restoring of Federal Recognition for the Klamath Tribes.The other large example is the Osage who gained wealth by controlling their oil mineral rights. This was because they owned the land. Oil was discovered in 1897. In 1923 alone the tribe took in more than thirty million dollars, the equivalent today of more than four hundred million dollars. 1921 the United States Congress passed a law requiring that courts appoint guardians for each Osage. Supposedly to “prevent swindles” on the Osage people, the government appointed guardians to the Osage who were deemed “incompetent” to handle their finances. Stories in papers claimed outrage the Native people had wealth and were “wasting it” on fancy cars and nice clothes and trips to Europe. 93 percent of tribal funds held in government trust went toward the costs of administering the guardianship system. A government study estimated that by 1924 nearly 600 guardians had swindled some $8 million in Osage oil funds.If they had been able to invest $8 million even after the Depression they would be very wealthy today. During this time tens of people were murdered for their money. The FBI came in but they did little. The tribe was even charged by the FBI $21,509.19 for the bureau’s investigation (about 300,000 today). In 2000 the Osage Nation filed a suit against the Department of the Interior, alleging that it had not adequately managed the assets and paid people the royalties they were due. The suit was settled in 2011 for $380 million and commitments to improve program management. This was pennies on the dollar. Did You Know?The Osage Murders: Oil Wealth, Betrayal and the FBI’s First Big Case

Oddly the name comes from a white man who was caricaturing a black man:Thomas Dartmouth Rice, a white man, was born in New York City in 1808. He devoted himself to the theater in his twenties, and in the early 1830s, he began performing the act that would make him famous: he painted his face black and did a song and dance he claimed were inspired by a slave he saw. The act was called “Jump, Jim Crow” (or “Jumping Jim Crow”).“He would put on not only blackface makeup, but shabby dress that imitated in his mind and white peoples minds of the time” the dress and aspect and demeanor of the southern enslaved black person,says Eric Lott, author of Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Classand professor of English and American Studies at the City University of New York Graduate Center.Rice’s routine was a hit in New York City, one of many of places in the North where working-class whites could see blackface minstrelsy, which was quickly becoming a dominant form of theater and a leading source for popular music in America. Rice took his act on tour, even going as far as England; and as his popularity grew, his stage name seeped into the culture. Who Was Jim Crow?Jim Crow was a way of life. It was an ideology of racial superiority similar to apartheid and was codified into law.The following discussion is long but this era deserves to be understood for the horrorshow it was.Jim Crow was the name of the racial caste system which operated primarily, but not exclusively in southern and border states, between 1877 and the mid-1960s. Jim Crow was more than a series of rigid anti-black laws. It was a way of life. Under Jim Crow, African Americans were relegated to the status of second class citizens. Jim Crow represented the legitimization of anti-black racism. Many Christian ministers and theologians taught that whites were the Chosen people, blacks were cursed to be servants, and God supported racial segregation. Craniologists, eugenicists, phrenologists, and Social Darwinists, at every educational level, buttressed the belief that blacks were innately intellectually and culturally inferior to whites. Pro-segregation politicians gave eloquent speeches on the great danger of integration: the mongrelization of the white race. Newspaper and magazine writers routinely referred to blacks as niggers, coons, and darkies; and worse, their articles reinforced anti-black stereotypes. Even children's games portrayed blacks as inferior beings. All major societal institutions reflected and supported the oppression of blacks.The Jim Crow system was undergirded by the following beliefs or rationalizations: whites were superior to blacks in all important ways, including but not limited to intelligence, morality, and civilized behavior; sexual relations between blacks and whites would produce a mongrel race which would destroy America; treating blacks as equals would encourage interracial sexual unions; any activity which suggested social equality encouraged interracial sexual relations; if necessary, violence must be used to keep blacks at the bottom of the racial hierarchy. The following Jim Crow etiquette norms show how inclusive and pervasive these norms were:• A black male could not offer his hand (to shake hands) with a white male because it implied being socially equal. Obviously, a black male could not offer his hand or any other part of his body to a white woman, because he risked being accused of rape.• Blacks and whites were not supposed to eat together. If they did eat together, whites were to be served first, and some sort of partition was to be placed between them.• Under no circumstance was a black male to offer to light the cigarette of a white female -- that gesture implied intimacy.• Blacks were not allowed to show public affection toward one another in public, especially kissing, because it offended whites.• Jim Crow etiquette prescribed that blacks were introduced to whites, never whites to blacks. For example: "Mr. Peters (the white person), this is Charlie (the black person), that I spoke to you about."• Whites did not use courtesy titles of respect when referring to blacks, for example, Mr., Mrs., Miss., Sir, or Ma'am. Instead, blacks were called by their first names. Blacks had to use courtesy titles when referring to whites, and were not allowed to call them by their first names.• If a black person rode in a car driven by a white person, the black person sat in the back seat, or the back of a truck.• White motorists had the right-of-way at all intersections.Stetson Kennedy, the author of Jim Crow Guide(1990), offered these simple rules that blacks were supposed to observe in conversing with whites:1) Never assert or even intimate that a white person is lying.2) Never impute dishonorable intentions to a white person.3) Never suggest that a white person is from an inferior class.4) Never lay claim to, or overly demonstrate, superior knowledge or intelligence.5) Never curse a white person.6) Never laugh derisively at a white person.7) Never comment upon the appearance of a white female.Jim Crow etiquette operated in conjunction with Jim Crow laws (black codes). When most people think of Jim Crow they think of laws (not the Jim Crow etiquette) which excluded blacks from public transport and facilities, juries, jobs, and neighborhoods. The passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution had granted blacks the same legal protections as whites. However, after 1877, and the election of Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, southern and border states began restricting the liberties of blacks. Unfortunately for blacks, the Supreme Court helped undermine the Constitutional protections of blacks with the infamous Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) case, which legitimized Jim Crow laws and the Jim Crow way of life.In 1890, Louisiana passed the "Separate Car Law," which purported to aid passenger comfort by creating "equal but separate" cars for blacks and whites. This was a ruse. No public accommodations, including railway travel, provided blacks with equal facilities. The Louisiana law made it illegal for blacks to sit in coach seats reserved for whites, and whites could not sit in seats reserved for blacks. In 1891, a group of blacks decided to test the Jim Crow law. They had Homer A. Plessy, who was seven-eighths white and one-eighth black (therefore, black), sit in the white-only railroad coach. He was arrested. Plessy's lawyer argued that Louisiana did not have the right to label one citizen as white and another black for the purposes of restricting their rights and privileges. In Plessy, the Supreme Court stated that so long as state governments provided legal process and legal freedoms for blacks, equal to those of whites, they could maintain separate institutions to facilitate these rights. The Court, by a 7-2 vote, upheld the Louisiana law, declaring that racial separation did not necessarily mean an abrogation of equality. In practice, Plessy represented the legitimization of two societies: one white, and advantaged; the other, black, disadvantaged and despised.Blacks were denied the right to vote by grandfather clauses (laws that restricted the right to vote to people whose ancestors had voted before the Civil War), poll taxes (fees charged to poor blacks), white primaries (only Democrats could vote, only whites could be Democrats), and literacy tests ("Name all the Vice Presidents and Supreme Court Justices throughout America's history"). Plessy sent this message to southern and border states: Discrimination against blacks is acceptable.Jim Crow states passed statutes severely regulating social interactions between the races. Jim Crow signs were placed above water fountains, door entrances and exits, and in front of public facilities. There were separate hospitals for blacks and whites, separate prisons, separate public and private schools, separate churches, separate cemeteries, separate public restrooms, and separate public accommodations. In most instances, the black facilities were grossly inferior -- generally, older, less-well-kept. In other cases, there were no black facilities -- no Colored public restroom, no public beach, no place to sit or eat. Plessy gave Jim Crow states a legal way to ignore their constitutional obligations to their black citizens.Jim Crow laws touched every aspect of everyday life. For example, in 1935, Oklahoma prohibited blacks and whites from boating together. Boating implied social equality. In 1905, Georgia established separate parks for blacks and whites. In 1930, Birmingham, Alabama, made it illegal for blacks and whites to play checkers or dominoes together. Here are some of the typical Jim Crow laws, as compiled by the Martin Luther King, Jr., National Historic Site Interpretive Staff:• Barbers. No colored barber shall serve as a barber (to) white girls or women (Georgia).• Blind Wards. The board of trustees shall...maintain a separate building...on separate ground for the admission, care, instruction, and support of all blind persons of the colored or black race (Louisiana).• Burial. The officer in charge shall not bury, or allow to be buried, any colored persons upon ground set apart or used for the burial of white persons (Georgia).• Buses. All passenger stations in this state operated by any motor transportation company shall have separate waiting rooms or space and separate ticket windows for the white and colored races (Alabama).• Child Custody. It shall be unlawful for any parent, relative, or other white person in this State, having the control or custody of any white child, by right of guardianship, natural or acquired, or otherwise, to dispose of, give or surrender such white child permanently into the custody, control, maintenance, or support, of a negro (South Carolina).• Education. The schools for white children and the schools for negro children shall be conducted separately (Florida).• Libraries. The state librarian is directed to fit up and maintain a separate place for the use of the colored people who may come to the library for the purpose of reading books or periodicals (North Carolina).• Mental Hospitals. The Board of Control shall see that proper and distinct apartments are arranged for said patients, so that in no case shall Negroes and white persons be together (Georgia).• Militia. The white and colored militia shall be separately enrolled, and shall never be compelled to serve in the same organization. No organization of colored troops shall be permitted where white troops are available and where whites are permitted to be organized, colored troops shall be under the command of white officers (North Carolina).• Nurses. No person or corporation shall require any White female nurse to nurse in wards or rooms in hospitals, either public or private, in which negro men are placed (Alabama).• Prisons. The warden shall see that the white convicts shall have separate apartments for both eating and sleeping from the negro convicts (Mississippi).• Reform Schools.The children of white and colored races committed to the houses of reform shall be kept entirely separate from each other (Kentucky).• Teaching. Any instructor who shall teach in any school, college or institution where members of the white and colored race are received and enrolled as pupils for instruction shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall be fined... (Oklahoma).• Wine and Beer. All persons licensed to conduct the business of selling beer or wine...shall serve either white people exclusively or colored people exclusively and shall not sell to the two races within the same room at any time (Georgia).The Jim Crow laws and system of etiquette were undergirded by violence, real and threatened. Blacks who violated Jim Crow norms, for example, drinking from the white water fountain or trying to vote, risked their homes, their jobs, even their lives. Whites could physically beat blacks with impunity. Blacks had little legal recourse against these assaults because the Jim Crow criminal justice system was all-white: police, prosecutors, judges, juries, and prison officials. Violence was instrumental for Jim Crow. It was a method of social control. The most extreme forms of Jim Crow violence were lynchings.Lynchings were public, often sadistic, murders carried out by mobs. Between 1882, when the first reliable data were collected, and 1968, when lynchings had become rare, there were 4,730 known lynchings, including 3,440 black men and women. Most of the victims of Lynch Law were hanged or shot, but some were burned at the stake, castrated, beaten with clubs, or dismembered. In the mid-1800s, whites constituted the majority of victims (and perpetrators); however, by the period of Radical Reconstruction, blacks became the most frequent lynching victims. This is an early indication that lynching was used as an intimidation tool to keep blacks, in this case the newly freed people, "in their places." The great majority of lynchings occurred in southern and border states, where the resentment against blacks ran deepest. According to the social economist Gunnar Myrdal (1994): "The southern states account for nine-tenths of the lynchings. More than two thirds of the remaining one-tenth occurred in the six states which immediately border the South".Many whites claimed that although lynchings were distasteful, they were necessary supplements to the criminal justice system because blacks were prone to violent crimes, especially the rapes of white women. Arthur Raper investigated nearly a century of lynchings and concluded that approximately one-third of all the victims were falsely accused.Under Jim Crow any and all sexual interactions between black men and white women was illegal, illicit, socially repugnant, and within the Jim Crow definition of rape. Although only 19.2 percent of the lynching victims between 1882 to 1951 were even accused of rape, lynch law was often supported on the popular belief that lynchings were necessary to protect white women from black rapists. Myrdal (1994) refutes this belief in this way: "There is much reason to believe that this figure has been inflated by the fact that a mob which makes the accusation of rape is secure from any further investigation; by the broad Southern definition of rape to include all sexual relations between Negro men and white women; and by the psychopathic fears of white women in their contacts with Negro men". Most blacks were lynched for demanding civil rights, violating Jim Crow etiquette or laws, or in the aftermath of race riots.Lynchings were most common in small and middle-sized towns where blacks often were economic competitors to the local whites. These whites resented any economic and political gains made by blacks. Lynchers were seldomly arrested, and if arrested, rarely convicted. Raper (1933) estimated that "at least one-half of the lynchings are carried out with police officers participating, and that in nine-tenths of the others the officers either condone or wink at the mob action". Lynching served many purposes: it was cheap entertainment; it served as a rallying, uniting point for whites; it functioned as an ego-massage for low-income, low-status whites; it was a method of defending white domination and helped stop or retard the fledgling social equality movement.Lynch mobs directed their hatred against one (sometimes several) victims. The victim was an example of what happened to a black man who tried to vote, or who looked at a white woman, or who tried to get a white man's job. Unfortunately for blacks, sometimes the mob was not satisfied to murder a single or several victims. Instead, in the spirit of pogroms, the mobs went into black communities and destroyed additional lives and property. Their immediate goal was to drive out -- through death or expulsion -- all blacks; the larger goal was to maintain, at all costs, white supremacy. These pogrom-like actions are often referred to as riots; however, Gunnar Myrdal (1944) was right when he described these "riots" as "a terrorization or massacre...a mass lynching". Interestingly, these mass lynchings were primarily urban phenomena, whereas the lynching of single victims was primarily a rural phenomena.James Weldon Johnson, the famous black writer, labeled 1919 as "The Red Summer." It was red from racial tension; it was red from bloodletting. During the summer of 1919, there were race riots in Chicago, Illinois; Knoxville and Nashville, Tennessee; Charleston, South Carolina; Omaha, Nebraska; and two dozen other cities. W.E.B. DuBois (1986), the black social scientist and civil rights activist, wrote: "During that year seventy-seven Negroes were lynched, of whom one was a woman and eleven were soldiers; of these, fourteen were publicly burned, eleven of them being burned alive. That year there were race riots large and small in twenty-six American cities including thirty-eight killed in a Chicago riot of August; from twenty-five to fifty in Phillips County, Arkansas; and six killed in Washington".The riots of 1919 were not the first or last "mass lynchings" of blacks, as evidenced by the race riots in Wilmington, North Carolina (1898); Atlanta, Georgia (1906); Springfield, Illinois (1908); East St. Louis, Illinois (1917); Tulsa, Oklahoma (1921); and Detroit, Michigan (1943). Joseph Boskin, author of Urban Racial Violence (1976), claimed that the riots of the 1900s had the following traits:1) In each of the race riots, with few exceptions, it was white people that sparked the incident by attacking black people.2) In the majority of the riots, some extraordinary social condition prevailed at the time of the riot: prewar social changes, wartime mobility, post-war adjustment, or economic depression.3) The majority of the riots occurred during the hot summer months.4) Rumor played an extremely important role in causing many riots. Rumors of some criminal activity by blacks against whites perpetuated the actions of the white mobs.5) The police force, more than any other institution, was invariably involved as a precipitating cause or perpetuating factor in the riots. In almost every one of the riots, the police sided with the attackers, either by actually participating in, or by failing to quell the attack.6) In almost every instance, the fighting occurred within the black community.Boskin omitted the following: the mass media, especially newspapers often published inflammatory articles about "black criminals" immediately before the riots; blacks were not only killed, but their homes and businesses were looted, and many who did not flee were left homeless; and, the goal of the white rioters, as was true of white lynchers of single victims, was to instill fear and terror into blacks, thereby buttressing white domination. The Jim Crow hierarchy could not work without violence being used against those on the bottom rung. George Fredrickson (1971), a historian, stated it this way: "Lynching represented...a way of using fear and terror to check 'dangerous' tendencies in a black community considered to be ineffectively regimented or supervised. As such it constituted a confession that the regular institutions of a segregated society provided an inadequate measure of day-to-day control".Many blacks resisted the indignities of Jim Crow, and, far too often, they paid for their bravery with their lives. What was Jim CrowBlack Like Me:In late 1959, John Howard Griffin went to a friend's house in New Orleans, Louisiana. Once there, under the care of a dermatologist, Griffin underwent a regimen of large oral doses of the anti-vitiligo drug methoxsalen, and spending up to fifteen hours daily under an ultraviolet lamp. When he could pass as an African American, Griffin began a six-week journey in the South. Don Rutledge traveled with him, documenting the experience with photos.During his trip, Griffin abided by the rule that he would not change his name or alter his identity; if asked who he was or what he was doing, he would tell the truth. In the beginning, he decided to talk as little as possible to ease his transition into the social milieu of southern U.S. blacks. He became accustomed everywhere to the "hate stare" received from whites.After he disguised himself, many people who knew Griffin as a white man did not recognize him. Sterling Williams, a black shoeshine man in the French Quarter whom Griffin regarded as a casual friend, did not recognize him. Because Griffin wanted assistance in entering into the black community, he decided to tell Sterling about his identity and project. He first hinted that he wore the same unusual shoes as somebody else, but Sterling still did not recognize him until Griffin told him.In New Orleans, a black counterman at a small restaurant chatted with Griffin about the difficulties of finding a place to go to the bathroom, as facilities were segregated and blacks were prohibited from many. He turned a question about a Catholic church into a joke about "spending much of your time praying for a place to piss".On a bus trip, Griffin began to give his seat to a white woman, but disapproving looks from black passengers stopped him. He thought he had a momentary breakthrough with the woman, but she insulted him and began talking with other white passengers about how impudent the blacks were becoming. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Like_MeHe wasn’t the first. Ray Sprigle spent thirty days undercover as a black man and published his experience as I Was a Negro in the South for 30 Days starting in 1948. Read it here: I was a Negro in the South for 30 DaysSouthern Belles in 19601956195619561956Teach them youngPoliceman enforcing the law in 1961Jim Crow laws - WikipediaJim Crow Laws | American Experience | PBSJim Crow law | History & Factshttps://www.amazon.com/Love-Thef...https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_ss_c_1_13?url=search-alias%3Daps&field-keywords=black+like+me+by+john+howard+griffin&sprefix=black+like+me%2Caps%2C263&crid=1O05BLY3F6OGR

Oddly the name comes from a white man who was caricaturing a black man:Thomas Dartmouth Rice, a white man, was born in New York City in 1808. He devoted himself to the theater in his twenties, and in the early 1830s, he began performing the act that would make him famous: he painted his face black and did a song and dance he claimed were inspired by a slave he saw. The act was called “Jump, Jim Crow” (or “Jumping Jim Crow”).“He would put on not only blackface makeup, but shabby dress that imitated in his mind and white peoples minds of the time” the dress and aspect and demeanor of the southern enslaved black person, says Eric Lott, author of Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class and professor of English and American Studies at the City University of New York Graduate Center.Rice’s routine was a hit in New York City, one of many of places in the North where working-class whites could see blackface minstrelsy, which was quickly becoming a dominant form of theater and a leading source for popular music in America. Rice took his act on tour, even going as far as England; and as his popularity grew, his stage name seeped into the culture. Who Was Jim Crow?Jim Crow was a way of life. It was an ideology of racial superiority similar to apartheid and was codified into law.The following discussion is long but this era deserves to be understood for the horrorshow it was.Jim Crow was the name of the racial caste system which operated primarily, but not exclusively in southern and border states, between 1877 and the mid-1960s. Jim Crow was more than a series of rigid anti-black laws. It was a way of life. Under Jim Crow, African Americans were relegated to the status of second class citizens. Jim Crow represented the legitimization of anti-black racism. Many Christian ministers and theologians taught that whites were the Chosen people, blacks were cursed to be servants, and God supported racial segregation. Craniologists, eugenicists, phrenologists, and Social Darwinists, at every educational level, buttressed the belief that blacks were innately intellectually and culturally inferior to whites. Pro-segregation politicians gave eloquent speeches on the great danger of integration: the mongrelization of the white race. Newspaper and magazine writers routinely referred to blacks as niggers, coons, and darkies; and worse, their articles reinforced anti-black stereotypes. Even children's games portrayed blacks as inferior beings. All major societal institutions reflected and supported the oppression of blacks.The Jim Crow system was undergirded by the following beliefs or rationalizations: whites were superior to blacks in all important ways, including but not limited to intelligence, morality, and civilized behavior; sexual relations between blacks and whites would produce a mongrel race which would destroy America; treating blacks as equals would encourage interracial sexual unions; any activity which suggested social equality encouraged interracial sexual relations; if necessary, violence must be used to keep blacks at the bottom of the racial hierarchy. The following Jim Crow etiquette norms show how inclusive and pervasive these norms were:• A black male could not offer his hand (to shake hands) with a white male because it implied being socially equal. Obviously, a black male could not offer his hand or any other part of his body to a white woman, because he risked being accused of rape.• Blacks and whites were not supposed to eat together. If they did eat together, whites were to be served first, and some sort of partition was to be placed between them.• Under no circumstance was a black male to offer to light the cigarette of a white female -- that gesture implied intimacy.• Blacks were not allowed to show public affection toward one another in public, especially kissing, because it offended whites.• Jim Crow etiquette prescribed that blacks were introduced to whites, never whites to blacks. For example: "Mr. Peters (the white person), this is Charlie (the black person), that I spoke to you about."• Whites did not use courtesy titles of respect when referring to blacks, for example, Mr., Mrs., Miss., Sir, or Ma'am. Instead, blacks were called by their first names. Blacks had to use courtesy titles when referring to whites, and were not allowed to call them by their first names.• If a black person rode in a car driven by a white person, the black person sat in the back seat, or the back of a truck.• White motorists had the right-of-way at all intersections.Stetson Kennedy, the author of Jim Crow Guide (1990), offered these simple rules that blacks were supposed to observe in conversing with whites:Never assert or even intimate that a white person is lying.Never impute dishonorable intentions to a white person.Never suggest that a white person is from an inferior class.Never lay claim to, or overly demonstrate, superior knowledge or intelligence.Never curse a white person.Never laugh derisively at a white person.Never comment upon the appearance of a white female.Jim Crow etiquette operated in conjunction with Jim Crow laws (black codes). When most people think of Jim Crow they think of laws (not the Jim Crow etiquette) which excluded blacks from public transport and facilities, juries, jobs, and neighborhoods. The passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution had granted blacks the same legal protections as whites. However, after 1877, and the election of Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, southern and border states began restricting the liberties of blacks. Unfortunately for blacks, the Supreme Court helped undermine the Constitutional protections of blacks with the infamous Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) case, which legitimized Jim Crow laws and the Jim Crow way of life.In 1890, Louisiana passed the "Separate Car Law," which purported to aid passenger comfort by creating "equal but separate" cars for blacks and whites. This was a ruse. No public accommodations, including railway travel, provided blacks with equal facilities. The Louisiana law made it illegal for blacks to sit in coach seats reserved for whites, and whites could not sit in seats reserved for blacks. In 1891, a group of blacks decided to test the Jim Crow law. They had Homer A. Plessy, who was seven-eighths white and one-eighth black (therefore, black), sit in the white-only railroad coach. He was arrested. Plessy's lawyer argued that Louisiana did not have the right to label one citizen as white and another black for the purposes of restricting their rights and privileges. In Plessy, the Supreme Court stated that so long as state governments provided legal process and legal freedoms for blacks, equal to those of whites, they could maintain separate institutions to facilitate these rights. The Court, by a 7-2 vote, upheld the Louisiana law, declaring that racial separation did not necessarily mean an abrogation of equality. In practice, Plessy represented the legitimization of two societies: one white, and advantaged; the other, black, disadvantaged and despised.Blacks were denied the right to vote by grandfather clauses (laws that restricted the right to vote to people whose ancestors had voted before the Civil War), poll taxes (fees charged to poor blacks), white primaries (only Democrats could vote, only whites could be Democrats), and literacy tests ("Name all the Vice Presidents and Supreme Court Justices throughout America's history"). Plessy sent this message to southern and border states: Discrimination against blacks is acceptable.Jim Crow states passed statutes severely regulating social interactions between the races. Jim Crow signs were placed above water fountains, door entrances and exits, and in front of public facilities. There were separate hospitals for blacks and whites, separate prisons, separate public and private schools, separate churches, separate cemeteries, separate public restrooms, and separate public accommodations. In most instances, the black facilities were grossly inferior -- generally, older, less-well-kept. In other cases, there were no black facilities -- no Colored public restroom, no public beach, no place to sit or eat. Plessy gave Jim Crow states a legal way to ignore their constitutional obligations to their black citizens.Jim Crow laws touched every aspect of everyday life. For example, in 1935, Oklahoma prohibited blacks and whites from boating together. Boating implied social equality. In 1905, Georgia established separate parks for blacks and whites. In 1930, Birmingham, Alabama, made it illegal for blacks and whites to play checkers or dominoes together. Here are some of the typical Jim Crow laws, as compiled by the Martin Luther King, Jr., National Historic Site Interpretive Staff:• Barbers. No colored barber shall serve as a barber (to) white girls or women (Georgia).• Blind Wards. The board of trustees shall...maintain a separate building...on separate ground for the admission, care, instruction, and support of all blind persons of the colored or black race (Louisiana).• Burial. The officer in charge shall not bury, or allow to be buried, any colored persons upon ground set apart or used for the burial of white persons (Georgia).• Buses.All passenger stations in this state operated by any motor transportation company shall have separate waiting rooms or space and separate ticket windows for the white and colored races (Alabama).• Child Custody. It shall be unlawful for any parent, relative, or other white person in this State, having the control or custody of any white child, by right of guardianship, natural or acquired, or otherwise, to dispose of, give or surrender such white child permanently into the custody, control, maintenance, or support, of a negro (South Carolina).• Education.The schools for white children and the schools for negro children shall be conducted separately (Florida).• Libraries. The state librarian is directed to fit up and maintain a separate place for the use of the colored people who may come to the library for the purpose of reading books or periodicals (North Carolina).• Mental Hospitals. The Board of Control shall see that proper and distinct apartments are arranged for said patients, so that in no case shall Negroes and white persons be together (Georgia).• Militia. The white and colored militia shall be separately enrolled, and shall never be compelled to serve in the same organization. No organization of colored troops shall be permitted where white troops are available and where whites are permitted to be organized, colored troops shall be under the command of white officers (North Carolina).• Nurses. No person or corporation shall require any White female nurse to nurse in wards or rooms in hospitals, either public or private, in which negro men are placed (Alabama).• Prisons. The warden shall see that the white convicts shall have separate apartments for both eating and sleeping from the negro convicts (Mississippi).• Reform Schools. The children of white and colored races committed to the houses of reform shall be kept entirely separate from each other (Kentucky).• Teaching. Any instructor who shall teach in any school, college or institution where members of the white and colored race are received and enrolled as pupils for instruction shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall be fined... (Oklahoma).• Wine and Beer. All persons licensed to conduct the business of selling beer or wine...shall serve either white people exclusively or colored people exclusively and shall not sell to the two races within the same room at any time (Georgia).The Jim Crow laws and system of etiquette were undergirded by violence, real and threatened. Blacks who violated Jim Crow norms, for example, drinking from the white water fountain or trying to vote, risked their homes, their jobs, even their lives. Whites could physically beat blacks with impunity. Blacks had little legal recourse against these assaults because the Jim Crow criminal justice system was all-white: police, prosecutors, judges, juries, and prison officials. Violence was instrumental for Jim Crow. It was a method of social control. The most extreme forms of Jim Crow violence were lynchings.Lynchings were public, often sadistic, murders carried out by mobs. Between 1882, when the first reliable data were collected, and 1968, when lynchings had become rare, there were 4,730 known lynchings, including 3,440 black men and women. Most of the victims of Lynch Law were hanged or shot, but some were burned at the stake, castrated, beaten with clubs, or dismembered. In the mid-1800s, whites constituted the majority of victims (and perpetrators); however, by the period of Radical Reconstruction, blacks became the most frequent lynching victims. This is an early indication that lynching was used as an intimidation tool to keep blacks, in this case the newly freed people, "in their places." The great majority of lynchings occurred in southern and border states, where the resentment against blacks ran deepest. According to the social economist Gunnar Myrdal (1994): "The southern states account for nine-tenths of the lynchings. More than two thirds of the remaining one-tenth occurred in the six states which immediately border the South".Many whites claimed that although lynchings were distasteful, they were necessary supplements to the criminal justice system because blacks were prone to violent crimes, especially the rapes of white women. Arthur Raper investigated nearly a century of lynchings and concluded that approximately one-third of all the victims were falsely accused.Under Jim Crow any and all sexual interactions between black men and white women was illegal, illicit, socially repugnant, and within the Jim Crow definition of rape. Although only 19.2 percent of the lynching victims between 1882 to 1951 were even accused of rape, lynch law was often supported on the popular belief that lynchings were necessary to protect white women from black rapists. Myrdal (1994) refutes this belief in this way: "There is much reason to believe that this figure has been inflated by the fact that a mob which makes the accusation of rape is secure from any further investigation; by the broad Southern definition of rape to include all sexual relations between Negro men and white women; and by the psychopathic fears of white women in their contacts with Negro men". Most blacks were lynched for demanding civil rights, violating Jim Crow etiquette or laws, or in the aftermath of race riots.Lynchings were most common in small and middle-sized towns where blacks often were economic competitors to the local whites. These whites resented any economic and political gains made by blacks. Lynchers were seldomly arrested, and if arrested, rarely convicted. Raper (1933) estimated that "at least one-half of the lynchings are carried out with police officers participating, and that in nine-tenths of the others the officers either condone or wink at the mob action". Lynching served many purposes: it was cheap entertainment; it served as a rallying, uniting point for whites; it functioned as an ego-massage for low-income, low-status whites; it was a method of defending white domination and helped stop or retard the fledgling social equality movement.Lynch mobs directed their hatred against one (sometimes several) victims. The victim was an example of what happened to a black man who tried to vote, or who looked at a white woman, or who tried to get a white man's job. Unfortunately for blacks, sometimes the mob was not satisfied to murder a single or several victims. Instead, in the spirit of pogroms, the mobs went into black communities and destroyed additional lives and property. Their immediate goal was to drive out -- through death or expulsion -- all blacks; the larger goal was to maintain, at all costs, white supremacy. These pogrom-like actions are often referred to as riots; however, Gunnar Myrdal (1944) was right when he described these "riots" as "a terrorization or massacre...a mass lynching". Interestingly, these mass lynchings were primarily urban phenomena, whereas the lynching of single victims was primarily a rural phenomena.James Weldon Johnson, the famous black writer, labeled 1919 as "The Red Summer." It was red from racial tension; it was red from bloodletting. During the summer of 1919, there were race riots in Chicago, Illinois; Knoxville and Nashville, Tennessee; Charleston, South Carolina; Omaha, Nebraska; and two dozen other cities. W.E.B. DuBois (1986), the black social scientist and civil rights activist, wrote: "During that year seventy-seven Negroes were lynched, of whom one was a woman and eleven were soldiers; of these, fourteen were publicly burned, eleven of them being burned alive. That year there were race riots large and small in twenty-six American cities including thirty-eight killed in a Chicago riot of August; from twenty-five to fifty in Phillips County, Arkansas; and six killed in Washington".The riots of 1919 were not the first or last "mass lynchings" of blacks, as evidenced by the race riots in Wilmington, North Carolina (1898); Atlanta, Georgia (1906); Springfield, Illinois (1908); East St. Louis, Illinois (1917); Tulsa, Oklahoma (1921); and Detroit, Michigan (1943). Joseph Boskin, author of Urban Racial Violence (1976), claimed that the riots of the 1900s had the following traits:In each of the race riots, with few exceptions, it was white people that sparked the incident by attacking black people.In the majority of the riots, some extraordinary social condition prevailed at the time of the riot: prewar social changes, wartime mobility, post-war adjustment, or economic depression.The majority of the riots occurred during the hot summer months.Rumor played an extremely important role in causing many riots. Rumors of some criminal activity by blacks against whites perpetuated the actions of the white mobs.The police force, more than any other institution, was invariably involved as a precipitating cause or perpetuating factor in the riots. In almost every one of the riots, the police sided with the attackers, either by actually participating in, or by failing to quell the attack.In almost every instance, the fighting occurred within the black community.Boskin omitted the following: the mass media, especially newspapers often published inflammatory articles about "black criminals" immediately before the riots; blacks were not only killed, but their homes and businesses were looted, and many who did not flee were left homeless; and, the goal of the white rioters, as was true of white lynchers of single victims, was to instill fear and terror into blacks, thereby buttressing white domination. The Jim Crow hierarchy could not work without violence being used against those on the bottom rung. George Fredrickson (1971), a historian, stated it this way: "Lynching represented...a way of using fear and terror to check 'dangerous' tendencies in a black community considered to be ineffectively regimented or supervised. As such it constituted a confession that the regular institutions of a segregated society provided an inadequate measure of day-to-day control".Many blacks resisted the indignities of Jim Crow, and, far too often, they paid for their bravery with their lives. What was Jim Crow1960 . . . Southern Belles19561956195619561961 Law EnforcementThe Master RaceJim Crow laws - WikipediaJim Crow Laws | American Experience | PBSJim Crow law | History & Factshttps://www.amazon.com/Love-Thef...