Appendix 2 Sample Supporting Statement (A) Justification: Fill & Download for Free

You did not specify what kind of proposal, here are two sources to start with, hope they are helpful.One:Source: WiKi how to do anythingwikiHow to Write a ProposalThree Parts:Sample ProposalsPlanning Your ProposalWriting Your Own ProposalCommunity Q&AWriting a good proposal is a critical skill in many occupations, from school to business management to geology. The goal of a proposal is to gain support for your plan by informing the appropriate people. Your ideas or suggestions are more likely to be approved if you can communicate them in a clear, concise, engaging manner. Knowing how to write a persuasive, captivating proposal is essential for success in many fields. There are several types of proposals, such as science proposals and book proposals, but the same basic guidelines apply for all of them.Sample ProposalsSample Proposal for Safety MeasureSample Proposal for Process ImprovementSample Proposal for Cost SavingsPart 1Planning Your Proposal1 Define your audience. You need to make sure that you think about your audience and what they might already know or not know about your topic before you begin writing. This will help you focus your ideas and present them in the most effective way. It's a good idea to assume that your readers will be busy, reading (or even skimming) in a rush, and not predisposed to grant your ideas any special consideration. Efficiency and persuasiveness will be key.[1][2] Who will be reading your proposal? What level of familiarity with your topic will they have? What might you need to define or give extra background information about? What do you want your audience to get from your proposal? What do you need to give your readers so they can make the decision you want them to make? Refine your tone to meet your audience's expectations and desires. What do they want to hear? What would be the most effective way of getting through to them? How can you help them understand what you're trying to say?2 Define your issue. It is clear to you what the issue is, but is that also clear to your reader? Also, does your reader believe you really know what you are talking about? You can support your ethos, or writing persona, by using evidence and explanations throughout the proposal to back up your assertions. By setting your issue properly, you start convincing the reader that you are the right person to take care of it. Think about the following when you plan this part: What is the situation this issue applies to? What are the reasons behind this? Are we sure that those, and not others, are the real reasons? How are we sure of it? Has anyone ever tried to deal with this issue before? If yes: has it worked? Why? If no: why not? Don't: write a summary obvious to anyone in the field.Do: show that you've conducted in-depth research and evaluation to understand the issue.3 Define your solution. This should be straightforward and easy to understand. Once you set the issue you're addressing, how would you like to solve it? Get it as narrow (and doable) as possible.[3] Don't: forget to comply with all requirements in the RFP (request for proposal) document.Do: go above and beyond the minimum whenever budget allows. Your proposal needs to define a problem and offer a solution that will convince uninterested, skeptical readers to support it.[4] Your audience may not be the easiest crowd to win over. Is the solution you're offering logical and feasible? What's the timeline for your implementation? Consider thinking about your solution in terms of objectives. Your primary objective is the goal that you absolutely must achieve with your project. Secondary objectives are other goals that you hope your project achieves. Another helpful way of thinking about your solution is in terms of "outcomes" and "deliverables." Outcomes are the quantifiable results of your objectives. For example, if your proposal is for a business project and your objective is "increase profit," an outcome might be "increase profit by $100,000." Deliverables are products or services that you will deliver with your project. For example, a proposal for a science project could "deliver" a vaccine or a new drug. Readers of proposals look for outcomes and deliverables, because they are easy ways of determining what the "worth" of the project will be.[5]4 Keep elements of style in mind. Depending on your proposal and who'll be reading it, you need to cater your paper to fit a certain style. What do they expect? Are they interested in your problem? Don't: overuse jargon, obscure abbreviations, or needlessly complex language ("rectification of a workplace imbalance").Do: write in plain, direct language whenever possible ("letting employees go").[6] How are you going to be persuasive? Convincing proposals can use emotional appeals, but should always rely on facts as the bedrock of the argument. For example, a proposal to start a panda conservation program could mention how sad it would be for the children of future generations to never see a panda again, but it shouldn't stop there. It would need to base its argument on facts and solutions for the proposal to be convincing.5 Make an outline. This will not be part of the final proposal, but it will help you organize your thoughts. Make sure you know all of the relevant details before you start.[7] Your outline should consist of your problem, your solution, how you'll solve it, why your solution is best, and a conclusion. If you're writing an executive proposal, you'll need to include things like a budget analysis and organizational details.Part 2Writing Your Own Proposal1 Start with a firm introduction. This should start out with a hook. Ideally, you want your readers enraptured from point one. Make your proposal as purposeful and useful as possible. Use some background information to get your readers in the zone. Then state the purpose of your proposal.[8] If you have any stark facts that shed some light on why the issue needs to be addressed and addressed immediately, it's a safe bet that's something you can start with. Whatever it is, make sure what you start out with is a fact and not an opinion.2 State the problem. After the introduction, you'll get into the body, the meat of your work. Here's where you should state your problem. If your readers don't know much about the circumstance, fill them in. Think of this as the "state of affairs" section of your proposal. What is the problem? What is causing the problem? What effects does this problem have?[9] Emphasize why your problem needs to be solved and needs to be solved now. How will it affect your audience if left alone? Make sure to answer all questions and cover them with research and facts. Use credible sources liberally. Don't: rely solely on generic appeals to emotions or values.Do: tie the issue to the audience's interest or mission statement as directly as possible.3 Propose solutions. This is arguably the most important part of your proposal. The solutions section is where you get into how you will address the problem, why you will do it in this way, and what the outcomes will be. To make sure you've got a persuasive proposal, think about the following:[10] Discuss the larger impact of your ideas. Ideas that seem of limited applicability aren't as likely to spark enthusiasm in readers as ideas that could have widespread effects. Example: "Greater knowledge of tuna behavior can allow us to create a more comprehensive management strategy and ensure canned tuna for future generations." Addressing why you will do something is as important as stating what you will do. Presume that your readers are skeptical and will not accept your ideas at face value. If you're proposing to do a catch-and-release study of 2,000 wild tuna, why? Why is that better than something else? If it's more expensive than another option, why can't you use the cheaper option? Anticipating and addressing these questions will show that you've considered your idea from all angles. Your readers should leave your paper assured that you can solve the problem effectively. Literally everything you write should either address the problem or how to solve it. Research your proposal extensively. The more examples and facts you can give your audience, the better -- it'll be much more convincing. Avoid your own opinions and rely on the hard research of others. If your proposal doesn't prove that your solution works, it's not an adequate solution. If your solution isn't feasible, nix it. Think about the results of your solution, too. Pre-test it if possible and revise your solution if need be.4 Include a schedule and budget. Your proposal represents an investment. In order to convince your readers that you're a good investment, provide as much detailed, concrete information about your timeline and budget as possible.[11][12] Don't: include objectives that are vague, impossible to measure, or don't relate to the stated problem.Do: detail responsibilities and time commitments on the level of departments or individual staff. When do you envision the project starting? At what pace will it progress? How does each step build on the other? Can certain things be done simultaneously? Being as meticulous as possible will give your readers confidence that you've done your homework and won't waste their money. Make sure your proposal makes sense financially. If you're proposing an idea to a company or a person, consider their budget. If they can't afford your proposal, it's not an adequate one. If it does fit their budget, be sure to include why it's worth their time and money.5 Wrap up with a conclusion. This should mirror your introduction, succinctly wrapping up your general message. If there are consequences to your proposal not being undertaken, address them. Summarize the benefits of your proposal and drive home that the benefits outweigh the costs. Leave your audience thinking ahead. And, as always, thank them for their consideration and time.[13] If you have extra content that doesn't exactly fit into your proposal, you may want to add an appendix. But know that if your paper is too bulky, it may scare people off. If you're in doubt, leave it out. If you have two or more appendices attached to your proposal, letter them A, B, etc. This can be used if you have data sheets, reprints of articles, or letters of endorsement and the like.[11]6 Edit your work. Be meticulous in writing, editing, and designing the proposal. Revise as necessary to make it clear and concise, ask others to critique and edit it, and make sure the presentation is attractive and engaging as well as well organized and helpful.[4] Have another set of eyes (or two) read over your work. They'll be able to highlight issues your mind has grown blind to. There may be issues that you haven't completely addressed or questions you've left open-ended. Eliminate jargon and cliches! These make you look lazy and can get in the way of understanding. Don't use a long word when a short word will do just as well.[14] Avoid the passive voice whenever possible. Passive voice uses forms of "to be" verbs and can make your meaning unclear. Compare these two sentences: "The window was broken by the zombie" and "The zombie broke the window." In the first, you don't know who broke the window: was it the zombie? Or was the window by the zombie and just happened to also be broken? In the second, you know exactly who did the breaking and why it's important. Don't: muddle your proposal with I believe that..., this solution may aid... or other qualifiers.Do: use strong, direct language: The proposed plan will significantly reduce poverty rates.7 Proofread your work. Editing focuses on getting the content as clear and concise as you can make it. Proofreading makes sure that your content is free of mistakes. Go over your proposal carefully to catch any spelling, grammar, or punctuation errors. Any mistakes on your end will make you look less educated and less credible, reducing your likelihood of getting approved. Make sure that your formatting is in line with whatever the guidelines require.two: Source How eGuidelines for Project ProposalsA technical proposal, often called a "Statementof Work,” is a persuasive document. Itsobjectives are to1. Identify what work is to be done2. Explain why this work needs to be done3. Persuade the reader that the proposers (you) are qualified for the work, have a plausiblemanagement plan and technical approach, and have the resources needed to complete thetask within the stated time and cost constraints.What makes a good proposal?One attribute isappearance. A strong proposal has anattractive, professional, invitingappearance. In addition, the information should easy to access.A second attribute issubstance. A strong proposal has a well-organized plan of attack. A strongproposal also has technical details because technical depth is needed to sell your project.Remember: A proposal is a persuasive document.Required FormatFormat consists of the layout and typography of a document. In formatting yourproposal, use the guidelines in Table 1. A template to produce your proposal exists at thefollowing web page:http://www.writing.eng.vt.edu/design/proposal_template.docOne aspect of layout is the incorporationof illustrations. In your proposal, eachillustration should have a name and be formally introduced in the text. Illustrations consist offigures and tables. Figures include photographs,drawings, diagrams, and graphs. Each figureshould have a stand-alone caption, and the key points and features should be labeled. Tablesare arrangement of words and numbers into rowsand columns. Use tables to summarize liststhat the audience will try to findlater (the budget, for instance).Table 1.Format guidelines for requested proposal.Aspect DescriptionFont for headingsBoldface serif or sans serif: size in accordance with hierarchyFont for text portion12-point serif such asTimes New RomanorBook AntiquaMarginsStandard, at least 1 inchLayoutOne column, single-sidedParagraphingIndented paragraphs, no line skip between paragraphs in a sectionPage numberBottom centeredFigure namesNumbered: Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, and so forthFigure captionsBelow figure in 10 point typeTable namesNumbered: Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and so forthTable headingsAbove table in 12 point type*Adapted from Guidelines at the Penn State Learning Factory:The Learning Factory2OrganizationAs given in the proposal template, yourproposal should have the following sectionsand headings:Title Pagea. Title of project in initial capital lettersb. The sponsoring company and contact person’s name and informationc. Team name and individual member namesd. Datee. An appropriate picture of the product, a team logo, or bothExecutive SummaryContent: A brief summary of the proposalLength: one-third to one-half page, never more than one pageEmphasis: highlighting of the proposed technical and management approachTable of ContentsStatement of Problem: the “Why?”Summary of the request by the sponsor (the original problem statement)Background:Brief description of company and their businessRelevance or importance of problemBackground information to educate the readerPrevious related work by others—literature review with credible sourcesPatent search, if applicableDetailed problem description, as you now understand itObjectives: the “What?”In the Objectives section, you translate the customer’s quantitative and qualitative needsinto clear, objective design specifications. Definethe scope of work and clearly state the projectobjectives, including the following:a. Design specifications in specific, quantitative terms. For example, “The plate must berotated three times at a speed of between 1 and3 rev/s” or “Control the temperature of a 1liter non-insulated standard glass beaker of water to 37.5 ± 0.5oC for three hours withouttemperature deviation.”b. Critical design issues, constraints, limitations.Technical Approach: the “How?”Although you may not know all the detailsof the problem solution, you should know afirst design on how you will attack the problem, and you should have some design concepts.The purpose of this section is to present theprocessby which you will arrive at the final answer.This section answers the following questions:31)What are the steps in the design process?(Describe and use the nine-step model fromChapter 1 of Hyman’s text)2)What are the benefits and advantages of employing a structured approach to design?3)How will you generate solution concepts?4)How will you analyze the performance of your solution?5)How will you decide on the best alternative?Specific recommendations for this section include the following:a. First, describe your overall design processin general terms. A one-page synopsis of Chapter1 in the Hyman text would be appropriate here.b. Provide at least three possible solution alternatives and document your methodology tochoose the best alternative. Include illustrationssuch as Figure 1. Try to be as inclusive andcreative as possible with your ideas. Strive toachieve at least one non-conventional or “outof the box” alternative.c. List and describe all the analytical, or computational tools you will employ to analyze yourdesign, such as ProEngineer®, SolidWorks®, MathCAD, and MATLAB.d. List and detailall the experimental proceduresyou willuse to test your design concepts.e. Evaluate your alternatives based on how well theysatisfy the design specifications. Explain the selectioncriteria by which you will evaluate designalternatives in specific, quantitative terms, such ascost, weight, reliability, ease of use, and ease ofmanufacture. A matrix table can clearly illustrate thisinformation.f. If possible at this time,rank your solution conceptsand list the pros and cons of each. At minimum, statewhat further information or additional work isneeded in order to arrive at a final solutionalternative.g. If any solution is totally unfeasible (or may have beenFigure 1.SolidWorks® model of atried before), state the reason for its elimination.Manual filter wheel with C-Mountadapters.Project Management: “How and When?”The Project Management section describes how the project will be managed, including adetailed timetable with milestones. Specific items to include in this section are as follows:a. Description of task phases (typical development tasks: Planning, Concept Development,System-Level Design, Detailed Design, Testing and Refinement, Production)b. Division of responsibilities and duties among team membersc. Timeline with milestones: Gantt chart (seeFigure 2 for an example). The following arerequired elements of your Gantt chart:i.Project duration is from the date yourproject is assigned to the completion date:25th Aprilii.Each milestone is to be labeled with a titleiii.Schedule alltasks not just “Design” or “Testing.” Break this schedule down tospecific assignments.4iv. Each task is to be labeled with a title and person or persons assigned to the task.v.Subdivide larger items so that no task is longer than about one weekvi. Link tasks which are dependent on the completion of a previous task.vii. Continue to update your schedule throughout your project. This tool is importantfor organizing and viewing the progress of your project.viii. Where possible, avoid a serial timeline (one task at a time, which must becompleted before next task can proceed).Figure 2.Example of a Gantt Chart.DeliverablesThe culmination of the proposal negotiation with your sponsor will be a completed“Deliverables Agreement.” Inthis section, provide adetaileddescription of what you areproviding and when you will provide it. Be asspecific as possible. Possible items includeDetailed design drawings (specifyComputer Aided Design format)Physical prototypeScale modelEngineering analysis (Finite Element Analysis, MATLAB, etc.)Economic analysis (return on investment calculations)Detailed description of test proceduresData from experimentsComputer program code, flowchart, documentationCircuit diagramsUser-friendly instructions including training for personnelBudget: “How Much?”Provide yourbestestimate of how project funds will be spent for your first design. Foran example, see Table 2. The sponsor will allow for only this amount. At this time, you need toknow the details for your initial design. You can divide up your budget into some majorcategories, such as equipment,materials, supplies, shipping (if Hershey), and Learning Factorycosts (that is, for the computerized numerical control, rapid prototyping, etc). Remember: Youare spending sponsor dollars and the sponsor needs to see that the money is spent wisely. Ifadditional funds or resources areneeded from your sponsor compared to their original “requestfor proposals,” ask for them here but justify the request.1.Be as exact as you can but estimate slightlyhigher for shipping. For any quantities, add anadditional 10–20% for error.2.Read all ordering requirements for eachcompany. Some companies have a minimumorder amount so you need to be aware of this in advance.3.You’ll need to have all (100%) your itemsordered and reconciledby the week before springbreak for your first design.4.Additional funds will not be released after this day without written justification for thedeviation (that is, why do you need to go with your alternate choice? What went wrongwith the first design?).Table 2:Requested items and funds for initial design.ItemSupplierCatalog No#QuantityUnit PriceTotalVacuum PumpMcMaster CarrIJ-608251$183.47$188.72Flow PumpNorthern ToolCJX-6891$139.99$156.62Water Filter WhirlpoolLowe's HardwareWHER251$33.73$33.7323/32" Plywood 4'x8'Lowe's Hardwarenone1$24.95$24.954" Ondine RainmakerMyArticle.com1298081$19.99$37.86Acrylic Tubing 5' (OD 8")McMaster Carr8486K6261$236.70$250.95"8" Flange (13" OD)McMaster CarrKD-ERW1$44.24$44.24Total $737.07Communication and Coordination with SponsorSpecify the interaction with your sponsor:a. Establish communication schedule and the responsibilities of each participant. See thesyllabus for exact dates of progress report, mid-semester presentations, final-presentations,Showcase, etc.b. Establish the form of communication (visits, weekly updates, conference calls,teleconferences).c. Specify who will receive information and how it will be transmitted.d. Clearly state what actions are requested with each communication: information only, replyrequested, etc.Special TopicsDefine any sponsor specific items, such as the handling of confidential information, andloan and return of equipment.Team Qualifications: the “Who?”a. In a paragraph for each person, establish theteam qualifications for the project. Highlightany specific job or course experiences that are relevant to the project.b. Include a one-page resume of each teammember in the Appendix.Do not include your hobbies.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW …“Police Ethics encompass a broad range of behavior from interpersonal relations to outright criminal activity” (Hyams, 1990, pp. 40-41). As such, it is intertwined in the definition of corruption. This section will attempt to focus on philosophical aspects, while following sections discuss the specifics and ramifications of unethical acts.Kleinig (1990) stated, "Police ethics is characterized by a particular focus rather than a particular set of values" (p. 3). In other words, the situational context within law enforcement may differ, but the underlying philosophy, or decision-making process, cannot vary from the culture represented. He further cites John Stewart Mill's description of an ethical decision maker as using his senses and mental abilities to first collect the information necessary, then to make the decision, and further to stay the course once the decision is made.Spader (1994) paraphrased Plato: "All major legal issues are simultaneously ethical issues" (p. 100), and "justice" is "the act of giving each person his 'due'" (p. 83). Spader also stated, "[W]hether the ends justify the means is central to due process" (p. 83). This leads to the so-called “dirty hands” dilemma.That is, on some occasions a public official may find that the only way he can do his job successfully, meet his official obligations, is to do something that, from the perspective of private life, would be morally unacceptable. (French, 1983/1992, pp. 243-244)French (1983/1992) differentiates public obligations from private obligations by identifying the primary objective. Public obligations emphasize “the accomplishment of certain recognized ends, whereas ... private-sector obligations concern the way things are done and what particular things are done, and less with outcomes” (p. 251).Kleinig (1996) pointed out that this dilemma was discussed early on, from ancient Greek tragedies to The Prince, and includes Sartre more recently. Plato wrote, “[W]e must discover who are best guardians ..., that they must do whatever they think at any time best for the city” (1935/1992, p. 93). Modern advocates of this point of view still believe thatanyone who would act up to a perfect standard of goodness in everything, must be ruined among so many who are not good. It is essential, therefore, for a Prince who desires to maintain his position, to have learned how to be other than good, and to use or not use his goodness as necessity requires. (Machiavelli, 1910, p. 53)A social and ethical phenomenon described by Pollock (1994) is the glorification of "strong" criminals vs. ridicule of "weak" moralists (e.g., public acclaim for Bonnie and Clyde), the antithesis of morality. Popular culture seems to project a similar justification for police who exceed their authority in pursuit of justice, as portrayed by the “Dirty Harry” character and many of a similar nature.A scenario from a Dirty Harry screenplay has Harry forcibly extracting the location of a kidnap victim from the perpetrator by shooting him in the leg, only to have the case dropped when his tactics are exposed in court (Delattre, 1994; Kleinig, 1996). Barker (1996) highlighted this mixed message when he wrote that “’Dirty Harry’ may be a character we applaud on the screen, but” (p. 51) “[w]e, as a free society, will not tolerate a law enforcement agency staffed by Dirty Harry’s, who use illegal and unethical means to accomplish what they perceive as legitimate ends” (p. 12).Delattre (1994) indicated that “[e]nds do justify the means up to a point, and in certain ways, depending on what you mean, but not simply or unqualifiedly” (p. 193). Every person is significant and worthy, “even if that person appears without merit” (p. 193). Once prohibitions against cruel treatment are broached without recourse, even in the area of rights for innocent victims versus perpetrators, the implications are poor for all civil liberties.However, Delattre (1994) also added “that illegal conduct in a specific case may or may not be excusable—and I believe that it could be—depending on the particulars, and even the minute details, of the case” (p. 212-213).In The Ethics of Policing, Kleinig (1996), a recognized police ethics scholar, discussed the dirty hands concept at length. Two primary issues were raised by this concept. First, was the consideration that two alternative courses of action are in fact wrong. He argued that it would not be morally wrong to adhere to the law and therefore not seek a desirable outcome. And, secondly, if it is true that both actions are wrong, what should be done about the person who made a decision under those circumstances?Kleinig (1996) wrote that Machiavelli advocated resignation or punishment for officials caught in such a situation. Kleinig stated that he has sought not to accept the premise of the necessity to commit a crime to thwart a crime, while acknowledging that it is accepted by others. But he still raised the issue of the public being placed in the position of punishing a person who performed a service that could be identified with the preservation of social order, thereby raising the dirty hands question for those who would inflict the punishment.Skolnick and Leo (1992) pointed out that "the acceptability of deception seems to vary inversely with the level of the criminal process" (p. 3). It is legally acceptable to lie during the course of an investigation. Undercover investigations and "sting" operations are almost routine. Courts have upheld the authority of police to lie during interrogations under most circumstances. However, deception is supposed to stop when testimony is called for.Whether it does or not is questionable, for example, when investigations encompass the use of what is sometimes referred to as a "wall" between a confidential covert investigation and the parallel construction of a prosecutable case that has been creatively disengaged from the original source of information.In further exemplification, a confidential informant in a position to be of long-term use reports that he/she will be receiving money identifiable as narcotics proceeds. The investigation for record purposes, and future testimony, begins once the delivery has been made, without further reference to that event.Investigation from that point will focus on the person that made the delivery and subsequent activities and contacts, totally excluding the informant’s participation. The tainted money will be passed on within the criminal organization. This deception will help to ensure the safety of the informant and facilitate the detection of future crimes. However, it will also allow criminals to profit, even if only in the interest of potential neutralization of the organization in the future.In 1992, Skolnick and Leo warned that authorized deception "tends to encourage further deceit, undermining the general norm" (p. 10). Kleinig (1996) identified four negative aspects and consequences of lying: (a) it violates expectations of truthfulness in interpersonal relations; (b) it subverts the natural purpose of language; (c) it negates the concept of humans as worthy of dignity and respect by denying them an accurate reflection of reality; and, (d) it does not meet ethical requirements of universalizability.Universalizability has to do with the “fundamental requirement of morality, as the activity of a rational being, that we act only on maxims that we could, without ‘contradiction,’ will to be universal laws” (Kleinig, 1996, p. 125). It would be impossible to rely on untruth as a universal law. In consequence, “Not only does the liar violate another’s being, but also his own” (p. 126). …Fishman (1994) presented an analysis of two celebrated cases of police corruption involving Robert "Prince of the City" Leuci and Frank Serpico, which differed from the interpretation of the acts of these men by Pollock (1994). Pollock equates the two and failed to note, as Fishman did, that Leuci was a pragmatist. He was caught "red handed" and acted in his own self interest when he cooperated with a corruption investigation (Fishman, 1994).Serpico was apparently honest in his personal acts but prudently silent about the corruption swirling around him until it reached a level he found to be overly destructive. He had at first known that it was unlikely that he could change the system, so he worked within it, thereby remaining employed.When a parolee convicted of killing a police officer was released on a subsequent charge due to graft, he was overcome by what can be characterized as a violation of natural law and became the first New York City officer to testify against his own on corruption charges. "In short, Serpico practiced prudential realism because his fight against lawlessness was based on moral ideals, but he did not ignore material circumstances" (Fishman, 1994, p. 201). …Chief G. S. Kniffen (1996) cited a lack of ethics as a cause for numerous problems in law enforcement within recent years, from Rodney King, to O. J. Simpson, to the federal shoot-out in Idaho. Kniffen laid these problems at the feet of leadership, and more specifically a lack of ethical leadership. He quoted the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) Law Enforcement Code of Ethics from 1957, and decried a lack of compliance. He also cast aspersions on suggestions that it be "updated to reflect the changes in this postindustrial age" (p. 9). However, there has been a change. In 1992, the IACP added a line to the code addressing cooperation in internal investigations (Pollock, 1994)(see Appendix C).Barker’s (1996) Police Ethics: Crisis in Law Enforcement examined the four questions:(1) Is law enforcement a profession? (2) Can law enforcement officers be professional? (3) What forms of behavior are the major law enforcement ethical violations? and (4) Can we control police ethical violations? (Barker, 1996, p. v)Barker (1996) addressed each of these questions as they relate to and are exemplified by the IACP’s Law Enforcement Code of Ethics. He concluded that law enforcement falls short of professional standards on several counts. It is deficient on admission standards based upon educational achievement, and also with regard to standardized certification and decertification.Both Delattre (1994) and Kleinig (1996) agree with this assessment. Failure to reach professional status has at least in part been attributed to internal organized bargaining pressures. Representatives of organized bargaining entities have displayed interest in preserving the status quo in the interest of their membership, who may be negatively affected by increased requirements (Barker, 1996).Inasmuch as the term “professional” refers to behavior, Barker (1996) is convinced that officers can be professional. Common forms of corruption (addressed in following sections of this chapter) can be controlled, according to Barker, through reducing opportunity, eliminating peer support for unethical behavior, and increasing the likelihood of punishment for such behavior.Delattre (1994) stated that codes of ethics may be useful, but they “do not motivate people to behave well. They assist only people who want to do so” (p. 33). If an organization’s leaders do not take seriously failure to live up to the codes, they “will be treated as worthless platitudes” (p. 33). Sherman (1991) stated that "[s]uch codes provide useful frameworks ... but are usually too general to provide guidance" within the "complex circumstances" of law enforcement (p. 10).According to Pollock-Byrne (1989), calls for codes of ethics may be missing the point, and the codes themselves may be counter-productive. "Since they are so far removed from reality, they are worse than ignored since they in fact encourage officers to believe there are no relevant ethical guides to behavior" (p. 96).Felkenes (1984) conducted a study in several police agencies to determine how officers view professional ethics outlined in the Law Enforcement Code of Ethics and the Canons of Police Ethics. The results indicated that a majority of the respondents clearly understood the requirements for honesty and self-restraint under provocation, although more than 20% were unclear about “obligations to colleagues, the profession of law enforcement, other officials, and criminal subjects” (p. 215).About 60% of the respondents were neutral, unclear, or very unclear about “[o]bligations in relation to confidentiality, enforcement of the law without fear, and engaging in appropriate private conduct” (Felkenes, 1984, p. 215). Thirty-eight percent responded “that it was not wrong to accept small gifts from the public” (p. 215), in spite of explicit identification of this behavior as unethical in the Code.Twenty-nine percent agreed that “[l]aw enforcement’s professional ethics serve primarily as a pledge rather than as a guide to action” (Felkenes, 1984, p. 215). And 97% of the respondents indicated that they rely on personal ethical beliefs in professional matters.Another attempt at developing ethical law enforcement personnel, with similar inherent problems, involves specific written organizational policy. Murphy and Caplan (1989) state that policy manuals normally contain "provisions so unrealistic that no officer, however dedicated, can obey all of them all the time" (p. 317). They cite the all-pervasive specter of punishment induced by policy manuals as a cause for people to conceal unintentional and minor violations, which in turn creates the environment that could stimulate corruption. Pollock-Byrne (1989) stated that studies suggested "extensive rules seem to be present in inverse proportion to high ethical standards" (p. 96). …Another reason Kleinig (1990) believes that collegiate ethics training is necessary is the partisanship of academies brought on by "social isolation" and organizational identity (p. 7). Kleinig further stated that the fact that law enforcement recruits do not come morally prepared for the decisions they must make and argued for inclusion of ethics in basic training.In 1997, the IACP conducted the “most extensive ethics training survey ever conducted by law enforcement” (International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1998, p. 2), with over 900 responses. Over 80% of the responding agencies reported providing ethics training for new officers, and over 70% provided some type of in-service ethics training. For more than 70% of these agencies, ethics training consisted of 4 hours or less in the classroom. Just over 50% of these agencies sought outside assistance in course design.“One major finding was that the amount of time devoted to ethics training did not appear to be consistent with how important the needs were, based on the responses” (International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1998, p. 5). One of the survey questions requested participants to “provide us with any ‘working definition of ethics’ your organization uses” (p. 8). “[O]nly a handful [of respondents] provided any ‘working definition’” (p. 8).Recommendations of the IACP Committee on Police Image and Ethics arising from this study (International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1998) included (a) adoption of a law enforcement oath; (b) job specific ethics training; (c) an enhanced curriculum and training style; and (d) insistence on recruit ethics training that incorporates ethics training by field training officers.As suggested at the beginning of this section, any discussion of ethics is simultaneously a discussion of corruption.Corruption DefinedThe definition of corruption may be limited by some to receipt of financial or other considerations in exchange for overlooking crime in some manner. Corruption can include "those activities regarded by society as illegitimate or seen by the power elite as contradictory to the logic of the system" (Jacek Tarkowski cited in Johnston, 1992, p. 160). Police corruption is an occupational crime within the institutions responsible for control of crime, and a form of "elite" deviance (Henderson & Simon, 1994).Punch (1985) provided a four-element definition of police corruption. With an added a fifth element, this definition guided the present study.I Straitforward Corruption: something is done or not done for some form of reward....II Predatory (Strategic) Corruption: the police stimulate crime, extort money and actively organize graft ...III Combative (Strategic) Corruption: 'flaking', 'padding', falsifying testimony, 'verbals', intimidating witnesses, buying and selling drugs, 'scoring' or 'burning' informants, and paying informants with illegally obtained drugs. ('Flaking' refers to 'planting' evidence on a suspect; 'padding' means to add to drugs or evidence to strengthen a case; 'verbals' is used in Britain to indicate where words attributed to a suspect are invented by a policeman to help incriminate him; 'scoring' concerns shakedowns where police take money, drugs or goods from suspects or prisoners, and 'burning' means revealing the identity of an informant). Most of these practices are involved in 'building a case' ... in which the major goal is to make arrests, obtain convictions, confiscate drugs, and get long sentences for criminals. It may involve accommodations with some criminals and certain informants but it is posited on using illicit means for organizationally and socially approved ends....IV Corruption as Perversion of Justice: lying under oath, intimidating witnesses, planting evidence on a suspect, etc.... It involves the perversion of justice largely in order to avoid the consequences of serious deviant behavior. (Punch, 1985, pp. 13-14)The fifth element is any abuse of power or authority—such as excessive force, theft while on duty, or other acts under color of law. The Knapp Commission (1974) (or the Commission to Investigate Allegations of Police Corruption and the City's Anti-Corruption Procedures, instituted in 1971) added other offenses to the list of corrupt practices, such as illegal wiretaps, financing of drug transactions, soliciting customers for drug traffickers, kidnapping witnesses, providing security for drug dealers, and offering to assist in murder of witnesses.The fifth element was added as a personal evaluation and in consideration of a dictionary definition of corruption that includes the following: "1. a changing or being changed for the worse; making, becoming, or being corrupt. 2. evil or wicked behavior; depravity" (Guralnik & Friend, 1968, p. 332). This definition is consistent with a statement by Jacek Tarkowski (cited in Johnston, 1992): "Also 'corrupt' are those activities regarded by society as illegitimate or seen by the power elite as contradictory to the logic of the system" (p. 160).The Mollen Commission (The Commission to Investigate Allegations of Police Corruption and the Anti-Corruption Procedures of the New York City Police Department), formed in 1992, seems to support this expanded definition of corruption by stating that "twenty years ago police officers took bribes to accommodate criminals ... today's corrupt cop often is the criminal" (Commission to Investigate Allegations, 1993/1995, p. 31).This is also consistent with the assumption of the researcher that acts of criminal justice personnel leading to their own incarceration are an aberration from the state of their moral and ethical behavior at the commencement of their criminal justice career, in other words, a change for the worse.The Mollen Commission described brutality and corruption as being on a continuum, “with brutality against citizens serving as a sort of ‘rite of passage’ toward corruption” (cited in Human Rights Watch, 1998, p. 46). Commission interviews indicated that brutality was often the first deviant act, and when officers were not subjected to negative consequences as a result of this deviance, it became easier for them to progress to other abuses of authority.This seems consistent with self-reports of criminal involvement in a sample of the general population that “suggest a clear escalation in the seriousness of criminal behavior over time” (Elliott, 1994, p. 12). “[T]he behavioral repertoire was [found to be] accompanied by an increase in offending rates for all types of offenses” (p. 13).Public definitions of police brutality can include perceptions of verbal abuse, unnecessary stops for questioning, display of weapons, or physical contact short of levels that could cause physical harm (Klockars, 1996). Current legal definitions hinge upon the finding in Graham v. Connor [490 U.S. 386 (1989)].In accordance with the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, “’[O]bjective reasonableness’ of a police officer’s use of force would be ‘judged from the perspective of a reasonable officer on the scene rather than with the 20/20 vision of hindsight’” (cited in Klockars, 1996, p. 6). A single punch, or anything short of that, is not generally considered excessive.Worden (1996) differentiated between “excessive force” and “unnecessary force,” the former being more than reasonable force, and the later being where no force is reasonable. James Fyfe (1996) also subdivided excessive force.Extralegal violence—brutality—is “the willful and wrongful use of force by officers who knowingly exceed the bounds of their office.” Unnecessary force, by contrast, is the result of ineptitude or carelessness and “occurs when well-meaning officers prove incapable of dealing with the situations they encounter without needless or too hasty resort to force.” (Fyfe, 1996, p. 165)The IACP defines "excessive use of force" as "the application of an amount and/or frequency of force greater than what is required to compel compliance from a willing or unwilling subject" (Neubauer, 1999, p. 6). …Criminological TheoryIn the late 19th century, Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) (cited in Cohen & Machalek, 1994/1997) proposed “that crime is ‘normal’ behavior performed by normal individuals living in unexceptional social systems” (p. 113). Durkheim’s theory, in summary, consists of the contention that, since crime is known in all societies, it is therefore a fundamental element of societies.He [Durkheim] reasoned that a certain level of crime is both necessary and beneficial to society because (1) individual deviation from the social norm is a primary source of innovative social change; (2) increases in crime rates can warn or alert officials to damaging problems existing within social systems that give rise to such crimes; (3) crime enforcement helps to establish and to maintain behavioral boundaries within communities; and finally, (4) crime provokes punishment that in turn enhances solidarity within communities. (Cohen & Machalek, 1994/1997, p. 113)Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) were dismissive of the assertion that crime is “normal learned behavior” (p. xv). Cohen and Machalek (1994/1997) theorized that evolutionary and ecological explanations should be incorporated within Durkheim’s theory in order to make it viable. Ecology was incorporated in the form of availability of resources. …Criminological theories on crime causation supported by research include opportunity theories and rational choice theories. Opportunity theories generally state that three elements must coexist: (a) motivation, (b) an appropriate target, and (c) lack of deterrence. Rational choice theories assume a relatively constant level of criminal activity, with crime rates fluctuating due to increased or decreased opportunity (Cohen & Machalek, 1994/1997).Intrinsic to the perceptions of risks and rewards involved in rational choice theory is the thought that if one was a police officer, a lessened fear of the police might be assumed. In addition, the common presence of the code of silence, loyalty to other officers, and cynicism could be inferred to reinforce the perception of lessened risk.Conflict theory looks at crime as a "label produced by social values and political power" (Maxfield & Babbie, 1998, p. 40). Marxism is a macro level form of conflict theory. Conflict theory holds that prosecution is most likely when the violator lacks power and the public is aroused due to the nature of the violation (Henderson & Simon, 1994).Strain theory shares a similar outlook, in that it asserts that we are socialized to seek rewards (in effect positing of goals), and when the rewards are blocked strain is created that can be relieved by law breaking (Henderson & Simon, 1994). Burton et al. (1994/1997) conducted an empirical assessment of strain theory on three levels: strain created by the difference between aspirations and expectations, blocked opportunity, and relative deprivation.Burton et al. (1994/1997) found that only blocked opportunity and relative deprivation have a significant effect on adult deviance, with relative deprivation having the greatest correlation. However, they also measured self-control as a variable and found that it had a greater effect than any other variable. …Self-Control TheorySelf-control, an ability to control one’s emotions, desires, and actions (Guralnik & Friend, 1968), is considered an enduring individual difference, a personality trait that remains relatively consistent throughout life (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990). Nagin and Paternoster (1993/1997) identify six elements of self-control: impulsiveness, desire for simple tasks, preference for risk, preference for physical activity, self-centeredness (selfism), and temper. Those “who lack self-control will tend to be impulsive, insensitive, physical (as opposed to mental), risk-taking, short-sighted, and nonverbal” (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990, p. 90).In 1990, Gottfredson and Hirschi published A General Theory of Crime, in which they suggested that crime results from the sum of opportunity and low self-control, and stated that “people ... differ in the extent to which they are vulnerable to the temptations of the moment” (p. 87). The theory assumed that parental monitoring of childhood behavior, recognizing deviance, and consistently and appropriately punishing such deviance within a child’s first 8 years establishes self-control that leads to socially appropriate responses throughout life. Failure in this area leads to low self-control.Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) intended for their theory “to explain all crime, at all times, and, for that matter, many forms of behavior that are not sanctioned by the state” (p. 117), to include juvenile delinquency, sex-based differences, cross-culture comparisons, street crime, and occupational crime. A later publication elaborates upon the above statement:Our theory does not claim that self-control (or self-control and opportunity) is the only cause of crime. On the contrary, we explicitly mention important causes of crime that self-control cannot explain (e.g., age). To invoke an analogy we have used before ... : Trees and tides have gravity in common but more than gravity is required to account for their peculiar features. To admit this in no way limits the generality of the theory of gravity. (Hirschi & Gottfredson, 1993, p. 50) …Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) theory posited that opportunity and self-control standing alone have little meaning, and that "[f]raud and force occur primarily when individuals with low self-control encounter opportunities to engage in fraud or force," according to Grasmick, Tittle, Bursik, and Arneklev (1993/1997, p. 180). Grasmick et al. cited and concurred with Gottfredson and Hirschi’s claim that "low self-control is a personality trait established early in life, which remains relatively stable over the life course" (p. 188), which was also accepted by and Nagin and Paternoster (1993/1997). …Gottfredson and Hirschi have credited individual motivation with too much influence, according to Henderson and Simon (1994). Henderson and Simon also took exception to the contention fostered by Gottfredson and Hirschi that white-collar criminals (to include corrupt police) share the same primary causative factor (i.e., self-interest) as other criminals. One particular factor noted is that recognizing that they hold jobs makes them less likely to commit crimes, which seems somewhat spurious in light of the known existence of criminal justice corruption.Hirschi and Gottfredson (1993) addressed this area of criticism, as exemplified by Henderson and Simon above.In the context of discussion of white collar crime, we have argued that position in the occupational structure is in part caused by self-control. Thus white-collar workers should on the whole have higher levels of self-control than those outside the labor force. White-collar offenders should therefore have higher levels of self-control on the average than offenders among the unemployed. It seems obvious to us that their criminal records should therefore show fewer offenses and “offense types,” a result that white-collar researchers … take to be actually contrary to our theory! Our theory is also said to be called into question by the finding that white-collar offenders start “later … in life than common offenders”.... In fact, a decade ago we pointed out that the connection between frequency and age of onset is a statistical necessity. (Hirschi & Gottfredson, 1993, pp. 53-54) …Corruption TheoryCorruption has been conceptualized as having been based upon either affinity or affiliation. Affinity represents the predisposition of individuals to commit crime that exists prior to their being hired as police officers. Affiliation refers to the subjecting "of the honest police recruit ... [to] a dishonest police subculture" (Sherman, 1974, p. 192).A more common label for affinity has been the “rotten apple” theory, wherein the rotten apple taints the barrel of apples. Conversely, the affiliation theory is commonly referred to as the “rotten barrel” theory. The barrel is responsible for making the apples rot.The affinity/affiliation question points out the different levels of inquiry and theorization. Macro level examination focuses upon entire societies. Middle level, or intermediate, inquiry focuses upon organizations, and micro level involves individuals (Sherman, 1974). One example of macro-level impact is described as follows:Richardson put the police graft system in its proper perspective: the political and ethnic conflicts of a fast-growing pluralist society. On the ethnic level New York was a classic case of culture conflict, where the puritan morality of the original settlers was intolerable to the new immigrants. Laws prohibiting liquor sales, gambling, and prostitution were focal points for this conflict.Seen from the functionalist perspective, corruption was a means of easing the conflict and satisfying both sides. Politicians won the support of Yankee groups with rhetoric against vice, while maintaining immigrant support by giving the police a free hand to permit vice—in exchange for a price. But the police hand was so free that graft grew to be intolerable, although the Lexow commission [of 1894] was the first indication ... of how large it really was. After Lexow, police graft became more sophisticated and centralized, surviving investigations right up to the present. (Sherman, 1974a, p. 45)In 2000, Klockars, Ivkovich, Harver, and Hagerfeld published research based upon an organizational theory of police corruption “which emphasizes the importance of organizational and occupational culture” (p. 1). They presented officers from 30 different departments with 11 hypothetical situations and asked them to rate the levels of seriousness, whether they would report these incidents, and their support for punishment for each situation. In the more serious scenarios (e.g., stealing from a crime scene, bribery, or excessive force), most officers indicated that they would report violations by a fellow officer. However, “substantial differences in the environment of integrity” (p. 2) were observed among the different departments.In comparing one high-scoring department (all scenarios were considered to be more serious violations relative to other agencies) to one low scoring department, it was found that the high-scoring department’s officers expected more severe discipline and would be much more likely to report violations by fellow officers. These characteristics of a department’s officers are said to provide a description of a department’s “culture that encourage its employees to resist or tolerate certain types of misconduct” (Klockars et al., 2000, p. 7).In 1997, a survey was administered to criminal justice students at Florida State University oriented toward determining values and expectations (Brand, 1999). Thirty-one percent said that they would not leave a party where marijuana was in use, 28% believed that a person with a felony arrest record should not be excluded from being hired as an officer, and about 18% believed that it may be acceptable for an officer to lie. Police will undoubtedly reflect the culture that surrounds them, as suggested by the writings of C. Wright Mills (cited in Henderson & Simon, 1994).Causes of corruption can best be described as being the result of an intricate matrix of potential actions and interactions impacted by numerous inputs (societal, organizational, biosociological, and psychological). Both middle-level and micro level aspects of corruption will be examined for cause-and-effect clues in the following review, in recognition of their apparent interrelatedness. In particular, the elements of conflict, control, differential association, interactional, neutralization, opportunity, rational choice, strain, symbolic interaction theories, and stress will be examined with sufficient depth that the criminality causation elements they propose can be inferred to exist for the purpose of this study.Ideology figures into criminological theory and corruption theory, from Marxism on the left to Lombrosians on the right, particularly when politicians attempt to establish policy (Henderson & Simon, 1994). Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a classical conflict theorist who deplored exploitation of the masses by a limited number of power-wielding elites. Classical criminological theory began with Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909), an Italian physician apparently influenced by Darwinism, who theorized that criminals were evolutional throwbacks, and who believed in biological determinism (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990).Henderson and Simon (1994) stated that conservatives generally embrace anomie and liberals generally embrace affiliation causation. A dichotomy generally equivalent to the affinity/affiliation theory described above.Henderson and Simon (1994) characterized the Christopher Commission as "liberal" based upon the suggested improvements in minority concerns. Conservative and liberal perspectives both lack sociological perspective, according to Henderson and Simon. Also lacking is an attempt to show the interconnection among macro, intermediate, and micro levels.Theories of occupational crime may have some relevance, but police corruption is a unique subcategory—crime within the institutions responsible for control of crime—and a form of "elite" deviance. Henderson and Simon (1994) proposed a synthesis of theoretical perspectives to account for this subcategory based for the most part upon the theory of C. Wright Mills (1917-1962).Mills stressed social structure (macro level composition, interrelationships, significance of the parts, etc.), historical epoch (cultural ascendancy or decline, what is considered historically significant, characteristics of change, etc.), and biography (roles of the individual, impacts of family, culture, and institutions, etc.).One important attribute of Mill's model is that institutions actually select and shape social character. This is because success in institutional settings ... requires that people, as role players, accept (internalize) the “expectations of institutional leaders” (elites). (Henderson & Simon, 1994, p. 34)Alienation was an important concept to Mills for understanding the structure of behavior; and it can occur at macro, intermediate, and micro levels (Henderson & Simon, 1994). Two types of alienation were identified: inauthenticity and dehumanization. Inauthenticity exists when outward or acknowledged appearances are stated in a positive manner, while the known situation is negative. A macro example would be the coupling of sexual images in advertising with alcohol or cigarettes.In a police department, alienation could be characterized by the Mollen Commission finding that anticorruption efforts were focused more on preventing disclosure than identifying and eliminating corruption (Commission to Investigate Allegations, 1993/1995). The consequence of this form of alienation is dehumanization (Henderson & Simon, 1994).Victor Bernard (cited in Henderson & Simon, 1994) argues that dehumanization is the result of a disconnection of mental concepts from one another and "unconscious denial, repression, depersonalization, isolation of effect, and compartmentalization" (p. 36). Dehumanization is a defense mechanism to internal and external stressors achieved through blinding oneself to the humanity of another.There are two types of dehumanization. The first is self-directed, wherein one mutes emotion and becomes robot-like. This can be a response to anxiety caused by being a powerless part of a bureaucracy. The second is object-directed, wherein one lessens the humanness of another through negative labeling and stereotyping, a self-protection against feelings of guilt and shame. "These two types of dehumanization are mutually reinforcing; reducing one's feelings for other people lessens one's feelings for the self, and lessening the humanness of one's self-image limits one's capacity to relate to others" (Henderson & Simon, 1994, p. 36).Consistent with alienation theorization is neutralization theory (Henderson & Simon, 1994). Guilt feelings that tend to prevent crime can be minimized by rationalizations learned previous to crime commission. Deviant groups commonly construct guilt neutralizing terminology and strategies, such as shifting blame to the victim, dehumanizing the victim, professing loyalty to the group that sanctions or condones the crime (following orders), and condemning the condemners (soft on crime).Henderson and Simon (1994) criticized neutralization theory as deficient because of an intentional disregard for the effects of cultural and societal norms. They pointed out that cultural patterns of crime have been shown to exist.Drawing from Mills and control, differential association, and neutralization theories, Henderson and Simon (1994) made the following theoretical statements:1.Criminal behavior is widespread in American society, including within the criminal justice system. It is widespread because it is often learned, tolerated and/or encouraged within the organizational contexts that make up criminal justice agencies....2.Only a tiny percentage of such crimes are explained by extreme behaviors of abnormal personalities.... The behavior and the ideologies that justify and excuse them are part of an organization's cultural value system.3.Crime as caused by the inability of immature individuals to delay gratification is a widespread occurrence, so widespread that it is part of the American character....We are not saying that human nature is evil.... We are saying that people are born innocent and relatively "blank" concerning their criminal propensities, and that criminal behavior is a socially acquired attribute. (Henderson & Simon, 1994, pp. 34-35)Sherman (1974c) wrote that it is appropriate to begin corruption causes and effects theorization with a simple model. He chose to "treat police corruption simply as a dependent variable—as effect not cause" (p. 2). However, he pointed out the complexity of the issue by asking: "Why are there different kinds and extents of police corruption in different communities, and in the same communities at different points in their history?" (p. 3). Sherman proposed a sociological theory of police corruption containing the following propositions that are identified as independent variables, or more likely, interdependent or covariant:COMMUNITY STRUCTURE1. There will be less police corruption in a community with little anomie, in terms of corrupters and corruptees.2. There will be less police corruption in communities with a more public-regarding ethos.3. There will be less police corruption in a community with less culture conflict.ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS4. A punishment-centered police bureaucracy will have the least corruption, a representative pattern will have more, and a mock pattern will have the most. [In a representative pattern there is enforcement of and obedience to rules to which workers can contribute. A mock pattern exists when action is only taken due to bad publicity.]5. There will be less corruption in a police agency having leadership highly reputed for integrity.6. There will be less organized police corruption when there is less work group solidarity.7. The less gradual the probable steps in a corrupt policeman's moral career, the less the ultimate 'seriousness' (self-defined) of the grafting.8. The greater the policeman's perception of legitimate advancement opportunities, the less likelihood there will be of their accepting corruption opportunities.LEGAL OPPORTUNITIES9. A decrease in either the scope of morals laws or the demand for the services they proscribe, while holding the other constant, will reduce police corruption opportunities (also the converse).10. An increase in either the scope of the regulative law or the economic incentive to violate it, while holding the other constant, will increase corruption opportunities (also the converse).CORRUPTION CONTROLS11. There will be a greater perceived risk of apprehension for corruption in police agencies that have an internal investigation unit.12. There will be proportionately less undiscovered corruption in police agencies that have an internal investigation unit using proactive methods.13. Controls will decrease corruption only when they can avoid amplifying the corruption's extent or methods.14. Less corruption will go undiscovered in a police agency watched by a vigorous and uncensored news media. (Sherman, 1974c, pp. 31-32)A study conducted by Herbert W. Eber, presented in 1991 at the annual meeting of Multivariate Experimental Psychology, as reported by Lorr and Strack (1994), administered a Clinical Analysis Questionnaire to about 15,000 police officer candidates to determine personality characteristics. The most distinctive finding was that personality profiles “were characterized by a strong pattern of self-discipline or Control, Tough Poise, and low Anxiety” (p. 200).Hyams (1990) conducted a study in which he hypothesized that police officers having unethical attitudes would be found to have higher narcissism (or selfism), and have a perception of their policing role as being more oriented toward arrest than service. In this study involving police officers from one West Coast agency, this hypothesis was confirmed; in addition, he found that[t]hose who are officers out of the academy, with higher levels of narcissism, a role perception oriented more toward arrest and apprehension and higher levels of dedication were found to have less ethical attitudes. (Hyams, 1990, p. 89)In 1998, Chamberlin, using Hyams’ police ethical attitudes instrument, conducted an experiment wherein this instrument was administered to treatment and control groups (pretest), followed by an 8-hour in-service training session on ethics for the treatment group. Six to eight weeks later, the instrument was again administered (posttest).The treatment group was found to show no difference in ethical attitudes between the pretest and the posttest. However, the control group was found to have “significantly increased their scores in the ethics, selfism, and role scales,” an indication of a tendency to have a more positive view of unethical behavior (Chamberlin, 1998, p. 82). Chamberlin does make a cautionary statement that because of the necessity of an “extended training effort and repeated testing, the probability of threats to the internal validity of the study due to history [outside influences such as the known focus of the testing] and maturation [gaining in knowledge over time] were significant” (p. 54).Sherman (1974b) used symbolic interationist theory to explain the existence of police corruption. The corrupt cop appears to have a moral view that differs from the view held prior to becoming an officer, and differs from the morality of his family, thus showing divergence and conflict of views.The school stems from the early work of George Herbert Meade, who saw life as a “conversation of significant symbols,” a process in which one continually defines and redefines one's self as a result of interacting with others. In this school of thought, police bribe-taking is to be explained as an individual process of becoming for each policeman, not as a static or “pressured” result of larger community structure. (Sherman, 1974b, p. 172)Consistent with the findings of the Mollen Commission cited earlier, wherein it is stated that unchecked excessive force is a precursor to corruption, Sherman (1974) indicated that corruption of a police officer is gradual and is characterized by the stages of contingencies, moral experiences, and apologia.Contingencies are circumstances or problems which a person must face, often for purely accidental reasons. The moral experience is a reaction to contingencies, often involving decision of action, that alters the "framework of imagery" in which a person evaluates himself and others. The moral experience is a benchmark between the stages in a moral career, which usually culminate (for the deviant) in an apologia: a distorted image of one's life course that brings it into alignment with the basic values of his society. (Sherman, 1974, p. 194)"Mills argued that people often experience their everyday, private lives as 'a series of traps'" (Henderson & Simon, 1994, p. 35). By this, he meant that people are unaware of how their behavior is unavoidably shaped by their immediate environment. Empirical evidence indicates that as violence-prone officers engage in subsequent confrontations, those confrontations are of increasing intensity (Babcock, 1998).Taylor and Braswell (1978) stated, "All police officers violate departmental rules and regulations and sometimes criminal statutes; it is inherent in their discretionary powers" (p. 177). They quoted a former officer as saying, "It's like a spider web, you're drawn in toward the center" (p. 177), with the center being the point where you have engaged in enough corrupt behavior that you must look the other way when a fellow officer takes another step outside the boundaries.In a similar vein, M. David Ermann (cited in Henderson & Simon, 1994) believed “that white-collar deviance takes place incrementally by merging normal administrative behavior with wrongdoing" (p. 28). In addition, new employees go along with behavior they find present upon their arrival, particularly in organizations that are results oriented. "Organizational crime also frequently occurs in instances where corporate employees are socially and spatially mobile, where they do not consider themselves part of the community in which they live" (p. 29).Biosociology/DemographicsOne consistent finding of research is that males are responsible for substantially more crime than females, “and this conclusion does not depend on the method of measurement (official or self-report), or time period and it seems to hold wherever the matter has been studied by criminologists” (Gottfredson & Polakowski, 1995, p. 68).Both Walsh (1995) and Goldsmith (1991) reported that physiological differences between male and female brains result from differences attributed to hormones and hormone ratios. Increasing testosterone levels in either sex increases assaultive behavior and decreases nurturing behavior, while estradiol decreases assaultive behavior and increases nurturing behavior. Progesterone also increases nurturing behavior, indicating more than mere coincidence regarding the differences of these hormones in males and females (Walsh, 1995). …Analysis yields good evidence that higher levels of testosterone are associated with adult deviance largely because they predispose an individual toward weak social integration and toward juvenile delinquency, and those are factors that considerably increase the likelihood of adult deviance. (Booth & Osgood, 1993, p. 105)Primate studies have shown that “testosterone increases to meet demand” and decreases “when submissiveness is deemed the path of least resistance” (Walsh, 1995, p. 86). It could be inferred that those assuming the role of law enforcer, who must also adopt the trappings (i.e., gun, badge, power to arrest, etc.), will show increased testosterone production. It is also known that as males age the production of testosterone decreases and hormonal ratios favoring nurturant behavior increase. …Gottfredson and Polakowski (1995) related that “[t]he relationship between age and crime is one of the most significant and well established general correlates in the field of criminology” (p. 68). Late adolescence and early adulthood stages account for a "vastly disproportionate amount of crime" (p. 69).The Christopher Commission found that just over 2% of Los Angeles police officers accounted for a disproportionately large number of citizen complaints (Independent Commission, 1991/1995). Lersch and Mieczkowski (1996) conducted a study to test this phenomenon and to determine if there are characteristics shared between officers with higher numbers of complaints, in effect testing the rotten apple theory (affinity theory). They also examined characteristics of complainants and complaints to determine if patterns existed.Lersch and Mieczkowski (1996) reviewed 682 allegations against 274 officers. "A small group of 37 officers, or about 7 percent of the sworn personnel, accounted for over one-third of the total number of complaints filed over the three-year period of analysis" (p. 37). The repeat offenders were all male, and "significantly younger and less experienced than their peers," and they were "more likely to be accused of violent and non-violent harassment resulting from a proactive contact" (p. 37).Babcock (1998) examined "the relationship between individual police officer characteristics, situational factors and the incidence of violent police-citizen encounters" (p. iv). He studied 117 officers in a department numbering about 350. Babcock also found that younger and less experienced officers had a significantly larger number of use-of-force incidents. "The group data suggested that as the number of use-of-force incidents per officer increased, so did the level and severity of violence inflicted by the officer" (p. 246).The age related findings of Lersch and Mieczkowski (1996) and Babcock (1998) were consistent with the findings of Burton et al. (1994/1997), who also reported that age was significantly related to nonutilitarian crime (not providing economic reward).Girodo (1991) conducted a psychological assessment of 271 undercover drug agents, with the purpose of correlating deviant behavior with personality dimensions. Among other findings, he determined that drug and alcohol abuse and disciplinary problems increased as undercover experience increased, somewhat contrary to the age-related findings cited earlier in this paper.Disinhibition was the significant predictor of risk for corruption in nearly half the agents … Disinhibition, however, did not predict risk for corruption among the best ... [person-environment] fit notwithstanding their obtaining the highest ... [disinhibition] scores of all. Their risk for corruption, while not particularly high, was best accounted for inversely by scores on the trait of Disciplined Self-Image. Finally, the High Extraversion-High Neuroticism agents produced the largest risk for corruption index; their higher scores on Experience Seeking and Neuroticism, would appear to be a poor combination.... The personality traits associated with corruption risk were impulsivity, emotionality, and undisciplined self-image. When these were found together, as in the Extraverted-Neurotic, we also found an increased risk for drug/alcohol abuse and disciplinary problems. (Girodo, 1991, pp. 368-369)Psychological theory has been unable to shed much light on the actions of individual officers, according to Worden (1996). Attitudinal studies, including Worden’s work, have indicated only a weak correlation between use of force and outlooks on human nature and “moral attitudes toward coercive authority” (p. 26). Organizational and social factors were shown to have a greater impact upon behavior. However,A larger body of evidence has accumulated on the relationship of officer’s behavior to their background and characteristics—race, gender, length of police service, and especially education. Officer’s educational backgrounds have been the subject of a number of studies, and although this research has shown that education bears no more than a weak relationship to officer’s attitudes ... and no relationship to the use of deadly force ..., it also indicates that college-educated officers generate fewer citizen complaints.... [O]n most behavioral dimensions the differences [between men and women] are negligible.... [B]lack officers ... are more likely to use deadly force ..., but these differences can be attributed to ... duty assignments.... Finally, analyses of officer’s length of service indicate that less experienced officers ... patrol more aggressively, ... are more likely to make arrests, ... and use deadly force. (Worden, 1996, p. 27)In research by Robert Friedrich (cited in Worden, 1996), published in 1980, the explanations of the use of force were characterized as having three contributory aspects—individual, situational, and organizational—were subjected to analysis. Friedrich found marginal correlation only regarding situational aspects. Provocative acts of a low-class, intoxicated, felon were most likely to evoke the use of force. Officer characteristics were not found to be significant.The GAO noted that police officers “lacking in experience and some higher education were considered to be more susceptible to involvement in illicit drug-related activities" (United States General Accounting Office, 1998, p. 4). Brown and Campbell (1994) concluded that response to stress is related to “personality, and life experiences, as well as variables such as age, gender and family history” (p. 19).StressGary Hankins (cited in Sulc, 1995), an official with the Fraternal Order of Police, related that "[p]olice officers die younger, suffer more injuries and stress-related disabilities than the average American ... [and] have high rates of alcoholism, divorce and suicide" (pp. 80-81). Hankins contended that stress inherent to criminal justice positions exceeds that of most other occupational groups. Corruption has been identified as a reaction to stress (Winter, 1993).In 1973, Haney, Banks, and Zimbardo (1973/1981), psychologists at Stanford University, conducted an experiment wherein “normal” college students were randomly selected as either guards or prisoners for a prison simulation. The planned 2-week experiment was terminated after less than half that time due to unexpectedly high levels of stress, and even distress in some cases, on the part of prisoners.Interactions between guards and prisoners were typically hostile and negative, with guards displaying increasing levels of aggression and authoritarianism. Haney et al. (cited in Maxfield & Babbie, 1998) concluded that their "results are ... congruent with Milgram who most convincingly demonstrated the proposition that evil acts are not necessarily the deeds of evil men, but may be attributable to the operation of powerful social forces" (p. 191). "Moreover, since both prisoners and guards are locked into a dynamic, symbiotic relationship which is destructive to their human nature, guards are also society's prisoners" (Haney et al., 1973/1981, p. 68).The reference to Milgram above concerns an experiment wherein subjects were directed to administer what were in fact simulated electrical shocks to an experimenter's confederate. The device manipulated by the subject was marked to purportedly indicate severity of the shock up to “severe,” while no shock was actually administered.The level of shock the subject was willing to give upon command of the experimenter was the primary dependent variable. Unexpected findings included "the sheer strength of obedient tendencies manifested" and "the extraordinary tension and emotional strain" on the subjects when they complied with orders to inflict high shock levels (Milgram, 1963/1981, pp. 33-34).This reference to stress induced by inflicting punishment is significant to the researcher, and is a stressor not specifically listed as applicable to police in relevant literature. "As former Chief Justice Earl Warren has said, the policeman is more powerful than the President. Only the policeman has the power to deprive an American of his liberty" (Sherman, 1974c, p. vii).Shooting, even shooting at, someone in the line of duty can readily be identified as a traumatic event. Arresting a father and mother while restraining their grieving 4 year-old, particularly when the crime involved is mala prohibida versus mala in se (prohibited by law versus a crime such as murder that is bad in and of itself), can also be an enduringly stressful event, as the researcher can personally attest.This is stress of punishment infliction as opposed to stress from the potential of personal injury at the hands of an arrestee. It would seem easily verifiable that most arrests are for transgressions of the former (mala prohibida). For more than one reason, an arrest—even if one does not fear for one’s own safety—can be stressful.Moreover, “ever-present danger lies in taking an action that is judged improper” (Waddington, 1999, p. 14). A judgment made in haste will be reviewed at leisure though official channels, as well as by a society as a whole.Brown and Campbell (1994) reported that it is “well documented that high levels of stress among employees, whether induced at work or by personal problems, can reduce productivity” (p. 1). Selye (cited in Winter, 1993), a stress research pioneer, stated that law enforcement is "one of the most hazardous professions, even exceeding the formidable stresses and strains of air traffic control" (p. 253). However, Brown and Campbell relate that empirical support for this position is not consistent.Winter (1993) defined stress as "the awareness of potential threat, or in other words [in the context of police corruption], awareness of the potential for a comprehensive change in one's core structures," such as experienced by a newly hired police officer (p. 254). Brown and Campbell (1994) offered three definitions of stress. The first was a model wherein an external factor causes “some degree of physical or psychological discomfort” (pp. 14-15).The second was a process that relies upon Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome. This included:·The initial alarm reaction. The “fight or flight” response [from exposure to a threat] ... which ... includes physiological changes preparing the body for “fight or flight.”·The stage of resistance. The period during which the person adapts to external stressors and symptoms of stress improve or disappear.·The stage of exhaustion. [I]f the stressor is sufficiently severe or prolonged ... symptoms reappear and the end result is death. (Brown & Campbell, 1994, p. 15) …“The accumulation of evidence ... does indicate that stress levels within the police do play a significant role in absenteeism and wastage through early retirement” (p. 10), and “some research has indeed shown that the police tend to exhibit higher rates of stress-related disease, higher suicide rates and higher divorce rates” (p. 13).United States and British police “listed poor and insensitive supervision, unreasonable workload, shift work, personal safety and volume of paperwork as the most significant sources of stress at work” (Brown & Campbell, 1994, p. 14). However, “police work” being somewhat non-specific, it must be noted that “[r]ank, role, gender, ethnicity and sexual orientation result in some distinctive patterns of stress experiences” (p. 167).For Winter (1993), police stress lies in problems encountered with administrative procedures and legal proceedings that lead torole ambiguity and role conflict (e.g., between the roles of community servant, as exemplified in the stereotype of the general British Bobby, and crime fighter and between the requirement to enforce the law and the procedural constraints imposed on the officer by that same law). (Winter, 1993, p. 254)Kirkcaldy (1993) conducted a study of police stress involving 42 officers from several countries attending a stress. The police officers studied showed a higher level of internal control than the general population, and they "were more likely to be stressed in terms of organizational structure and climate ..., home and work interface ..., and relationships with other people" when compared to the general British population (p. 386). Though not stated in the article, it may be fair to assume that these were not run-of-the-mill patrol officers on this junket to Germany. Whether or not the sample population is representative of the population of street-level officers could be questioned.Violanti and Aron (1993) found that police organizational stressors (court decisions, regulations, nonparticipation in job decisions, disagreeable duties, discipline matters, etc.) were 6.3 times more likely to cause distress than was "police work." This study was conducted in a large New York department and consisted of 103 respondents who submitted a self-report survey.Similarly, Kirkcaldy, Cooper, and Ruffalo (1995) conducted a study of 49 officers in one Illinois town (the size of the department is unknown), and determined that these officers found "factors intrinsic to the job" to be lesser stress producers than "organizational structure and climate" (p. 700). Kirkcaldy et al. observed positive correlation between both psychological and physical illness and stress. In addition, they observed a significant negative correlation between perceived stress and job satisfaction. They recommended providing counseling and coping strategies to enhance self-control.Carona (1998) conducted a study having as its hypothesis the expectation that police departments having high-quality stress-relief programs would have fewer losses to sick leave, fewer resignations, fewer vehicle accidents, and fewer sustained excessive force complaints. Carona discovered no significant correlations in this research. However, it was determined that departments with longer running stress programs had "fewer sustained excessive force complaints" (p. 27).One possibly confounding variable that was apparently not addressed by these studies of stress in police (Kirkcaldy, 1993; Kirkcaldy et al., 1995; Violanti & Aron, 1993) could be the traditional stoicism expected of authority figures, and how this could be affected by self-reporting of police officers through under reporting perceptions of stress caused by intrinsic factors.As stated by Brown and Grover (1998), "Police officers are taught to respond personably rather than personally to their operational duties, to project strength and authority, to deal with events without displaying emotion and put the requirements of the work before their own emotional needs" (p. 181). This phenomenon has also been described as the “cult of masculinity” (Waddington, 1999, p. 11).Brown and Grover (1998) studied police officers and the role moderating factors have on coping and distress when stressors are present. One finding was that those exposed to both high and low levels of stress show the greatest levels of psychological distress when they lack social support, have high negative attitudes concerning emotional expression, and low just world beliefs. Those with low just world beliefs "perceive the threats as being in excess of their capacity to cope," making them unable to assimilate and integrate stressful experiences (p. 181). Also assumed in the definition of low just world beliefs was a feeling of low control on the part of the officer.A Gallup survey of randomly selected workers indicated that "the most common cause of workplace anger ... [is] the actions of supervisors or managers" (Wuensche, 1999, p. 1D). The next most anger-producing circumstances were, respectively, "irritating co-workers" and "dealing with the public" (p. 1D). Donald Gibson (cited in Wuensche, 1999), a Yale University School of Management professor, stated, "In an environment where you think people are satisfied with their jobs, there is a sort of undercurrent of anger and resentment aimed at the workplace that could potentially lead to the kinds of explosions or rage we have seen" (p. 1D). The rage Gibson refers to was that found in "normal" jobs, as opposed to police work.PrejudiceResearch on prejudice disclosed that those who perceive that they have been subjected to prejudice "reported more aggression, sadness, anxiety, and egotism" than those not perceiving such prejudice (Dion & Earn, 1975/1981, p. 281). Winter (1993) reported what appears to be an analogous perception of prejudice when he related that "there is evidence that police officers perceive the public and the press as construing them more negatively than is in fact the case," citing five studies (p. 254). The GAO (1998) also reported that “officers’ dissatisfaction with how they were viewed and treated by the people of the community” has been cited as a factor contributing to corruption (p. 9).The 1968 Kerner Commission examination of the New York police indicated that minorities perceived the police to "symbolize white power, white racism and white repression" (cited in Human Rights Watch, 1998, p. 40). The Christopher Commission surveyed a sample of Los Angeles police officers and found that about 25% of them believed that racial prejudice toward minorities exists and negatively impacts police community relations (Independent Commission, 1991/1995).In 1992, the St. Clair Commission examined excessive force complaints against the Boston Police Department and found that "50 percent of complainants in the sample group were African-American, while 26 percent of Boston's population was African-American" (Human Rights Watch, 1998, p. 41). Worden (1996) related that “empirical evidence confirms that minorities are in fact, overrepresented among the human targets at which police shoot …, but it also indicates that minorities are overrepresented among those whose actions precipitate the use of deadly force by police” (p. 25).The results of a reciprocal negative interchange between police who perceive prejudice from minorities and minorities who perceive prejudice from police, each feeding the negative spiral of the other, should not be overlooked in the search for corruption causes.The Mollen Commission reported in 1993 that the "us versus them" police attitude was particularly strong in minority neighborhoods and contributed to a divisiveness that "makes many police officers feel isolated from, and often hostile toward, the community they are meant to serve" (Commission to Investigate Allegations of Police Corruption, 1993/1995, p. 33). The Mollen Commission further reported that the us versus them attitude was "present wherever we found corruption" (p. 33).The GAO (1998) determined that a “commonly identified factor associated with drug-related corruption was a police culture that was characterized by a code of silence, unquestioned loyalty to other officers, and cynicism about the criminal justice system” (p. 4). These characteristics reportedly promote corruption while impeding its detection and control.Paradoxically, the structures of occupation that Durkheim predicted would function to strengthen them as autonomous, professional associations working for the common good (helping to clarify and maintain the value system of the broader society) are often "turned inward." That is, in criminal justice agencies (for several historic, political, economic, and social reasons) professional particularity, the cult of the individual, and extreme social solidarity reflected in a quasi-unification of all authority levels generates the unanticipated consequences of a high degree of corruption and graft in all components of the criminal justice system in virtually every region of the United States. (Henderson & Simon, 1994, p. 102)One aspect of neutralization theory, consistent with the us versus them characteristic, states that "subgroups take on a culture of their own that has been termed 'groupthink'" (Henderson & Simon, 1994, p. 30). One groupthink outcome is that prerationalized criminal acts are agreed upon before their commission. "Those objecting to the proposed ‘policies’ are often criticized by other group members, and, if they persist in their criticism, are threatened with ostracism from the group or firing" (p. 30).Reference:Robb, D. L. (2002). An investigation of self-control and its relationship to ethical attitudes in criminal justice personnel. Dissertation Abstracts International, 62 (12), 4343. (UMI No. 3036984)

Some positive insights on the process and completion of a Master's thesis. I will discuss the writing and presentation of a Master's thesis on a topic in humanities and social sciences research rather than in STEM research of which I am not familiar.Value Insight in Thesis writing - A valuable insight which my thesis’ supervisor/adviser gave me in writing for a Master’s and PhD thesis, was to assume the role of a writer who desires the reader/s to read and enjoy the thesis from page one to the end page. Although thesis is written in a formal style, it should, I believe, be written and presented in a way that attracts and grabs readers’ interests and motivates them to read on, as suggested here below.Telling a Story - Some key messages here are that: you are writing to tell a story (your story) about: what your research on the topic is, why do you do the research, how do you do it, and what the significance of your research is -in other words, how does your study benefit others — informing business of best practices in your researched area, contributing to extant literature - informing other researchers/interested parties what you have found and what still need to be found, in your area. Of course, your main goal ultimately is to write the thesis in such a way that it will impress your thesis’ examiners. Note that you tell a story but it should be written in a formal style.‘Process’ for Honors - In a one-year honors course (length of thesis: 25–30 thousand words), commonly offered by universities in Commonwealth countries, e.g., Australia, New Zealand, the key emphasis is how well the candidate understands the ‘Process’ of research. Basically, the researcher is ‘learning the rope of doing research’ on a topic. The examiner will assess on: how well a researcher can write the: Research problem statement, the research questions, such that the study is doable and manageable; the review of related-literature to find a small gap in literature where a study is still needed, the correct methodology adopted; and the presentation and discussion of the findings.‘Depth’ for Masters - The next level of a research course is Masters (Thesis: approximately 50–60 thousand words). For a Master’s thesis, the examiners will assess if the candidate understands the ‘research process well’ (pertinent in the Honors course as mentioned above). They will also be looking for a degree ‘depths’ in the research process, literature review, methodology used and justifications of it adoption, and some depths in the treatment of issues found and presented for the topic. Thus, three or four sentences on important points may not be insufficient. A fuller discussion is necessary - clearly, careful judgement on your part is required on how much is necessary. The next level of a research course is a PhD, which the examiners assess not only the process and depth dimensions but also the ‘Originality’ dimension of the study.Here are some positive insights on process and completion of a Master’s thesis.1]. General - Adopt a positive emotional attitude that you can and will see the thesis- writing through to a fruitful end. In other words, be determined and don’t give up. I can assure you, with this determination, you will get there! [The reward - a MASTER’s qualification]. If this is of any consolation to you, when you have reached the writing stage, it is considered to be the slightly easier stage, as you have already done the hard-yard in the earlier research stages, such as: Coming up with and the development of a doable research proposal, engaging in laborious task of reviewing related-literature (which are expected in humanities and Social Science research), to identify the gap for the research. You would have chosen/developed a justifiable and usable research methodology/procedure/questionnaire, to collect the data from a defined sample. You would have done the demanding and time-consuming data collection’s task, as well as the task of analysis of the data to discover the findings. As such, the writing-stage is really the end-stage in the writing-up and the presentation of what you have found. A positive emotional attitude at this stage will certainly see you through to a successful end.2]. The Writing and Presentation - As noted earlier, you are now trying to write and present your work to tell a story of what you have discovered through your research on the topic concerned.(a). Do that with a positive mind-set and try to enjoy it! Your aim here is the writing in such as way with an aim to write to GRAB the interests of your readers. [The chief readers are of course your examiners, so write and present your thesis in such a way so as to impress them].(b). It is imperative that you attempt to write your thesis in good English (Formal English writing styles - not spoken style.(c). Avoid using personal pronoun - use terms to indicate yourself as the ‘present writer’, ‘the present author’ or the researcher.(d). Observe the English writing’s rules - Grammars (write what you have done in the research in Past tenses or Past-participle), spellings, syntax, punctuation and the like.(e). In the opening section of a given chapter, briefly inform your reader/s what you have presented in the last chapter and outline what you will present in current chapter. Also provide a summary to the chapter and flag ahead what you will present in the next chapter. In this way you are guiding your reader/s what you have done, what you are going to do and what was done and what will be done in the chapter to come.(f). Write succinctly, and in shorter sentences - I suggest, in 20–25 words maximum in a given statement/sentence.(g). Present your writing in section and sub-sections - with proper numbering system and headings - Check information regarding the presentation of work in your thesis.(h). Always Edit and RE-Edit your work to ensure it is written SUCCINCTLY. Ask someone to edit your work too before submitting it for examination.(i). Ensure, all necessary literature references are acknowledged with in-text references and also in the reference list - so AVOID PLAGIARISM! If you need to quote another author verbatim, do so in an accepted protocol - use double inverted commas (“ and”).(j). Present in-text diagrams or graphics, or tables correctly. Use informative headings, and reference the source too for these visual presentations. See information requirements from your faculty for these.(k). Check to ensure your research problem statement has been clearly stated and be understood by any researcher. This means that a researcher can carry out the research by following your proposal. Ensure your research questions (research objectives) are clearly stated and doable.(l). Ensure the methodology adopted is suitable for your type of research and is justifiable with theoretical underpinning and literature support. It has been used successfully in past research of similarly type to yours.(m). Ensure you have used an inverted pyramid structure for your review of related-literature to identify the gap for your research. Clearly state the significance of your research.(n). In the discussion of findings, ensure each finding is stated and discussed with literature support where appropriate. Do not just present the findings without any discussion. Recommend findings with managerial implications. Highlight the limitations of your research and recommend areas that need further research.3]. When to write - suggest write and present your thesis when you are freshest in your thinking process - this probably means you have rested, have a fresh mind, and can think clearly. Each individual may have what he/she considers a suitable time for this, so you need to judge your own requirements for this. Do not spend more than 30-40 mins writing at a given sitting. I have a rule, where I would get up for a walk or distract myself by leaving the work for 5 mins to get a drink or something to munch. I found that this helps rejuvenate my thinking and thought-process quickly. With a refreshed mind, ideas will flow again for me. You will need to find the opportune time to suit yourself in this area. Set yourself milestones with the writing/presentation task. When you have accomplished that milestone, reward yourself with a rest. Some days, your writing may not flow as well, but do not give up, continue to write although you may think you have written ‘rubbish’. However, I encourage you to never fret for you can review the written work to make amendment or correction where necessary later. The positive thing is that you have not stopped writing but have written something where only amendments may be necessary. There is a danger of Procrastination and you keep delaying your writing, so my advice is to WRITE as much as you can during your scheduled writing time. Psychologically, you will feel better when you have not procrastinated and have in fact written something/quite a fair bit to review and correct. This will then enable you to have a positive frame of mind and will help sustain you well with the thesis-writing tasks.4]. Back up work - Do not forget to back-up all written work so that the hard-earned written work is not lost. Send a copy to your adviser too for safe-keeping.5]. Efficient use of time - Some days you may have a mind that is hard at thinking suggesting, perhaps you may be tired/fatigue. Suggest, you can then use such time period effectively to check for any corrections that may need to be done, such as your Index list, Appendix list, Attachment list, Chapters’ section and sub-section-headings, In-text literature references or Reference list, or any presentation tasks that do not require hard-thinking. These tasks need to be attended to before final editing and completion of the thesis. If you have already tidy them along along the way, you will find it a lot easier and less stressful in the last few days/weeks before submission.6]. Printing of thesis - Depending on the requirements of your Faculty regarding the the printing and binding of your thesis. If these need to be done, contact a printer earlier to ensure these tasks can be done without delay.7]. Able to explain gist of your thesis - On completion, you must be able to explain in a nut-shell, what your research on the selected is all about, and what is the significance of your work.Hope this helps and best wishes. Think positively, complete the tasks with determination and you will be rewarded!