Clinical Laboratory Science 121: Fill & Download for Free

Based on my knowledge of current biomedical research enterprise, the picture is not one of cooperation and collaboration so much as of co-option. Today Medicine and Veterinary science are deeply intertwined, and have been since at least the 1950s. In fact, Medical + Veterinary fields = Modern biomedical research. OTOH, pragmatism has led to Botany + Medicine = Transgenic plants for new generation of edible biopharmaceuticals and vaccines for humans.Over the last 60 years biomedical research animal use has expanded greatly, use that's codified and regulated by a vast bureaucracy within which veterinarians are essential, albeit co-opted, gatekeepers. Why co-opted gatekeepers ? It's not they but scientists who control the biomedical research agenda. Though gatekeepers mandated by federal regulations, over the decades veterinarians have become consigned to the role of rubber-stampers. Today, biomedical scientists and veterinarians have to work together. Consider for example toxicology, the science of adverse effects of chemicals on living things. All these new chemicals we've been using since the last century. How could we surmise if they are safe for us, other animals and the environment? Before unleashing them on ourselves, we tested them on lab animals for developmental and reproductive toxicity, how else? Rodents as well as non-rodents.What's the process for using animals in research? First, let's outline why we use animals in research. Second, a brief summary of the numbers. Third, processes behind the numbers. Fourth, history, and fifth and finally, limitations and conflicts of interest of this vast bureaucracy that illustrate how veterinary science has been co-opted to service modern biomedical research.I. Why do we use animals in research?By gradual societal consensus over the course of the 20th century, we can no longer directly experiment on ourselves. We need to first test on 'lower' animals.To understand basic biology. e.g. mouse, rat, zebra fish, nematode (Caenorhabditis), fruit fly (Drosophila).To develop animal models of human disease. e.g. mouse, rat, zebra fish.To develop drugs and vaccines for human and animal use. e.g. mouse, ferret, rat.To develop novel surgical procedures. e.g. pig, sheep.To develop and test new medical devices. e.g. pig, sheep.To culture pathogenic microorganisms that can't be cultured in vitro. e.g. nine-banded armadillo for Mycobacterium leprae.To assess toxicity of drugs, vaccines, chemicals and other consumer products. e.g. mouse, rat.In education and training. e.g. in schools, colleges, medical and veterinary schools.II. Research animal use by the numbers.Of 103 Nobel prizes in Physiology or Medicine, 83 involved non-human vertebrate animal research (1).No accurate numbers, only extremely rough estimates. Likely huge under-estimate.Data incomplete. Excludes animals used for breeding, surplus animals that are culled, multi-year use of same animal used in long-term experiments such as carcinogenicity or two-generation reproductive toxicity.US is far and away largest user of research animals. Next Japan and Great Britain.Official US numbers are extremely unreliable since they exclude mouse, rat, fish, reptile, amphibians. In short, most animals used in research and toxicity testing!In the US, >90% of research animals are mice and rats.In the EU, ~80% are rodents, ~10% are fish, amphibians and reptiles, and ~6% are birds (2).EU's ultimate goal is full replacement of animal experiments (3).The Humane Society of the US (HSUS) hopes for full replacement by 2050 (4).With all the above caveats, Taylor et al (5, see below) conservatively estimate (very loosely) more than 115 million research animals among 179 countries for the year 2005.From 5III. Research animal use processI'm most familiar with the US process so I'll elaborate on that.USDA-APHISThe mission of USDA (US Department of Agriculture), in particular USDA-Aphis (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service) is 'To ensure that animals intended for use in research facilities or for exhibition purposes or for use as pets are provided humane care and treatment'.However, USDA monitors less than 10% of federally-funded research animal use, namely pigs, rabbits, guinea pigs, hamsters, goats, sheep, cattle, horses, dogs and cats.Public Health Service PolicyOversees all research animal use, especially rodents (mice and rats), which comprise >90%.Entities that receive federal funding for animal research commit to follow the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (The Guide).Such entities need to submit an Assurance statement to the Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW).What's the Guide?A 220-page booklet (6).Defines an animal as 'any vertebrate animal used in research, teaching or testing'.Outlines research animal housing requirements, facility operations and veterinary care.Outlines the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) setup and procedure.The IACUC (Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee) processAuthorized by federal law under auspices of USDA and OLAW to oversee research animal use, procedures and facilities.Reviews all research animal use protocols.Research with animals can only proceed with IACUC approval.Inspects research animal facilities at least annually if not more frequently.Should at minimum comprise a veterinarian, scientist and community member (non-scientist).At least one member should be outsider, i.e. not employed/affiliated with the entity.Animal use protocols reviewed annually.Protocol updates and revisions also require IACUC approval.AAALAC(Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care, International).AAALAC International, Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International, animal research, accreditation, AAALAC, laboratory animals, animal welfare, biomedical research, animals in science, animal care and useFull accreditation by AAALAC is the goal of every US research animal facility.Why? AAALAC Accreditation is the perceived gold standard for research animal use.So what is AAALAC? A non-profit organization that peer reviews research animal care and use programs.At each accredited site, AAALAC teams perform site inspection and program evaluation every 3 years.IV. Research animal use historyDiscoveries and techniques that enabled increasing research animal useDomesticated rat, Rattus norvegicus, has been used since at least 1828. Half of lab rats used today descend from the Wistar rat, the first standard rat strain developed in 1909 (7, 8).Domesticated mouse, Mus musculus, was famously used by Gregor Mendel in his heredity studies of coat color, only switching to peas when admonished by his local bishop that mouse rearing was inappropriate for a priest (9).Lucien Cuénot pioneered the use of mouse in study of Mendelian genetics.In early 20th century, mouse fanciers like Abbie Lathrop (10) made inbred mouse strains easily available to scientists.Inbred mouse strains proved valuable genetic tools especially in the discovery of histocompatibility genes (Major histocompatibility complex) for which George Davis Snell, Baruj Benacerraf and Jean Dausset were awarded the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.In 1980 John Gordon and Franck Ruddle developed the first transgenic mouse (11).In 2002, the mouse became the second mammal, after humans, to have its whole genome sequenced.Mario R. Capecchi (born 1937), Martin J. Evans (born 1941), and Oliver Smithies (born 1925) developed the first gene knockout mouse model in 1988, and received the 2007 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine (The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2007).5, 6, 7, 8 plus new technologies exponentially accelerated mouse model gene function studies. Today mouse is the most commonly used animal model (12, 13).How did our current structure of research animal use come to be?In the UK, the Universities Federation for Animal Welfare first published its Handbook on the Care and Management of Laboratory Animals in 1954.The organization’s founder Charles Hume commissioned zoologist and polymath William Russell (1925–2006) and microbiologist Rex Burch (1926–1996) to develop a guide for humane techniques in animal experimentation (14, 15, 16).Russell and Burch developed the tenet of the “Three Rs”—Replacement, Reduction, Refinement (17). They proposed that 'humane science' is the 'best science'.”Replacement: 'any scientific method employing non-sentient material [to] replace methods which use conscious living vertebrates'.Reduction: 'the number of animals used to obtain information of a given amount and precision.Refinement: 'decrease in the incidence or severity of [...] procedures applied to those animals which have to be used'.Russell and Birch also proposed that well-being of laboratory animals is a basic requirement for the quality of science (14).Russell and Burch’s proposal was largely ignored until 1978 when physiologist David Henry Smyth (1908–1979) aligned the 3R concept with the notion of alternatives (18) defined as 'all procedures which can completely replace the need for animal experiments, reduce the numbers of animals required, or diminish the amount of pain or distress suffered by animals in meeting the essential needs of man and other animals' (19).Since Smyth's revision, research animal users have to justify their research animal use with compelling evidence (20).Today, the 3Rs provide the framework for research animal use.Philosophically, research animal use hews to Peter Singer's patriarchal Welfarist/Utilitarian rather than Tom Regan's Abolitionist stance. Thus, while we grant research animals tenuous protection from suffering, we use them as means to our end because we consider our well-being more important than theirs.Unfortunately for animals, the current bureaucratic structure of modern scientific enterprise took shape prior to our improved understanding of cognitive and emotional capabilities of animals (21) while human society itself has undergone a profound shift towards animals from utilitarian expedient to almost or indeed sentient (22).V. Research animal use limitations and conflicts of interestAre research animals effective and predictive for human disease outcomes? A slow and steady drip-drip-drip of evidence now makes us seriously question this (23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32). The >90% failure rate of new drugs during the development process from pre-clinical (mouse) to human shows the current chain of human drug development from mouse to non-human primates to humans is seriously flawed.Inertia and apathy attendant to bureaucracy means we continue to use outmoded tests that cause research animals unrelieved pain and distress which we can only explain away disingenuously. Case in point? Rabies vaccine. Each and every batch of every vaccine has to be tested for its effectiveness and safety before it can be released for use. This is the potency test. For rabies vaccine, we continue to use a 60-year old animal potency test called the NIH test. Flawed at many levels: highly variable (up to 400%!); infected animals suffer severe pain and distress; safety risk to lab staff; lengthier than newer alternatives. There are at least two newer alternatives that greatly minimize animal pain and distress and are much more reliable. Yet the NIH test for rabies vaccine potency remains the required regulatory gold standard (33). Why?a) The current generation of regulators was trained 20 to 30 years back when the motto was 'in vivo veritas' (truth in living things). This mindset engenders discomfort with alternatives to animal models.b) a 3R model is not merely a technology change but also change in regulations, infrastructure and end-user practices.c) The 'validation challenge', i.e. the regulatory mindset that the newer 3R model be compared to conventional animal model. In most cases, the two are incomparable.d) Not science-driven. Rather fear of litigation drives risk avoidance behavior among regulators. Result? When in doubt fall back on custom and practice.Botany + Medicine = Transgenic plants for new generation of edible biopharmaceuticals and vaccines. What's the process?See figure 1 in reference 34.On May 1, 2012, the US FDA approved carrot-cell produced glucocerebrosidase (GCD), commercially called ELEYSOTMfor treating Gaucher's disease (35).From 36BibliographyFranco, Nuno Henrique. "Animal experiments in biomedical research: a historical perspective." Animals 3.1 (2013): 238-273. Animal Experiments in Biomedical Research: A Historical PerspectivePage on eur-lex.europa.euLouhimies, S. Eu Directive 2010/63/EU: “Implementing the three Rs through policy”. ALTEX Proc. 2012, 1, 27–33.Stephens, M.L. Pursuing Medawar’s challenge for full replacement. ALTEX Proc. 2012, 1, 23–26.Taylor, Katy, et al. "Estimates for worldwide laboratory animal use in 2005." (2008). Page on animalstudiesrepository.orgPage on nih.govLindsey, J.R.; Baker, H.J. Historical foundations. In The Laboratory Rat. Suckow, M.A., Weisbroth, S.H., Franklin, C.L., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2006. The Laboratory RatHedrich, H.J. The history and development of the rat as a laboratory animal model. In The Laboratory Rat; Krinke, G., Ed.; Academic: Waltham, MA, USA, 2000; pp. 3–16. The Laboratory RatThe Monk in the GardenPage on nih.govGordon, Jon W., and Frank H. Ruddle. "Integration and stable germ line transmission of genes injected into mouse pronuclei." Science 214.4526 (1981): 1244-1246.Morse, H.C. Building a better mouse: One hundred years of genetics and biology. In The Mouse in Biomedical Research: History, Wild Mice, and Genetics; Fox, J.G., Ed.; Academic Press: Waltham, MA, USA, 2007. The Mouse in Biomedical ResearchDavisson, M.T.; Linder, C.C. History of mouse genetics and research with the laboratory mouse. In The Laboratory Mouse; Hedrich, H.J.; Bullock, G.R., Eds.; Elsevier Academic Press: Oxford, UK, 2004; pp. 16–20. The Laboratory MouseRussell, W.M. The three Rs: Past, present and future. Anim. Welf. 2005, 14, 279–286.Balls, M. Professor W.M.S. Russell (1925–2006): Doyen of the three Rs. In Proceedings of the 6th World Congress on Alternatives & Animal Use in the Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan, 21–25 August 2007; pp. 1–7.Stephens, M.L.; Goldberg, A.M.; Rowan, A.N. The first forty years of the alternatives approach: Refining, reducing, and replacing the use of laboratory animals. In The State of the Animals: 2001; Salem, D.J., Rowan, A.N., Eds.; Humane Society Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2001; pp. 121–135.Russell, W.M.S.; Burch, R.L. The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique; Methuen & Co. Ltd.: London, UK, 1959.Nuffield Council on Bioethics. The context of animal research: Past and present. In The Ethics of Research Involving Animals; Nuffield Council on Bioethics: London, UK, 2005; Balls, M. Alternatives to animal experiments: Serving in the middle ground. AATEX 2005, 11, 4–14.Smyth, D.H. Alternatives to Animal Experiments; Scolar Press [for] the Research Defence Society: London, UK,1978.Balls, M. Alternatives to animal experiments: Serving in the middle ground. AATEX 2005, 11, 4–14.Ibrahim DM (2006) Reduce, refine, replace: the failure of the three R’s and the future of animal experimentation. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 2006; Arizona Legal Studies Discussion Paper No. 06-17.Rusche B (2003) The 3 Rs and animal welfare: conflict or way forward? ALTEX 20: 63–76.Hackam, Daniel G., and Donald A. Redelmeier. "Translation of research evidence from animals to humans." Jama 296.14 (2006): 1727-1732.Horrobin, David F. "Modern biomedical research: an internally self-consistent universe with little contact with medical reality?." Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 2.2 (2003): 151-154.Perel, Pablo, et al. "Comparison of treatment effects between animal experiments and clinical trials: systematic review." Bmj 334.7586 (2007): 197. Page on nih.govIoannidis, John PA. "Evolution and translation of research findings: from bench to where." PLoS clinical trials 1.7 (2006): e36. Evolution and Translation of Research Findings: From Bench to WherePound, Pandora, et al. "Where is the evidence that animal research benefits humans?." Bmj 328.7438 (2004): 514-517. Page on nih.govMacleod, M. "What can systematic review and meta-analysis tell us about the experimental data supporting stroke drug development." Int J Neuroprot Neuroregener 1 (2005): 201.Garber, Ken. "Realistic rodents? Debate grows over new mouse models of cancer." Journal of the National Cancer Institute 98.17 (2006): 1176-1178. Realistic Rodents? Debate Grows Over New Mouse Models of CancerMatthews, Robert AJ. "Medical progress depends on animal models-doesn't it?." Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 101.2 (2008): 95-98. Medical progress depends on animal models - doesn't it?Grass, George M., and Patrick J. Sinko. "Effect of diverse datasets on the predictive capability of ADME models in drug discovery." Drug discovery today 6 (2001): 54-61.Shanks, Niall, Ray Greek, and Jean Greek. "Are animal models predictive for humans?." Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine 4.1 (2009): 2. Page on peh-med.comSchiffelers, Marie-Jeanne WA, et al. "Regulatory acceptance and use of 3R models: a multilevel perspective." ALTEX-Alternatives to Animal Experimentation 29.3 (2012): 287. Page on jhsph.eduDaniell, Henry, et al. "Plant-made vaccine antigens and biopharmaceuticals." Trends in plant science 14.12 (2009): 669-679. Plant-made vaccine antigens and biopharmaceuticalsFDA. FDA approves new orphan drug to treat a form of Gaucher disease. FDA approves new orphan drug to treat a form of Gaucher diseaseChen, Qiang, and Huafang Lai. "Plant-derived virus-like particles as vaccines." Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics 9.1 (2013): 26-49. Plant-derived virus-like particles as vaccinesThanks for the A2A, Luiz Felipe. Maybe not the optimism you sought but better to know what we have so we understand clearly why it needs to change.

This list could help. Note that for each course below, there is a fee for Ugandan Students and that for International students.If this doesn’t answer your question, you can reach the university registrar at, [email protected] University Postgraduate Fees Structure 2017 / 2018COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES1PGD Environmental Impact AssessmentShs.3,800,000/=Shs.6,700,000/=2PGD MeteorologyShs.3,800,000/=Shs.6,700,000/=3PGD Environmental Information ManagementShs.3,800,000/=Shs.6,700,000/=4MSc. in Agricultural Extension & EducationShs.4,020,000/=Shs.7,272,000/=5MSc. in Crop ScienceShs.4,020,000/=Shs.7,272,000/=6MSc. in Animal ScienceShs.4,020,000/=Shs.7,272,000/=7MSc. in Agricultural EngineeringShs.4,020,000/=Shs.7,272,000/=8MSc. in Soil ScienceShs.4,020,000/=Shs.7,272,000/=9MSc. in Agricultural EconomicsShs.4,020,000/=Shs.7,272,000/=10Master of Agribusiness ManagementShs.4,020,000/=Shs.7,272,000/=11MSc. in Integrated Watershed ManagementShs.4,020,000/=Shs.7,272,000/=12MSc. in Food Science & TechnologyShs.4,020,000/=Shs.7,272,000/=13MSc. in Agricultural & Applied EconomicsShs.4,020,000/=Shs.7,272,000/=14MSc. in Plant Breeding and Seed SystemsShs.4,020,000/=Shs.10,338,360/=15Msc. in Applied Human NutritionShs.4,020,000/=Shs.9,090,000/=16MSc. in Environment & Natural ResourcesShs.3,637,500/=Shs.6,464,000/=17MSc. in AgroforestryShs.3,607,000/=Shs.7,272,000/=18MSc. in ForestryShs.3,607,500/=Shs.7,272,000/=19M.A. in GeographyShs.2,400,000/=Shs.4,242,000/=20M.A. in Land Use and Regional DevelopmentShs.2,400,000/=Shs.4,242,000/=Makerere University Postgraduate Fees Structure 2017 / 2018COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES21PGD in Gender and Local EconomicShs.3,000,000/=Shs.4,420,000/=Development22PGD (Guidance and Counselling)Shs.3,000,000/=Shs.4,420,000/=23M.A. in Human RightsShs.2,400,000/=Shs.4,242,000/=24M.A.in PhilosophyShs.2,400,000/=Shs.4,242,000/=25M.A. in Journalism and CommunicationShs.2,400,000/=Shs.4,242,000/=26M.A. in HistoryShs.2,400,000/=Shs.4,242,000/=27M.A. in MusicShs.2,400,000/=Shs.4,242,000/=28M.A.in LiteratureShs.2,400,000/=Shs.4,242,000/=29M.A. in Religious StudiesShs.2,400,000/=Shs.5,605,500/=30M.A. in Peace and Conflict StudiesShs.2,400,000/=Shs.4,242,000/=31M.A. in Religious and Theological StudiesShs.2,400,000/=Shs.4,242,000/=(Ggaba & Kinyamasika)32M.A. in LinguisticsShs.2,400,000/=Shs.4,242,000/=33M.A. in Gender StudiesShs.3,150,000/=Shs.6,060,000/=34M.A. in Public Administration & ManagementShs.3,150,000/=Shs.8,484,000/=35M.A in Social Sector Planning & ManagementShs.3,150,000/=Shs.6,060,000/=36M.A. in SociologyShs.3,150,000/=Shs.6,060,000/=37M.A. in International Relations& DiplomaticShs.3,150,000/=Shs.6,060,000/=Studies38M.A. in Rural DevelopmentShs.4,500,000/=Shs.9,090,000/=39M.Ed. in Educational PsychologyShs.2,673,750/=Shs.6,060,000/=40Master of Organizational PsychologyShs.3,150,000/=Shs.6,060,000/=41M.A. in CounsellingShs.3,150,000/=Shs.6,060,000/=42MSc. in Clinical PsychologyShs.3,150,000/=Shs.6,060,000/=43Phil/PhD in Social StudiesShs.8,000,000/=Shs.16,160,000/=Makerere University Postgraduate Fees Structure 2017 / 2018COLLEGE OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATION SCIENCES44PGD in Information TechnologyShs.3,825,000/=Shs.6,767,000/=45PGD in Computer ScienceShs.3,825,000/=Shs.6,767,000/=46PGD in Data Communication and SoftwareShs.3,825,000/=Shs.6,767,000/=Engineering47PGD in Information SystemsShs.3,825,000/=Shs.6,767,000/=48MSc. in Computer ScienceShs.3,825,000/=Shs.6,767,000/=49Master of Information TechnologyShs.3,825,000/=Shs.6,767,000/=50MSc. in Data Communication and SoftwareShs.3,825,000/=Shs.6,767,000/=Engineering51MSc. in Information SystemsShs.3,825,000/=Shs.6,767,000/=52MSc. in Information ScienceShs.2,587,500/=Shs.5,050,000/=Makerere University Postgraduate Fees Structure 2017 / 2018COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES53PGD in Demography (Evening)Shs.2,662,500/=Shs.6,060,000/=54PGD in Statistics(Evening)Shs.2,662,500/=Shs.6,060,000/=55M.A. in Economic Policy and Planning(Evening)Shs.3,075,000/=Shs.5,454,000/=56M.A. in Economic Policy Management (DayShs.3,750,000/=&Evening)Shs.9,090,000/=57M.A in Economics(Day)Shs.3,075,000/=Shs.5,454,000/=58Master of Business Administration (Evening)Shs.3,075,000/=Shs.5,454,000/=59M.A. in Gender Analysis in Economics (Day)Shs.3,075,000/=Shs.5,454,000/=60M.A. in Demography(Evening)Shs.2,662,500/=Shs.6,060,000/=61Master of Statistics(Evening)Shs.2,662,500/=Shs.6,060,000/=62M.A. in Population and Development (Evening)Shs.2,662,500/=Shs.6,060,000/=63MSc. in Population and ReproductiveShs.2,662,500/=Health(Evening)Shs.6,060,000/=64MSc. in Quantitative Economics (Evening)Shs.2,662,500/=Shs.6,060,000/=65MSc in Population Studies (Evening)Shs.2,662,500/=Shs.6,060,000/=66Master in Financial Services (Uganda Institute ofShs.3,075,000/=Shs.5,454,000/=Banking and Financial Services) (Evening)67Master in Public Infrastructure ManagementShs.3,500,000/=Shs.7,200,000/(Block week Modular)Makerere University Postgraduate Fees Structure 2017 / 2018COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND EXTERNAL STUDIES68PGD in EducationShs.1,700,000/=Shs.2,800,000 /=69PGD in Medical EducationShs.2,400,000/=70M.Ed. in Science EducationShs.2,673,750/=Shs.4,747,000/=71M.Ed. in Social Sciences & Arts EducationShs.2,673,750/=Shs.4,747,000/=72M.Ed. in Language & Literature EducationShs.2,673,750/=Shs.4,747,000/=73M.Ed. in Curriculum StudiesShs.2,673,750/=Shs.4,747,000/=74M.Ed. in Educational FoundationsShs.2,673,750/=Shs.4,747,000/=75M.A. in Educational Policy and PlanningShs.2,673,750/=Shs.4,747,000/=76Master of Arts in Educational ManagementShs.2,673,750/=Shs.4,747,000/=77Master of Adult and Community EducationShs.2,600,000/=Shs.4,500,000/=Makerere University Postgraduate Fees Structure 2017 / 2018SCHOOL OF LAW78Master of LawsShs.3,075,000/=Shs.6,060,000/=COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES79M. Med:Internal MedicineShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=80M.MedFamily MedicineShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=81M.MedMicrobiologyShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=82M.MedOphthalmologyShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=83M.MedPaediatrics and Child HealthShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=84M.MedPathologyShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=85M.MedPsychiatryShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=86M.MedRadiologyShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=87M.MedEar, Nose &ThroatShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=88M.MedSurgeryShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=89M.MedObstetrics & GynaecologyShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=90M.MedAnaesthesiaShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=91M.MedOrthopaedicsShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=92MSc. in Medical IllustrationShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=93MSc. in Human AnatomyShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=94MSc. in PharmacologyShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=95MSc. in PhysiologyShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=96MSc. in Clinical Epidemiology & BiostatisticsShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=97Master of Dentistry (Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery)Shs.5,000,000/=Shs.10,100,000/=98MSc. in Immunology and Clinical MicrobiologyShs.4,162,500/=Shs.10,100,000/=99MSc. in Pharmaceuticals and Health Supplies ManagementShs.5,000,000/=Shs.10,100,000/=100MSc. in PharmacognosyShs.5,000,000/=Shs.10,100,000/=101Master of Nursing (Midwifery and Women’s Health)Shs.4,162,500/=Shs. 5,312,600/=102Master of Public Health (Full Time)Shs.4,500,000/=Shs.10,100,000/=103Master of Public Health (Distance)Shs.3,000,000/=Shs.10,100,000/=104Master of Health Services ResearchShs.5,000,000/=Shs.10,100,000/=105Master of Public Health NutritionShs.4,500,000/=Shs.15,150,000/=106Master of Public Health Disaster ManagementShs.4,500,000/=Shs.15,150,000/=Makerere University Postgraduate Fees Structure 2017 / 2018COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES107MSc. in MathematicsShs.3,525,000/=Shs.6,262,000/=108MSc. in PhysicsShs.3,525,000/=Shs.6,262,000/=109MSc. in ChemistryShs.3,525,000/=Shs.6,262,000/=110MSc. in BotanyShs.3,525,000/=Shs.6,262,000/=111MSc. in ZoologyShs.3,525,000/=Shs.6,262,000/=112MSc. in GeologyShs.3,525,000/=Shs.6,262,000/=113MSc. in Mathematical ModellingShs.3,525,000/=Shs.6,262,000/=114M.Sc. in BiochemistryShs.5,000,000/=Shs.10,100,000/=115Master of Science in Petroleum GeosciencesShs.4,500,000/=Shs.7,500,000/=Makerere University Postgraduate Fees Structure 2017 / 2018COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART AND TECHNOLOGY116PGD in Construction Project Management(Eve)Shs. 3,787,500/=Shs.6,666,000/=117PGD in Urban Planning and Design(Eve)Shs.3,787,500/=Shs.6,666,000/=118MSc. in Mechanical Engineering (Day/Eve)Shs.3,787,500/=Shs.6,666,000/=119Master of Architecture (Day)Shs.3,787,500/=Shs.6,666,000/=120MSc. in Renewable Energy (Day)Shs.3,787,500/=Shs.6,666,000/=121MSc. in Technology Innovation and IndustrialShs.3,787,500/=Shs.6,666,000/=Technology(Day)122MSc. in Civil Engineering(Day/Eve)Shs.3,787,500/=Shs.6,666,000/=123MSc. in Urban Planning & Design(Day)Shs.3,787,500/=Shs.6,666,000/=124MSc. in Geo-Information Science and TechnologyShs.3,825,000/=Shs.6,120,600/=125MSc. in Power Systems EngineeringShs.5,700,000/=Shs.11,312,000/=126MSc. in Telecommunication EngineeringShs.5,700,000/=Shs.11,312,000/=127MSc. in Construction ManagementShs.3,787,500/=Shs.8,250,000/=128M.A. in Fine Art(Day)Shs.3,037,500/=Shs.6,060,000/=Makerere University Postgraduate Fees Structure 2017 / 2018COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, ANIMAL RESOURCES AND BIOSECURITY129PGD in Livestock Development Planning & ManagementShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=130Master of Vet. Medicine (Food Animal Health &Shs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=Production)(Day)131MSc. in Molecular Biology and Biotechnology(Evening)Shs.4,162,500/=Shs.10,100,000/=132MSc. in Veterinary Pathology(Day)Shs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=133Master of Veterinary Preventive Medicine (FieldShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=Epidemiology) (Day)134Master of Veterinary Preventive Medicine (Animal HealthShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=and Production Economics) (Day)135Master of Wildlife Health and Management (Day)Shs.4,162,500/=Shs.10,100,000/=136MSc. in Livestock Development Planning and ManagementShs.4,162,500/=Shs.7,332,600/=137Master of Biomedical Laboratory Sciences andShs.4,162,500/=Shs.10,100,000/=Management(Evening)138Master of Wildlife Tourism & RecreationShs.4,500,000/=Shs.10,000,000/=Management(Evening)139MSc. Natural Products Technology and Value ChainShs.4,500,000/=Shs.10,000,000/=Management140Msc. in Animal Product Processing, Entrepreneurship andShs.5,200,000/=Shs.12,000,000/=Safety(Day)141Under Construction International Infectious Diseases Management(Day)Shs.4,500,000/=Shs.10,000,000/=Makerere University Postgraduate Fees Structure 2017 / 2018MAKERERE UNIVERSITY BUSINESS SCHOOL142Doctor of Philosophy (By Research only)Shs.8,000,000/=Shs.8,000,000/=143Master of Business Administration (Evening)Shs.3,382,500/=USD2,427144MSc. in Accounting and FinanceShs.2,800,000/=USD1,780145MSc. in MarketingShs.2,590,000/=USD1,780146Master of Human Resource ManagementShs.2,520,000/=USD1,780147MSc. in Procurement & Supply Chain ManagementShs.3,000,000/=USD2,206148MSc. in Leadership and GovernanceShs.2,800,000/=USD1,780149MSc. in EntrepreneurshipShs.2,800,000/=USD1,780150M.A. in Economic Policy ManagementShs.2,875,000/=USD2,014151Master of International BusinessShs.2,875,000/=USD2,014152Master of Hospitality and Tourism ManagementShs.2,875,000/=USD2,014153Master of Business Administration (Modular)Shs.4,620,000/=USD2,887154MSc. in Banking & Investment ManagementShs.2,875,000/=USD2,014155Master of Business PsychologyShs.4,400,000/=USD4,256Makerere University Postgraduate Fees Structure 2017 / 2018DOCTORAL DEGREES BY COURSEWORKS AND DISSERTATIONS156Doctor of Philosophy in Health ScienceShs.10,000,000/=Shs.15,000,000/=157Doctor of Philosophy in Agricultural and Rural InnovationShs.6,089,000/=Shs.12,705,800/=158PhD in Information ScienceShs.5,000,000/=Shs.8,080,000/=159PhD in Plant Breeding and BiotechnologyShs.5,000,000/=Shs.10,338,360/=160PhD in Educational ManagementShs.5,060,000Shs.8,282,000/=DURATION OF PROGRAMMESPostgraduate Diplomas Masters degrees (full time) Masters degrees (part time) Masters of MedicineMaster of Public Health (Day) Master of Public Health (Distance) PhD (Provisional Admission) PhD/MD/LLD (full time) PhD/MD/LLD (part time)-One academic year-Two academic years-Three – four academic years-Three academic years-Three academic years-Three to five academic years-One academic year Maximum-Three academic years-Five academic years.

Best Paying Jobs in Guyana 2020Job TitleAverage Monthly Salary1. Invasive Cardiologist1,090,000 GYD2. Urologist941,000 GYD3. Clinical Psychologist867,000 GYD4. Physician - Internal Medicine832,000 GYD5. Physician - Radiation Therapy817,000 GYD6. Physician - Neurology799,000 GYD7. Physician - Gastroenterology758,000 GYD8. Physician - Hematology / Oncology719,000 GYD9. Physician - Rheumatology699,000 GYD10. Obstetrician685,000 GYD11. Physician - Nuclear Medicine673,000 GYD12. Psychololgist655,000 GYD13. Exercise Physiologist645,000 GYD14. Orthoptist619,000 GYD15. Physician - Hospitalist612,000 GYD16. Executive Director596,000 GYD17. Physician - Emergency Room581,000 GYD18. Ophthalmologist557,000 GYD19. Surgical Assistant548,000 GYD20. Franchise Manager530,000 GYD21. Director of Finance522,000 GYD22. Financial Manager513,000 GYD23. Prosthetist509,000 GYD24. Physical Therapy Director502,000 GYD25. International Banking Manager488,000 GYD26. Rehabilitation Director478,000 GYD27. 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Engineering Lecturer385,000 GYD82. Purchasing and Product Development Director384,000 GYD83. Head of Projects383,000 GYD84. Vice President of Finance382,000 GYD85. Business Manager381,000 GYD86. PMO Manager380,000 GYD87. Director of Product Management380,000 GYD88. Professor - Foreign Languages378,000 GYD89. Marketing Vice President378,000 GYD90. Marketing Communications Executive377,000 GYD91. Professor - Sociology376,000 GYD92. Bank Branch Manager375,000 GYD93. Producer374,000 GYD94. Information Systems Manager373,000 GYD95. Director of Catering Services373,000 GYD96. Geoscientist372,000 GYD97. Professor - Civil Engineering370,000 GYD98. Community Development Manager370,000 GYD99. Biophysicist369,000 GYD100. Bioinformatics Scientist368,000 GYD101. Client Account Manager366,000 GYD102. eMarketing Manager366,000 GYD103. Accounting Manager365,000 GYD104. Human Resources Manager364,000 GYD105. Industrial Production Manager363,000 GYD106. Airport Services Manager362,000 GYD107. 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Dosimetrist338,000 GYD135. Tax Research Manager338,000 GYD136. Financial Banking Systems Manager336,000 GYD137. Loan Collection Manager334,000 GYD138. Export Services Manager334,000 GYD139. Clinical Cytogeneticist334,000 GYD140. Occupational Therapist333,000 GYD141. Biochemist333,000 GYD142. Service Manager332,000 GYD143. Marine Biologist332,000 GYD144. Social Media Marketing Manager331,000 GYD145. Energy Advisor331,000 GYD146. Associate Marketing Manager330,000 GYD147. Social Scientist330,000 GYD148. Public Relations Executive330,000 GYD149. Revenue Recognition Analyst329,000 GYD150. Education Researcher329,000 GYD151. Recreation Manager329,000 GYD152. Ambulatory Services Director328,000 GYD153. HSE Manager327,000 GYD154. Project Development Manager327,000 GYD155. Digital Media Specialist326,000 GYD156. Fashion Designer326,000 GYD157. Aircraft Captain325,000 GYD158. Fashion Store Manager325,000 GYD159. Assistant Sales and Marketing Manager324,000 GYD160. Head of Retail Design Management323,000 GYD161. Telecommunication Consultant323,000 GYD162. Financial Reporting Manager322,000 GYD163. Construction Project Manager322,000 GYD164. Education Consultant321,000 GYD165. Pharmaceutical Quality Auditor321,000 GYD166. Journalist321,000 GYD167. Warehouse Manager320,000 GYD168. Clinical Neuropsychologist320,000 GYD169. Biomedical Engineering Director320,000 GYD170. Commercial Project Manager319,000 GYD171. Scientist319,000 GYD172. Arbitrator319,000 GYD173. Drug Safety / Medical Information Specialist318,000 GYD174. Human Resources Executive317,000 GYD175. Web Applications Manager317,000 GYD176. Human Resources Assistant Manager317,000 GYD177. Publishing and Printing Supervisor316,000 GYD178. Catering Manager316,000 GYD179. Administrative Director315,000 GYD180. Fraud Detection Supervisor315,000 GYD181. Behavioral Health Specialist315,000 GYD182. Call Center Manager314,000 GYD183. District Sales Manager314,000 GYD184. Airline Pilot314,000 GYD185. Clinical School Psychologist313,000 GYD186. Inventory Manager313,000 GYD187. Supervising Counselor313,000 GYD188. Labor Relations Director312,000 GYD189. Environmental Scientist312,000 GYD190. Revenue Manager312,000 GYD191. Anthropologist312,000 GYD192. Director of Process Simplification311,000 GYD193. Clinical Research Manager311,000 GYD194. Information Security Director310,000 GYD195. Buyer310,000 GYD196. Business Operations Lead310,000 GYD197. Director of Learning Technology309,000 GYD198. Telecommunication Solution Architect309,000 GYD199. Regional Manager309,000 GYD200. Export Supervisor308,000 GYD