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A CompendiumofContemporary Instructional Models, Practices & Theories©Hal PortnerJanuary, 2016Model, Practiceor TheoryDescriptionCommentaryTypical Instructional TechniquesTeacher FocusedDirect Instruction: Teacher explains or demonstratesDrill and Practice: Repetition to hone a skill or memorize informationLecture: Teacher provides information to students in a one-way verbal presentationDialogue OrientedQuestion and Answer: Requires reflection as information is exchanged in response to a questionDiscussion: An exchange of opinions and perspectivesStudent FocusedMental Modeling: Assists students in managing their own learning by modeling a problem-solving techniqueDiscovery Learning: Uses students’ personal experiences as the foundation for building concepts·Inquiry: Allows students to generate the questions that they will then investigate and answerThe models, practices and theories that follow are those that have evolved from these “traditional” ones or been further developed during the latter decades of the 20th century through the first one and a half of the 21st.Model, Practiceor TheoryDescriptionCommentaryAsynchronous LearningAsynchronous learning is a general term used to describe forms of education, instruction, and learning that do not occur in the same place or at the same time. The term is most commonly applied to various forms of digital and online learning in which students learn from instruction—such as prerecorded video lessons or game-based learning tasks that students complete on their own—that is not being delivered in person or in real time.Asynchronous learning, or teaching and learning that occurs when the interaction between the instructor and students is not constrained by time and place, can cause feelings of isolation, resulting in disappointment and low retention rates in online classes. This can especially occur in online college or university courses when the instructor relies mostly on lecture.Authentic LearningAuthentic learning refers to a wide variety of educational and instructional techniques focused on connecting what students are taught in school to real-world issues, problems, and applications. The basic idea is that students are more likely to be interested in what they are learning, more motivated to learn new concepts and skills, and better prepared to succeed in college, careers, and adulthood if what they are learning mirrors real-life contexts, equips them with practical and useful skills, and addresses topics that are relevant and applicable to their lives outside of school.Educational researchers such asHerrington, Oliver, & Reeves (2003) have found that students involved in authentic learning are motivated to persevere despite initial disorientation or frustration, as long as the exercise simulates what really counts—the social structure and culture that gives the discipline its meaning and relevance.Developmental psychologist Jerome Bruner* reminds us that there is a tremendous difference between learning about physics and learning to be a physicist. Isolated facts and formulae do not take on meaning and relevance until learners discover what these tools can do for them.*As cited in Van Oers, B., & Wardekker, K. (1999). On becoming an authentic learner: Semiotic activity in the early grades. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31(2), 229–249.Herrington, J., Oliver R., & Reeves, T. C. (2003). Patterns of engagement in authentic online learning environments. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 19(1), 59–71. Retrieved April 24, 2007, from http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/herrington.htmlBackward DesignBackward design, also called backward planning or backward mapping, is a process that educators use to design learning experiences and instructional techniques to achieve specific learning goals. Backward design begins with the objectives of a unit or course—what students are expected to learn and be able to do—and then proceeds “backward” to create lessons that achieve those desired goals.The concept contends that you can’t start planning how you’re going to teach until you know exactly what you want your students to learn. If teaching is considered a means to an end, having a clear goal helps educators to focus planning and guide purposeful action toward the intended results.The Backward Design process proceeds in three phases, as follows:I. Identify desired results.First, you establish your learning goals for the course. What should students know, understand and be able to do? And how do you prioritize and narrow down the content you want to teach so it fits within the limited framework of the course?II. Determine acceptable evidence.In the second phase of Backward Design, you think about how you will decide if students are starting to master the knowledge and skills you want them to gain. What will you accept as evidence that students are making progress toward the learning goals of the course?III. Plan learning experiences & instruction.Finally, after you have decided what results you want and how you will know you’ve achieved them, then you start planning how you’re going to teach.Blended LearningBlended Learning is a formal education program in which a student learns at least in part through the online delivery of content and instruction, with some element of student control over time, place, path, and/or pace, and at least in part at a supervised brick-and mortar location away from. Compared to high-access environments, blended learning includes an intentional shift to online instructional delivery for a portion of the day in order to boost learning and operating productivity.Expanding digital and online offerings can begin to alleviate significant inequities that exist within our public school system today. Some students have access to high quality teachers and a diverse array of courses and schools. Others lack access because they live in communities that struggle to attract talent or find the resources to provide the variety of options that a wealthier or larger district can offer.On a cautionary note, Technology shouldn't be something else teachers add to their already full plate. Instead, they should use technology to replace and improve what they already do. For example, a teacher who traditionally creates a handout with a series of comprehension questions could, instead, post a discussion question online using a discussion board or discussion platform.Bloom’s taxonomyBloom’s taxonomy is a classification system used to define and distinguish different levels of human cognition—i.e., thinking, learning, and understanding. Educators have typically used Bloom’s taxonomy to inform or guide the development of assessments (tests and other evaluations of student learning), curriculum (units, lessons, projects, and other learning activities), and instructional methods such as questioning strategies.The original elements of Bloom’s Taxonomy were:Knowledge “involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting.”Comprehension “refers to a type of understanding or apprehension such that the individual knows what is being communicated and can make use of the material or idea being communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing its fullest implications.”Application refers to the “use of abstractions in particular and concrete situations.”Analysis represents the “breakdown of a communication into its constituent elements or parts such that the relative hierarchy of ideas is made clear and/or the relations between ideas expressed are made explicit.”Synthesis involves the “putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole.”Evaluation engenders “judgments about the value of material and methods for given purposes.”Bloom’s taxonomy was originally published in 1956 by a team of cognitive psychologists at the University of Chicago. It is named after the committee’s chairman, Benjamin Bloom (1913–1999).In 2001, another team of scholars—led by Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom’s, and David Krathwohl, a Bloom colleague who served on the academic team that developed the original taxonomy—released a revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy called A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. The “Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy,” as it is commonly called, was intentionally designed to be more useful to educators and to reflect the common ways in which it had come to be used in schools.In the revised version, three categories were renamed and all the categories were expressed as verbs rather than nouns. Knowledge was changed to Remembering, Comprehension became Understanding, and Synthesis was renamed Creating. In addition, Creating became the highest level in the classification system, switching places with Evaluating. The revised version is now Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating, and Creating, in that order.Brain-Based LearningBrain-based learning refers to teaching methods, lesson designs, and school programs that are based on the latest scientific research about how the brain learns, including such factors as cognitive development—how students learn differently as they age, grow, and mature socially, emotionally, and cognitively. Brain-based learning is motivated by the general belief that learning can be accelerated and improved if educators base how and what they teach on the science of learning, rather than on past educational practices, established conventions, or assumptions about the learning process.One of the key tenets of brain-based education is that attention follows emotion, and both music and art often tap into the emotional areas and thus are natural conduits for remembering and connecting information. Educators are teaching learning strategies, helping students find out the best ways to not just learn content, but how to learn. Ideas like remembering facts when they are set to music. This practice has been employed since the days of oral storytelling, but teachers are reviving it to help students in modern classrooms. For example, recent studies show that adults learn new languages more easily when they are set to a beat.Community-Based LearningCommunity-based learning refers to a wide variety of instructional methods and programs that educators use to connect what is being taught in schools to their surrounding communities, including local institutions, history, literature, cultural heritage, and natural environments. Community-based learning is also motivated by the belief that all communities have intrinsic educational assets and resources that educators can use to enhance learning experiences for students. Synonyms include community-based education, place-based learning, and place-based education, among other terms.There are several types of Community-Based Learning. Four of the most common strategies are:Community Integration - This brings the community into the classroom and the classroom into the community.Service Learning - This is similar to volunteering, but it integrates meaningful community service with reflection.Community Participation - This allows students to actively participate in community awareness projects.Community-based Research - This is often used at the university level, and is a partnership of students and community members, often led by a faculty member or teacher, who collaboratively engage in research with the purpose of solving a community problem or effecting social change.CompetencyeducationThe main difference in Competency Education from the traditional timebased system is the focus on students learning to specific competencies; the amount of time and types of resourcesvary as needed. Competency Education is a system of education, often referred to as proficiency or mastery based, in which students advance upon mastery. Competencies include explicit, measurable, transferable learning objectives that empower students. Assessment is meaningful and serves as a positive learning experience for students. Students receive timely, differentiated support based on their individual learning needs. Learning outcomes include the application and creation of knowledge, along with the development of important skills and dispositions.Competency education is rooted incore concepts and lessons learnedfrom other reforms that have developedover the past 50 years – Bloom’sinstructional approaches, EssentialSchools, standards-based education,and youth development, among others.The development of competencyeducation is decades long. Technologyis unleashing it by generating demandfor online and blended learning.Cooperative LearningCooperative Learning, sometimes called small-group learning, is an instructional strategy in which small groups of students work together on a common task. In some cases, each group member is individually accountable for part of the task; in other cases, group members work together without formal role assignments.Cooperative learning changes students' and teachers' roles in classrooms. The ownership of teaching and learning is shared by groups of students, and is no longer the sole responsibility of the teacher. The authority of setting goals, assessing learning, and facilitating learning is shared by all.Critical ThinkingCritical thinking is a term used by educators to describe forms of learning, thought, and analysis that go beyond the memorization and recall of information and facts. In common usage, critical thinking is an umbrella term that may be applied to many different forms of learning acquisition or to a wide variety of thought processes. In its most basic expression, critical thinking occurs when students are analyzing, evaluating, interpreting, or synthesizing information and applying creative thought to form an argument, solve a problem, or reach a conclusion.Critical thinking includes a complex combination of skills.Critical thinkers are by nature skeptical. They approach texts with the same skepticism and suspicion as they approach spoken remarks.Critical thinkers are active, not passive. They ask questions and analyze. They consciously apply tactics and strategies to uncover meaning or assure their understanding.Critical thinkers do not take an egotistical view of the world. They are open to new ideas and perspectives. They are willing to challenge their beliefs and investigate competing evidence.Critical thinking enables us to recognize a wide range of subjective analyses of otherwise objective data, and to evaluate how well each analysis might meet our needs. Facts may be facts, but how we interpret them may vary.By contrast, passive, non-critical thinkers take a simplistic view of the world.They see things in black and white, as either-or, rather than recognizing a variety of possible understanding.They see questions as yes or no with no subtleties.They fail to see linkages and complexities.They fail to recognize related elements.Non-critical thinkers take an egotistical view of the worldThey take their facts as the only relevant ones.They take their own perspective as the only sensible one.They take their goal as the only valid one.Evidence-basedEvidence-based, although technically not an educational theory, is a widely used adjective in education. It refers to any concept or strategy that is derived from or informed by objective evidence—most commonly, educational research or metrics of school, teacher, and student performance. Among the most common applications are evidence-based decisions, evidence-based school improvement, and evidence-based instruction. The related modifiers data-based, research-based, and scientifically based are also widely used when the evidence in question consists largely or entirely of data, academic research, or scientific findings.The use of objective evidence in education reform has grown increasingly common in recent decades, and a wide variety of research and data are now regularly used to identity strengths and weaknesses in schools, guide the design of academic programming, or hold schools and teachers accountable for producing better educational results, for example. From tracking standardized-test scores and graduation rates to using student information systems, sophisticated databases, and other new educational technologies, today’s educators are more likely to use educational data, in one form or another, on a regular basis.Flipped ClassroomThe flipped classroom is a pedagogical model in which the typical lecture and homework elements of a course are reversed. Short video or podcast lectures are viewed or listened to by students at home before the class session, while in-class time is devoted to exercises, projects, or discussions. The video lecture is often seen as the key ingredient in the flipped approach, such lectures being either created by the instructor and posted online or selected from an online repositoryFor students to be successful on their own, videos used in the flipped-classroom model must include a variety of approaches in the same way a face-to-face lesson would, and they must also have good sound and image quality so that students can follow along easily. These videos must also match the curriculum, standards and the labs or activities the students will complete in class.Teachers describe how students can now move at their own pace, how they can review what they need when they need to, and how the teacher is then freed up to work one-on-one with students on the content they most need support with.Game-Based LearningGAME-BASED LEARNING is based on the notion that game structure mirrors the learning process. In many games, students explore ideas and try out solutions. When they learn the skills required at one level, they move up. Failure to complete tasks is reframed as part of the path towards learning how to conquer a level.Digital games are now becoming more common in classrooms. In a recent survey by the Joan Ganz Cooney Center, half of 505 K-8 teachers said they use digital games with their students two or more days a week, and 18 percent use them daily. Educators are using commercial games like Minecraft, World of Warcraft and SimCity for education.Inquiry-Based InstructionInquiry-based instruction is a teaching method that engages the curiosity of students to enhance the development of critical thinking skills. As learners encounter problems they do not understand, they formulate questions, explore problems, observe, and apply new information in seeking a better understanding of the world. The natural process the learners follow when seeking answers and deeper understanding closely follows the generally accepted scientific method. Often, the answers proposed by learners lead to even more questions—much like the outcomes of research.It is common for Inquiry-Based lessons to follow an "Explain-before-Explore" model, which includes reviewing previous work, introducing a new concept, modeling that concept, and then student practice with the concept in a controlled, prescriptive exercise. An "Explore-before-Explain" instructional model allows students to grapple with the ideas and skills within a concept before the concept is thoroughly discussed and described.Maker MovementThe Maker Movement is based on the notion that The best way to activate a classroom is for the students to make something.The Maker Education Initiative’s mission is “to create more opportunities for all young people to develop confidence, creativity, and interest in science, technology, engineering, math, art, and learning as a whole through making.” “Making" draws upon new technological materials, learning through firsthand experience, and the basic human impulse to create. It offers the potential to make classrooms more sensitive to each child's creative capacity and provides opportunity for them to engage in authentic problem solving.Mastery TeachingAlthough there are several iterations of the term Mastery Teaching, the most definitive is that attributed to Dr. Madeline Hunter (1982). Hunter’s research showed effective teachers have a methodology when planning and presenting a lesson. Hunter found that no matter what the teacher’s style, grade level, subject matter, or economic background of the students a properly taught lesson contained eight elements that enhanced and maximized learning. She labeled these eight elements:1. Anticipatory Set - an activity or prompt that focuses the students‟ attention before the actual lesson begins.2. Objective and Purpose - why students need to learn the objective, what they will be able to do once they have met the criterion, and how they will demonstrate learning as a result.3. Input - the vocabulary, skills and concepts the teacher will impart to the students, the information the students need to know in order to be successful.4. ModelingThe teacher shows or demonstrates in a concrete way exactly what the finished product looks like.5. Checking for Understanding - the teacher uses a variety of questioning strategies to determine the extent of student learning and to reflect on the pace of the lesson.6. Guided Practice - students practice the new learning under direct teacher supervision.7. Independent Practice – students practice on their own based on learning that has occurred during the previous steps.8. Closure - final check for understanding used at the end of a class period.Hunter, M. (1982), Mastery Teaching. Thousand Oaks, CA: CorwinWithin each element of Lesson Design, there are many sub-skills, methods, and techniques – each demanding training, practice, and review in order to attain mastery of the Hunter model. Those eight instructional elements are not a recipe to be followed step by step in every lesson, they are elements to be considered when planning instruction, regardless of what form that instruction takes. If we agree with Hunter that teaching is decision making, use of the elements becomes much clearer. As teachers prepare to instruct, they need to consider many factors, the content, their students‟ previous knowledge and learning styles, their own teaching styles, and so on. A thorough understanding of anticipatory set, of modeling, or of any of the other elements allows the teacher to select those strategies that will best enable students to reach the objective of the lesson.Multiple IntelligencesThe Theory of Multiple Intelligences is a theory of intelligence that differentiates it into specific (primarily sensory) "modalities", rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability.This model was proposed by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Gardner has identified seven distinct intelligences. This theory has emerged from recent cognitive research and "documents the extent to which students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in different ways," According to this theory, "we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences - the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains."Problem-Based LearningProblem-based learning (PBL) is an approach that challenges students to learn through engagement in a real problem. It is a format that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem-solvers confronted with an ill-structured situation that simulates the kind of problems they are likely to face as future managers in complex organizations.Problem-based learning is experiential in that students experience what it is like to think as a practitioner. How do biologists think? What distinguishes the way a criminologist might address a problem as opposed to the way a mathematician might? How might these two specialists work together on a problem, a question more germane as disciplines become ever more inter-disciplinary? It is also a question of great concern to employers. Three major complaints from employers about college graduates are graduates’ poor written and verbal skills, their inability to problem-solve, and their difficulties working collaboratively with other professionals. PBL can address all three areas.Project-Based LearningProject-based learning refers to any programmatic or instructional approach that utilizes multifaceted projects as a central organizing strategy for educating students. It is a teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an engaging and complex question, problem, or challenge.When engaged in project-based learning, students will typically be assigned a project or series of projects that require them to use diverse skills—such as researching, writing, interviewing, collaborating, or public speaking—to produce various work products, such as research papers, scientific studies, public-policy proposals, multimedia presentations, video documentaries, art installations, or musical and theatrical performances, for example.ScaffoldingScaffolding refers to a variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process. The term itself offers the relevant descriptive metaphor: teachers provide successive levels of temporary support that help students reach higher levels of comprehension and skill acquisition that they would not be able to achieve without assistance. Like physical scaffolding, the supportive strategies are incrementally removed when they are no longer needed, and the teacher gradually shifts more responsibility over the learning process to the student.Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s work has led to the development of two key concepts for learning and teaching: the Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding. Vygotsky coined the term ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ to refer to the zone where children move towards independence. This zone changes as students move past their present level of development towards new areas of knowledge. The concept of ZPD has been expanded, modified, and scaffolding was developed by other sociocultural theorists applying Vygotsky's ZPD to educational contexts. Scaffolding is a process through which a teacher or more competent peer gives aid to the student in her/his ZPD as necessary, and tapers off this aid as it becomes unnecessary.STEM & STEAMWithin certain education and policy circles the acronym STEM (i.e., science, technology, engineering, math) has become a common term, used frequently to be inclusive when referring to a broad area of scholarship and enterprise we deem particularly connected, i.e., those listed four subjects. Although STEM is not to be considered here as an educational practice, model or theory in itself, it is included because with the addition of the letter ‘A’, it becomes STEAM and thus recognizes the use and value of the visual and performing arts in instruction.As pointed out above, one of the key tenets of brain-based education is that attention follows emotion, and both music and art often tap into the emotional areas and thus are natural conduits for remembering and connecting information. In addition, the hands-on learning experiences the arts employ engage more of the senses and use multiple pathways to store, therefore more ways to recall information. This is why we remember what we experience much better than what we hear, see or read (Wilson, 2013). For an example of how academics can be taught through the arts, see http://www.rockademix.orgWilson, L. O., (3013) An Overview of Brain Based Learning. Accessed 12/11/2013 from http://www4.uwsp.edu/education/lwilson/brain/bboverview.htm­21st Century SkillsThe term 21st century skills refers to a broad set of knowledge, skills, work habits, and character traits that are believed—by educators, school reformers, college professors, employers, and others—to be critically important to success in today’s world, particularly in collegiate programs and contemporary careers and workplaces.21st century skills are generally considered “soft Skills”. An overview of the knowledge, skills, work habits, and character traits commonly associated with 21st century skills include:Critical thinking, problem solving, reasoning, analysis, interpretation, synthesizing informationResearch skills and practices, interrogative questioningCreativity, artistry, curiosity, imagination, innovation, personal expressionPerseverance, self-direction, planning, self-discipline, adaptability, initiativeOral and written communication, public speaking and presenting, listeningLeadership, teamwork, collaboration, cooperation, facility in using virtual workspacesInformation and communication technology (ITC) literacy, media and internet literacy, data interpretation and analysis, computer programmingCivic, ethical, and social-justice literacyEconomic and financial literacy, entrepreneurialismGlobal awareness, multicultural literacy, humanitarianismScientific literacy and reasoning, the scientific methodEnvironmental and conservation literacy, ecosystems understandingHealth and wellness literacy, including nutrition, diet, exercise, and public health and safety