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The positive cultural influence of the Christian Church is too vast to enumerate in detail in less than a series of books. Its influence is not limited to the West, as it spread beyond the Western Empire in the days of Rome, in its first centuries, and has continued to spread around the world in the centuries since. For the most part, its influence has been more good than not wherever it has gone, and attempting to even list it all would be a very long list indeed.However, in answer to this question, I have chosen to limit a sampling of examples to the West, and to the limited time period of Early Christianity up to the Middle Ages. I have picked a few examples of influence I see as the paradigm altering, watershed, kind.The Christian church has continued, to this day, to be a cultural influence for good all around the world, but the history from the 1400s on is even more extensive—and complex—than what preceded it, so please accept—these limitations I have imposed are my limitations—and not the limitations of the church.Christianity altered the paradigm concerning:SexWomenCharityPreservation of literacyMonks and NunsBenedict’s RuleSkills and EducationSocial StructureCharles Martel Stopped IslamScienceArts and HumanitiesPainting, sculpture and architectureMusicLawHuman ValueHuman RightsSlaveryDemocracyFirst to Fourth Century (30–500)Sex — Let’s talk about sex—not just because it’s fun—but because changes here are among the most powerful, yet most overlooked, of all the many positive changes Christianity brought.“The gradual transformation of the Roman world from polytheistic to Christian marks one of the most sweeping ideological changes of premodern history. At the center of it all was sex.”[1]Historian Kyle Harper says:"...the triumph of Christianity not only drove profound cultural change, it created a new relationship between sexual morality and society...The legacy of Christianity lies in the dissolution of an ancient system where social and political status, power, and social reproduction (passing on social inequality to the next generation) scripted the terms of sexual morality."That ancient system was built on status and used shame to enforce itself. Shame was not personal guilt so much as a social concept: breaking the rules had profound and far-reaching social consequences. Aristocratic men had status; women had little, and slaves had no status at all, therefore, as far as the Romans were concerned, slaves had no internal ethical life and were incapable of shame. This permitted Roman society to find both a husband's control of a wife's sexual behavior as a matter of intense importance, and at the same time, see his live-in mistress and sex with young slave boys as of little concern.Paul wrote that the body was a consecrated space, a point of mediation between the individual and the divine. His over-riding sense that gender—rather than status or power or wealth or position—was the prime determinant in the propriety of the sex act was momentous. It was a transformation in the deep logic of sexual morality.The Greeks and Romans said our morality depends upon our social position which is given to us by fate; that there is inequity in that is not a moral issue that concerned them. Christianity "preached a liberating message of freedom.” It was a revolution in the very image of the human being as a sexual being, free to choose, and personally responsible for that choice to God alone. It created a revolution between society and the individual, limiting society’s rights and claims on the individual as a moral agent.Whether or not Paul’s particular teaching on gender is still agreed with or not, the historical facts show that the Christian view that the powerful should be held to the same standards of sexual accountability as those without power has since become the norm of a just society.Appearance of Jesus Christ to Maria Magdalena (1835) by Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov.Women [2]Early Christianity — Some historians hold that the Church played a considerable part in fostering the inferior status of women by providing a "moral justification" for male superiority. However, the Church has also made enough positive contributions toward women that, on balance, I am going to say the overall impact has been more positive than negative.Understanding that involves understanding context—what was there before, and without, Christianity.In antiquity, there were no Near Eastern societies that were not patriarchal, so patriarchalism and male superiority were not unique to the Old Testament. All around the Mediterranean, patriarchy was established as the norm in all of the multiple different societies before 3000 BC and they did not change for millennia—until Christianity.[3]Women were seen as intellectually and physically inferior to men and as "naturally dependent" by Sumerians, and Babylonians, by the Hittites, the Greeks and the Romans—all of them. Some philosophers speculated that women were a different race not fully human like men. Athenian women were legally classified as children regardless of age and were the "legal property of a man at all stages in her life." Women everywhere, including the Roman Empire, had limited legal rights and could not enter professions.It was common in the Greco-Roman world to expose female infants because of the low status of women in society. Many exposed children died, but many were taken by speculators who raised them to be slaves or prostitutes. Female infanticide and abortion were practiced by all classes. The church forbade these practices to its members.Christians did not believe in cohabitation, so if a Christian man wanted to live with a woman, the church required marriage; the pagan double standard of allowing married men to have extramarital sex and mistresses was forbidden. This gave women far greater security.It was not rare for pagan women to be married before the age of puberty and then forced to consummate the marriage with her often much older husband. Christianity established a minimum age for marriage.Husbands could divorce their wives at any time simply by telling the wife to leave; wives could not. In the code of Hammurabi, a woman could sue for divorce, but if she couldn’t prove she had been an exemplary wife, she was drowned for making the request.Roman law required a widow to remarry; 1 Timothy says a woman is better off if she remains unmarried. Widows in Greco-Roman society could not inherit their husband's estate and could find themselves in desperate circumstances, but almost from the beginning the church offered widows support.Women were an important part of Jesus’ inner circle, and there is no record of him ever treating a woman with less than respect. He spoke to women in public, assumed they had responsibility for their own choices, taught Mary of Bethany, admired, forgave, accepted and approved them. Christianity never fully lost sight of this as a fulfillment of God creating humans in His image as both “male and female.” Along with Paul declaring a Christian is a Christian, male or female, in Galatians 3:28, this produced a kind of “metaphysical” equality found only in Christianity at this point in history. [4]The church started out trying to practice this at first. The extra-biblical evidence is strong that women played vital roles in Christianity’s beginnings. Many women began choosing to stay single and celibate, and they spread the word, but this “female initiative” stirred up vehement opposition from the Romans.According to Margaret MacDonald, accusations that Christianity undermined the Roman family, which was built upon male authority, were used to stir up hatred of Christianity. Along with many other rumors and accusations, this led to the persecution of the early church.[5]Some of the later New Testament texts reasserting traditional roles for women are seen by many scholars as an accommodation to the danger involved with this Roman response.Within the church of the second and third century, tensions between the existing fact of women's leadership in Christian communities, and traditional Greco-Roman and patriarchal biblical views about gender roles, combined with persecution, produced controversy and challenges to women’s roles within the new church. Several apocryphal and gnostic texts provide evidence of such a controversy.Middle Ages — Once the early days of Christianity were past, the status of women declined. Women were routinely excluded from scholastic, political and mercantile life in society, however, women were not fully excluded from service in the church. [6]Medieval abbesses and female superiors of female monastic houses were powerful figures whose influence could rival that of male bishops and abbots: “They treated with kings, bishops, and the greatest lords on terms of perfect equality;... they were present at all great religious and national solemnities, at the dedication of churches, and even, like the queens, took part in the deliberation of the national assemblies...” Such powers had never been, as a rule, available to ordinary women in previous Roman or Germanic societies.[7]There was a rite for the ordination of women deacons in the Roman Pontifical, (a liturgical book), up through the 12th century. (But by the 13th-century Roman Pontifical, the prayer for ordaining women was removed, and ordination was redefined as applicable only to male Priests.) [8]The popularity of the Virgin Mary secured maternal virtue as a central cultural theme of Europe in the middle ages and helped form the concept of chivalry. Kenneth Clarke wrote that the 'Cult of the Virgin' in the early 12th century "taught a race of tough and ruthless barbarians the virtues of tenderness and compassion".Woman-as-witch became a stereotype in the 1400s until it was codified in 1487 by Pope Innocent VIII who declared "most witches are female."The European witch stereotype embodies two apparent paradoxes: first, it was not produced by the "barbaric Dark Ages," but during the progressive Renaissance and the early modern period; secondly, Western Christianity did not recognize the reality of witches for centuries, or criminalize them until around 1400. Sociologist Don Swenson says the explanation for this may lay in the nature of Medieval society as heirocratic which led to violence and the use of coercion to force conformity."There has been much debate ...as to how many women were executed...[and estimates vary wildly, but numbers] small and large do little to portray the horror and dishonor inflicted upon these women. This treatment provides [dramatic] contrast to the respect given to women during the early era of Christianity..."Women under the Law —Church teaching heavily influenced the legal concept of marriage. In a departure from societal norms, Church law required the consent of both parties before a marriage could be performed. No more kidnapping and forced marriages.The elevation of marriage to a sacrament made the union a binding contract. The Church abandoned established tradition by allowing women the same rights as men to dissolve a marriage. (However, in practice, men have been granted dissolutions more frequently than women.)Women, in Conclusion[9]The church’s behavior toward women has been both positive and negative, but all in all, Christianity’s contribution has been more positive than negative.If nothing else could ever be said, Christianity’s treatment of women was a big improvement over what existed before it, and its belief in the spiritual equality of both genders before God, altered the paradigm for women forever.Historian of hospitals Guenter Risse says the Church spearheaded the development of a hospital system geared towards the marginalized.Charity/Hospitals — Prior to Christianity, there is little to no trace of any organized charitable effort anywhere in the ancient world. After centuries of Christian influence, charity has become a universal practice.[10]Albert Jonsen, historian of medicine, says:“the second great sweep of medical history begins at the end of the fourth century, with the founding of the first hospital at Caesarea in Cappadocia, and concludes at the end of the fourteenth century, with medicine well ensconced in the universities and in the public life of the emerging nations of Europe.” [11]That hospital was founded by Basil, Bishop of Caesarea. He established the first formal soup kitchen, hospital, homeless shelter, hospice, poorhouse, orphanage, reform center for thieves, women’s center for those leaving prostitution, and many other ministries. He was personally involved in the projects and process, and gave all his personal wealth to fund the ministries.Basil himself would put on an apron and work in the soup kitchen. These ministries were given freely regardless of religious affiliation. Basil refused to make any discrimination when it came to people who needed help saying that “the digestive systems of the Jew and the Christian are indistinguishable.”His example spread throughout Christianity continuing to the modern day.In the modern day, across the world, various Christian denominations are still the ones largely responsible for the establishment of medical clinics, hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens, and schools of all kinds.The Catholic Church maintains a massive network of health care providers. In 2009, Catholic hospitals in the USA received approximately one of every six patients. Catholic Health Australia is the largest non-government provider of group-health, community care, and aged-care services, representing about 10% of the health sector.Women have played a vital role in running and staffing these Christian care institutions. In Methodist hospitals, deaconnesses who trained as nurses staffed the hospitals, and in Catholic hospitals, religious like the Sisters of Mercy, the Little Sisters of the Poor, and the Sisters of St.Mary kept their hospitals focused on serving the needy. The New York Times noted that nuns were trained to "see Jesus in the face of every patient."In the West, these institutions are increasingly run by lay-people after centuries of being run by priests, nuns and brothers, and while the profit motive has stepped in, it does mean more people are taking responsibility for caring for the poor than ever before. In Western nations, governments have increasingly taken up funding and organization of health services for the poor. In 1968, nuns or priests were the chief executives of 770 of America's 796 Catholic hospitals. By 2011, they presided over 8 of 636 hospitals.[12]All over the West, charity is now a societal standard that simply didn’t exist prior to Christianity’s existence.[13]"After the Battle of Gravelotte. The French Sisters of Mercy of St. Borromeo arriving on the battle field to succor the wounded." Unsigned lithograph, 1870 or 1871.Dark Ages and the Early Middle Ages (500–800) [14]Preservation of Literacy — After the Fall of Rome, culture in the west returned to a subsistence agrarian form of life. Church scholars preserved literacy in Western Europe at this time, saving and copying Greek and Roman texts in their scriptoriums. For centuries following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, small monastic communities were practically the only outposts of literacy in all of Western Europe.…all through Europe, matted, unwashed, barbarians descended on the Roman cities, looting artifacts and burning books, when the Irish, who were just learning to read and write, took up the great labor of copying all western literature – everything they could lay their hands on. These scribes then served as conduits through which the Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian cultures were transmitted to the tribes of Europe, newly settled amid the rubble and ruined vineyards of the civilization they had overwhelmed. Without this Service of the Scribes, everything that happened subsequently would be unthinkable.[15]Monks and Nuns [16]Benedict’s Rule — The period between 500 and 700, often referred to as the "Dark Ages," could also be designated the "Age of the Monk." Christian aesthetes, like St.Benedict (480–543) vowed a life of chastity, obedience, and poverty, and after rigorous intellectual training and self-denial, lived by the principles ‘work and pray’ following the “Rule of Benedict.” This “Rule” became the foundation of thousands of monasteries that spread across what is modern day Europe; "...certainly there will be no demur in recognizing that St.Benedict's Rule has been one of the great facts in the history of western Europe, and that its influence and effects are with us to this day."[17]Spread Skills and Provided Education— Monasteries were self-supporting models of productivity and economic resourcefulness teaching their local communities animal husbandry, cheese making, wine making and various other skills. They were havens for the poor, hospitals, hospices for the dying, and schools. Medical practice was highly important in medieval monasteries, and they are best known for their contributions to medical tradition, but they also made some advances in other sciences such as astronomy. These monks had impact on every level of society both directly and indirectly since all leaders of this period were educated by monks.[18]Changed Social Structure — The monastic movement also changed our social structure in ways that continue to affect us today. The formation of these organized bodies of believers, free from the political authority and familial authority that normally had the power to control an individual’s choices, gradually carved out a series of social spaces with some amount of independence and autonomy, thereby revolutionizing social history.Charles Martel Stopped Islam — (c. 457-751 CE) and his family played a crucial role in Western Europe’s transition from “ancient” to “medieval.”[19]By 727, Charles — “the Hammer”—has become King of what will one day become the nation of France. Charles wages long campaigns against the pagan Germanic tribes who constantly raid his northern and eastern borders - Frisians, Saxons and Bavarians. He also lends strong support to the missionary activities of St. Boniface hoping that conversion to Christianity will tame the heathens enough to stop this raiding. It is not fully effective, but it sets the stage for his grandson’s actions that do change the landscape of Europe.The Hammer’s main positive role involves the Arabs who, since their arrival in 711, have gained a toehold on the European continent in the Spanish peninsula. The Arabs advanced rapidly northwards in their planned takeover of the continent and were soon beyond the Pyrenees. Narbonne was taken in 720 and an extended raid in 725 brought the Arabs briefly into Burgundy. There was a lull until 732 when a Muslim army took Bordeaux, destroyed a church near Poitiers and rode on towards Tours. Here the Arabs were confronted by an army of Franks led by Charles Martel and were stopped.It was a turning point in the attempted Muslim takeover of Europe.The Middle AgesSet of pictures of notable Scientists who self-identified as Christians: Isaac Newton (top left), Robert Boyle (top right), Francis Bacon (bottom left) and Johannes Kepler (bottom right).Science [20]Early in the eleventh century, the full writings of Aristotle were reclaimed in the West by intrepid monks who traveled to Spain to work with the Jews there translating Aristotle’s writings into Latin. (These writings had been mostly lost in the West but not in the East, and when the Muslims came to Europe, they brought their books.) The church’s study of these texts laid the foundation for the beginnings of modern science as well as our modern university system.Historians of science, including J.L.Heilbron, A.C.Crombie, David Lindberg, Edward Grant, Thomas Goldstein, and Ted Davis, have argued that the church promoted learning and science during the Middle Ages. Critics will raise the Church's condemnations of Copernicus, Galileo, and Johannes Kepler as evidence to the contrary— which is a valid criticism—but it should also be considered that these same men all considered themselves Christian, were influenced by their faith in their work, and were originally sponsored by their respective churches.The sheer number of scientists and the amount of scientific work and discovery done by Christians, (many of them funded and supported by the church), supports the assertion that, taking its failures into consideration, the church’s overall impact on science has still been positive.Saint Thomas Aquinas was one of the great scholars of the Medieval period.Thomas Aquinas—the friar—opened the door for the church’s promotion of scientific and intellectual development by arguing that reason is in harmony with faith, and that reason can contribute to a deeper understanding of revelation.[21] The church put that into practice. Churchmen such as the Augustinian abbot Gregor Mendel (pioneer in the study of genetics), the monk William of Ockham who developed Ockham’s Razor, Roger Bacon, (a Franciscan friar who was one of the early advocates of the scientific method), and the modern Belgian priest George Lemaître who was the first to propose the Big Bang theory, and others, have been among the leaders in astronomy, genetics, geomagnetism, meteorology, seismology, and solar physics, with many becoming the "fathers" of these sciences.Christians who influenced Western science include such notables as Isaac Newton and Robert Boyle, Albertus Magnus, Robert Grosseteste, Nicholas Steno, Francesco Grimaldi, Giambattista Riccioli, Roger Boscovich and Athanasius Kircher.[22]Henri Becquerel, discovered radioactivity; Galvani, Volta, Ampere, and Marconi, are pioneers in electricity and telecommunications; Lavoisier is the "father of modern chemistry"; Vesalius is the founder of the modern study of human anatomy; and Cauchy, is one of the mathematicians who laid the rigorous foundations of modern calculus.According to 100 Years of Nobel Prize (2005), (which is a review of Nobel prizes awarded between 1901 and 2000), 65.4% of all Nobel Prize Laureates have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference (423 prizes). Overall, Christians have won a total of 78.3% of all the Nobel Prizes in Peace, 72.5% in Chemistry, 65.3% in Physics, 62% in Medicine, 54% in Economics and 49.5% of all Literature awards.[23]It is not too much to say that modern science may never have begun without the influence and support of the Christian church, and it most certainly would not be what it is today without it.[24]Universities - The church of the middle ages helped found and build the university system, which grew rapidly in Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries. Today, there are more universities in the West than any other part of the world and almost all of them were founded as Christian institutions.[25]Map of mediaeval universities established by Catholic students, faculty, monarchs, or priestsArts and Humanities [26]Painting, Sculpture and Architecture — Artists like Michaelangelo, Da Vinci and Raphael produced some of the most celebrated works of art in history sponsored and supported by the church.[In the West] with a single exception, the great artists of the time were all sincere, conforming Christians. Guercino spent much of his mornings in prayer; Bernini frequently went into retreats and practised the Spiritual Exercizes of St.Ignatius; Rubens attended Mass every morning before beginning work. The exception was Caravaggio, who was like the hero of a modern play, except that he happened to paint very well. This conformism was not based on fear, but on the perfectly simple belief that the faith which had inspired the great saints of the preceding generations was something by which a man should regulate his life.The cathedrals of the Late Middle Ages are among the most iconic feats of architecture ever produced by Western civilization.Music — Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern Western musical notation; there would be no modern music as we know it without this.An enormous body of religious music has been composed for the church, with its support, and this sacred music led directly to the emergence and development of European classical music, and its many derivatives.Ludwig van Beethoven, composed many Masses and religious works, including his Ninth Symphony Ode to Joy.Law and Human Rights [27]Church laws were the single Universal Law common to the different jurisdictions and peoples throughout Europe for much of European history.Human Value[28]If we turn to the roots of our western tradition, we find that in Greek and Roman times not all human life was regarded as inviolable and worthy of protection. Slaves and 'barbarians' did not have a full right to life and human sacrifices and gladiatorial combat were acceptable... Spartan Law required that deformed infants be put to death; for Plato, infanticide is one of the regular institutions of the ideal State; Aristotle regards abortion as a desirable option; and the Stoic philosopher Seneca writes unapologetically: "Unnatural progeny we destroy; we drown even children who at birth are weakly and abnormal.” And whilst there were deviations from these views..., it is probably correct to say that such practices...were less proscribed in ancient times. Most historians of western morals agree that the rise of ...Christianity contributed greatly to the general feeling that human life is valuable and worthy of respect.[29]Human Rights — Christian theology has strongly influenced Western philosophers and political activists in many ways, but nowhere more than in the area of human rights. Howard Tumber says, "human rights is not a universal doctrine, but is the descendent of one particular religion (Christianity).""...one cannot and need not deny that Human Rights are of Western Origin. It cannot be denied, because they are morally based on the Judeo-Christian tradition and Graeco-Roman philosophy; they were codified in the West over many centuries, they have secured an established position in the national declarations of western democracies, and they have been enshrined in the constitutions of those democracies." [30]Saint Peter Claver worked for the alleviation of the suffering of African slaves brought to South America.Slavery — The Church initially accepted slavery as part of the social structure of society, campaigning primarily for humane treatment of slaves but also admonishing slaves to behave appropriately towards their masters.[31] However, historian Glenn Sunshine says,Christians were the first people in history to oppose slavery systematically. Early Christians purchased slaves in the markets simply to set them free.Later, in the seventh century, the Franks..., under the influence of its Christian queen, Bathilde, became the first kingdom in history to begin the process of outlawing slavery....In the 1200's, Thomas Aquinas declared slavery a sin.When the African slave trade began in the 1400's, it was condemned numerous times by the papacy.[32]The British became involved in the slave trade in the late 1500s, and by the 1700s, most people accepted slavery as a fact of life, until gradually, from the mid-1700s onwards, a Christian abolitionist movement began to take shape. It began with American Quakers.Slavery was also coming under attack from Enlightenment philosophers like Montesquieu and Rousseau, but it was Christian activists who initiated and organised an abolitionist movement.By the 1770s, Evangelicals were waking up to the seriousness of the issue – the British Methodist John Wesley and the American Presbyterian Benjamin Rush denounced the slave trade in influential pamphlets. Once the British Abolition Committee was established in 1787, abolitionism quickly became a mass movement. Within twenty years, the slave trade had been abolished throughout the British Empire. [33][34]Christianity was instrumental in stopping slavery. If you don’t think it was Christianity that made the difference, read this: John Dewar Gleissner's answer to What are some mind-blowing facts about slavery?Consistent with Calvin's political ideas, Protestants helped create both the English and the American democracies.Christianity is criticized for many things, some of them justly. David Gushee says Christianity has a "tragically mixed legacy" when it comes to the application of its own ethics, using the examples of three cases of "Christendom divided against itself": the crusades, and Frances of Assissi’s attempt at peacemaking with Muslims; Spanish conquerors and the killing of indigenous peoples, and the Christian protests and fights for Native rights; and the on-again, off-again, persecution and protection of Jews. [85]But we have also gotten a few things right here and there.I have borrowed from the article Role of Christianity in civilization - Wikipedia but I did attempt to limit myself to those sections of the article I wrote myself. Here are some of my references:Footnotes[1] From Shame to Sin: The Christian Transformation of Sexual Morality in Late Antiquity (Revealing Antiquity): Kyle Harper: 9780674072770: Amazon.com: Books[2] A Short History of Christianity: Geoffrey Blainey: 9781442225893: Amazon.com: Books[3] Amazon.com: Sexual Morality in Ancient Rome (9780521859431): Rebecca Langlands: Books[4] The Reason for God: Belief in an Age of Skepticism: Timothy Keller: 9780525950493: Amazon.com: Books[5] Early Christian Women and Pagan Opinion[6] Amazon.com: Women and Gender in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia (Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages) (9780415969444): Margaret C. Schaus: Books[7] CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Abbess[8] Get the facts in order: A history of women's leadership[9] Society, Spirituality, and the Sacred: A Social Scientific Introduction, Second Edition: Donald S. Swenson: 9780802096807: Amazon.com: Books[10] Christian Charity in the Ancient Church - Kindle edition by Gerhard Uhlhorn. Religion & Spirituality Kindle eBooks @ Amazon.com.[11] A Short History of Medical Ethics: 9780195134551: Medicine & Health Science Books @ Amazon.com[12] Nuns, a ‘Dying Breed,’ Fade From Leadership Roles at Catholic Hospitals[13] Giving: Charity and Philanthropy in History: Robert H. Bremner: 9781560008842: Amazon.com: Books[14] A History of Orthodox, Islamic, and Western Christian Political Values: Dennis J. Dunn: 9783319325668: Amazon.com: Books[15] Amazon.com: How the Irish Saved Civilization (Hinges of History Book 1) eBook: Thomas Cahill: Kindle Store[16] Amazon.com: 9783319325668: Books[17] Benedictine Monachism[18] Christian Community in History: Volume 1: Historical Ecclesiology: Roger D. Haight: 9780826416308: Amazon.com: Books[19] Charles Martel : the Military Leader and Frankish Defender: History and Civilization Collection: 9782366593624: Amazon.com: Books[20] 100 Scientists Who Shaped World History[21] St. Thomas Aquinas and the Natural Law Tradition: Contemporary Perspectives: John Goyette, Mark S. Latkovic, Richard S. Myers: 9780813213781: Amazon.com: Books[22] Faithful to Science[23] 100 Years of Nobel Prizes: Baruch Aba Shalev: 9780935047370: Amazon.com: Books[24] 50 Nobel Laureates and Other Great Scientists Who Believe in God[25] Amazon.com: A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages (9780521361057): Hilde de Ridder-Symoens: Books[26] The Western Humanities: The Complete Edition: Roy T. Matthews, F. Dewitt Platt: 9780874847857: Amazon.com: Books[27] Amazon.com: The Routledge Companion to Early Christian Thought (Routledge Religion Companions) (9780415442251): D. Jeffrey Bingham: Books[28] The Sacredness of Human Life: Why an Ancient Biblical Vision Is Key to the World's Future: David P. Gushee: 9780802844200: Amazon.com: Books[29] Text, Cases and Materials on Medical Law and Ethics: Marc Stauch, Kay Wheat: 9781138024021: Amazon.com: Books[30] The Routledge Companion to Media and Human Rights[31] The Truth About the Catholic Church and Slavery[32] Why You Think the Way You Do[33] The abolition of the slave trade: Christian conscience and political action by John Coffey - Jubilee Centre[34] The Abolitionists

Fifth Harmony is an American girl group formed on the second season of the The X Factor USA in July 2012. The group consists of members Ally Brooke Hernandez, Normani Hamilton, Dinah Jane Hansen, Camila Cabello, and Lauren Jauregui. They signed a joint deal with Syco Music, owned by Simon Cowell, and Epic Records, L.A. Reid's record label, after finishing in third place behind Tate Stevens and Carly Rose Sonenclar on the show. Since then, they have released an EP and full-length album.Following their exit from The X Factor, their debut single "Miss Movin' On" was released and peaked at number 76 on the USBillboard Hot 100 and was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling over half a million digital downloads. Their debut EP, Better Together was released in 2013 with a first week position of number six on the USBillboard 200. Fifth Harmony won Artist to Watch award at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards.[2]The group released their debut studio album, Reflection in February 2015. The album debuted at number five on the Billboard200, with 80,000 units sold in the first week and was supported by the group's first major headlining tour, the Reflection Tour. Two singles from the album, "BO$$" and "Sledgehammer", have achieved Platinum certification and "Worth It" (featuring rapper Kid Ink) has achieved Double Platinum certification in the United States. "Worth It" also became the group's first top 15 hit, after peaking at number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song reached the top-ten in eight other countries. Fifth Harmony has emerged as the most successful alumni from the X Factor US franchise and have also been labeled the most influential contestant to come from the series.[3]Contents [show]Career2012: The X FactorFifth Harmony is composed of five singers who all successfully auditioned as soloists on the second season of The X Factor USA in 2012, but failed to progress individually to the judges' houses stage of the competition. On 27 July 2012, they were formed as a group at the end of bootcamp by Simon Cowell and Demi Lovato, thus qualifying for the "Groups" category. Originally, the group's name was "LYLAS" (acronym for Love You Like a Sister), but another group called "The Lylas" (which consists of four of Bruno Mars' sisters) claimed that the show stole their name.[4] Thereafter, LYLAS changed their name to 1432 (which stands for I Love You Too), which was announced on the first live show on October 31, 2012, during which 1432 performed "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together" by Taylor Swift. Simon Cowell and L.A. Reid were critical of the new name, and Cowell suggested that the group be renamed again. During the first live results show on November 1, 2012, 1432 performed "Skyscraper" by Demi Lovato in a sing-off with Sister C. Cowell decided to send 1432 through to the Top 12 and he announced that they would be renamed by the viewers online. The name chosen by the public was announced: "Fifth Harmony".[5]In the semi-finals stage of the show, they performed Ellie Goulding's "Anything Could Happen" as well as Shontelle's "Impossible" (for the second time during the competition). Their performance of "Anything Could Happen" was "a finals-caliber performance" according to L.A. Reid and described as "magic" by Britney Spears.[6] Their performance of "Impossible" received mostly negative reviews from the judges because the group had previously performed the song at Simon Cowell's home (although not on The X Factorconcert stage). Three members of the group (Camila, Lauren, and Ally) sang parts of the song in fluent Spanish. The following night's public vote results advanced Fifth Harmony to the final 3 along with Tate Stevens and Carly Rose Sonenclar. On the Top three live show, Fifth Harmony performed Ellie Goulding's "Anything Could Happen" for the second time as their "Song of the Series" song. Their second song was a duet with The X Factor judge Demi Lovato singing "Give Your Heart a Break". Their final song of the night was "Let It Be" by The Beatles, billed as their "$5 million song". After the first round of the finals they did not receive enough votes from the public to advance to the Top 2, and they finished in 3rd place on December 20, 2012.[7]Performances on The X Factor[show]Performances on The X Factor2013–14: Better TogetherApproximately one month following the X Factor season 2 finale, on January 14, 2013, Fifth Harmony was voted the "Next Pop Superstar of 2013" by Popdust Magazine[8] They began recording covers of songs and they uploaded these onto YouTube. Three of these covers received public praise from the original artists, namely Ed Sheeran, Ariana Grande and Mikky Ekko.[9][10][11][12][13] Fifth Harmony was also featured on Boyce Avenue's 2013 EP "Cover Collaborations, Volume 2", singing covers of "Mirrors" by Justin Timberlake and "When I Was Your Man" by Bruno Mars.[14][15]Their debut Extended Play (EP), Better Together was released October 22,[16] peaking on the Billboard 200 at number six, selling 28,000 copies in its first week.[17] The EP also peaked at number three in the US Billboard Digital Albums chart. Spanish versions of the EP,Juntos and Juntos Acoustic was released on November 8,[18][19] peaking at number two and 12 respectively on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart. The EP's lead single, "Miss Movin' On" peaked on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number seventy-six, becoming the highest charting single from an The X Factor contestant to appear on the chart.[20] Also, the song charted on the US Billboard Streaming Songschart at number 45[21] and on the US Billboard Heatseekers Songs chart at number four.[22] The song was certified Gold for selling 500,000 digital downloads and streams combined in the United States.[23] "Miss Movin' On" was nominated for a Teen Choice Award for Choice Break-Up Song. The EP's promotional single, "Me & My Girls" charted on the US Billboard Heatseekers Songs chart at number seventeen and on the Hot Digital Songs chart at fifty-three.[24][25] "Me & My Girls" won a Radio Disney Music Award for "Best Song to Rock Out to With Your BFFs".[26]Throughout the months of July and August 2013, Fifth Harmony performed at shopping malls across the United States in a tour titled "Harmonize America".[27] On August 5, 2013 the girl group celebrated their one-year anniversary by performing five shows in New York City. The pop-up concerts throughout the city included performances at theiHeartRadio Theater and Madison Square Park.[28] The group was one of the opening acts for Cher Lloyd during her I Wish Tour which started on September 6, 2013.[29][30] On September 11, 2013 the girl group revealed that they would be headlining their first concert hall tour "Fifth Harmony 2013", playing concert halls in Canada and the US.[31] Their opening act was indie pop band AJR.[32] Fifth Harmony appeared at the 2013 Teen Choice Awards alongside Demi Lovato to present the Acuvue Inspire Award to Nick Jonas.[33]On November 24, they performed "Better Together" on the red carpet at the 2013 American Music Awards.[34]Demi Lovato revealed on On Air with Ryan Seacrest on September 30, 2013 that Fifth Harmony was one of two opening acts for her 2014 Neon Lights Tour playing 27 arenas across North America.[35][36] On January 23, 2014, Fifth Harmony headlined the MTV Artists To Watch concert, an annual concert which showcases breakout artists that will be promoted by MTV during the year. The 2014 concert also featured performances by Tori Kelly, Rixton, Echosmith and Jake Miller.[37]2014–present: Reflection and breakout successIn early 2014, Fifth Harmony confirmed reports that recording had begun for their full-length debut album with record producers Julian Bunetta, Daylight, Joe London and multi-instrumentalist songwriter Ricky Reed.[38] The group stated the album is less pop, "more rhythmic" and has a more mature sound than Better Together.[39] Fifth Harmony's fourth headlining tour was revealed at the end of March 2014, titled Fifth Times a Charm Tour, with dates in Puerto Rico and the US.[40] It was announced by Billboard that a rep fromEpic Records confirmed that the album release was moved from December 16, 2014 to January 27, 2015.[41]Their debut studio album, Reflection was ultimately released on February 3, 2015.[42] After a full week of sales, Reflection entered the US Billboard 200 at number five with 80,000 units (with 62,000 of that coming from traditional album sales).[43] The album's lead single, "Boss", released on July 7, 2014, peaked at number 43 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart with first-week sales of 75,000, becoming the group's highest-charting song as well as their song with the highest first week sales, at the time.[44] The song charted on the US Billboard Mainstream Top 40 at number 37, as well as in other countries such as the Canadian Hot 100 chart at number 75. "Boss" received a Platinum certification by theRecording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling a million digital downloads and streams combined in the United States.[23] The second single from Reflection, theMeghan Trainor-penned "Sledgehammer", went on to become Fifth Harmony's first Top 40 hit on the Billboard Hot 100, and highest charting single on the Mainstream Top 40 chart peaking at number 21. "Sledgehammer" also became the group's highest-charting single in Canada at the time, peaking at number 63 on the Canadian Hot 100. On June 26, 2015, "Sledgehammer" was certified Platinum by the RIAA.[23] The third single from the album, "Worth It", featuring American rapper Kid Ink, made its peak position on theBillboard Hot 100 chart at 12, making it their second Top 40 hit and highest-charting single in the United States.[45] On August 26, 2015, "Worth It" was certified Double Platinum by the RIAA.[23] "Worth It" became the group's first international hit, charting in the top ten charts in the United Kingdom, Scotland, Greece, Lebanon, Israel, and Luxembourg.Reflection was featured in both Rolling Stone's and Complex magazine's mid-year 'Best Albums of 2015 So Far' lists, ranking at number 21 in the latter.[46][47] The album was supported by the group's first major headlining tour, the Reflection Tour.[48] The tour started on February 27, 2015, in San Francisco and ended on March 27, 2015 inPhiladelphia. Jasmine V, Jacob Whitesides and Mahogany Lox were the opening acts.[49] The Reflection: Summer Tour was announced on April 24, 2015. The tour started on July 15 and will end on September 15. It will feature Bea Miller, Debby Ryan, and Natalie La Rose as opening acts.[50]On October 28, 2014, the group made a cameo appearance on MTV’s Faking It, on the episode "The Ecstasy and the Agony" performing a cover of the New Kids On The Block’s 1988 hit single “You Got It (The Right Stuff)”.[51] On December 4, 2014, they were invited to sing at the White House for the National Christmas Tree Lighting, where they performed a cover of Mariah Carey's hit Christmas song, "All I Want for Christmas Is You".[52] Fifth Harmony returned to the White House on April 6, 2015 to perform at the annually-held White House Easter Egg Roll.[53] Fifth Harmony were scheduled to perform on the Billboard Music Awards but due to some issues, they only presented on stage.[54]They performed their single "Worth It" on the Dancing with the Stars finale and also made their first late night appearance when they performed the song (with Kid Ink for the first time) on Jimmy Kimmel Live on June 18, 2015.[55] On June 16, 2015, it was revealed that the group had recorded a song titled "I'm in Love with a Monster" for the film Hotel Transylvania 2. It was featured in the trailer for the movie, and will be heard in the movie as well, which is set to release on September 25, 2015.[56]On September 23, 2015, the group announced on The Real that they had started recording for their second studio album.[57]ArtistryWe want our songs to be fun, positive, and inspiring, and for our vocals to shine through, The songs are a direct reflection of us and what we go through. Because we've been able to co-write, we've been able to personalize our music and make it relatable. We want to be collectively unique and yet show our individuality, We're teenage girls hoping teenage girls can listen to the songs and feel like we're saying what they want to say.“”— Fifth Harmony, on their musical style.Fifth Harmony cites Demi Lovato, Mariah Carey, Whitney Houston, the Spice Girls and Destiny's Child as their main influences.[58] Fifth Harmony also cites solo artists Beyoncé, Alicia Keys, Christina Aguilera, Selena, Celia Cruz, Alejandro Fernandez, and Leona Lewis as sources of musical inspiration.[1]Fifth Harmony is mainly a pop[59][60][61] and R&B[62] girl group They have described their music as having a "retro feel" to it as well.[58] Each member has a different voice type: Lauren has a mature, smoky voice, which brings a fierce and "feisty flavor",[1] Camila has a unique voice that gives the group a "raw edge",[1] Normani has a bluesy vocal style that comes from her roots as a gospel singer,[1] Ally has a "powerful" vocal range which has vibrant energy and Dinah has drawn comparisons to Beyoncé and Alicia Keys.[1]PhilanthropyFifth Harmony supports a number of charities and organizations whose initiatives are focused on sponsoring underprivileged teenagers and promoting youth empowerment. In November 2013 they partnered with the Ryan Seacrest Foundation, and visited patients at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia.[63] They have also performed for patients at the Children's Hospital Los Angeles. In 2013, Fifth Harmony took part in theSocial Media Mania initiative, sponsored by the executive producers of the Teen Choice Awards, which included seminars at high schools on topics such as promoting social media awareness and protecting against the dangers of technology misuse; and two members of the quintet also shared some of their own experiences as victims of cyber bullying.[64]Fifth Harmony has a partnership with Girl Scouts of America, performing a number of free concerts for young girls who have participated in various fund-raising and charitable activities for the organisation. Fifth Harmony has performed concerts in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Ohio and Virginia.[65]The girl group participated in Goodwill Industries' 2013 Fall Haul Donation Challenge whereby schools in Wisconsin and Illinois were encouraged to donate as many items as possible to the charity organization; the school with the most donations won a private live Fifth Harmony performance.[66] It was revealed in January 2014 that Fifth Harmony is the new face of the Aéropostale and Do Something Teens for Jeans campaign. The girl group recorded a public service announcement encouraging community-driven donations of "gently worn" denims to the campaign, in aid of homeless teens.[67]In conjunction with the release of Fifth Harmony's single "BO$$", the group launched a self-esteem campaign in partnership with Do Something called #ImABOSS. The campaign ran from July 9, 2014 to September 9, 2014 and it encouraged young people to make signs for their friends that include a compliment or unique trait of those friends. The purpose of the campaign was stated to be to instill confidence and kindness in the youth. Fifth Harmony member Ally Brooke was quoted as saying, "The #ImABoss campaign is exactly in line with our new single BO$$ because it's all about owning and sharing what makes you confident and strong."[68][69][70]Fifth Harmony were also announced as ambassadors for The Cybersmile Foundation, an anti-cyberbullying initiative, in May 2015.[71]Endorsements and sponsorshipsIn December 2013, Fifth Harmony was revealed as the faces of Jovani Fashions' Prom 2014 line. This included a feature spread in Seventeen and a competition with the prize of having the girl group perform at the winner's high school prom.[72]On January 30, 2014, Fifth Harmony invited members of the media to The Grammy Museum for a press conference to reveal the group's new multi-year partnership with Mattel'sBarbie brand. The girl group recorded a global brand anthem for Barbie, "Anything Is Possible", which they performed at the press conference. The line of dolls, made in each member's likeness, was revealed in November 2014.[73]In June 2014, Sony Music Entertainment announced that they would be launching endorsement deals between Fifth Harmony and a number of companies, including two clothing lines with Wet Seal. The first clothing line with Wet Seal was launched in August 2014 in 200 stores across America, featuring a collection from each member based on their individual style.[74] Among other licensing agreements signed by Sony Music on behalf of Fifth Harmony were JCorp (apparel), Accessory Innovations (accessories), Brown Trout (posters) and Sky High (back-to-school supplies).[75]As opening act on Demi Lovato's Neon Lights Tour, Fifth Harmony teamed up with Clean & Clear.[76] The group recorded a series of commercials for the product, which were shown to arenas of concert attendees and later uploaded onto Clean & Clear's YouTube profile.[77] In August 2014, Clean & Clear commercials featuring Fifth Harmony were played on the MTV channel in the run-up to the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards.[78] In 2015, national commercials for Clean & Clear featuring Fifth Harmony began airing on television.[79]The national television commercial for Hershey's Caramels features Fifth Harmony's single "Worth It".[80] In June 2015, Fifth Harmony were named as the faces of Candie's, a clothing brand stocked exclusively at Kohl's. With this endorsement deal, the girl group became the first one to face the brand since Destiny's Child.[81]MembersAlly Brooke HernandezAllyson Brooke Hernandez was born in San Antonio, Texas on July 7, 1993 (age 22)[82] to parents Jerry and Patricia Hernandez. Ally's mother suffers from scoliosis and Ally has spoken out about the struggles of the disease and how her mother has shown "great strength".[83] In early 2015, Fifth Harmony fans decided to initiate a GoFundMe scheme to help raise money for Mrs. Hernandez's medical costs.[84] Ally has an older brother named Brandon. She is of Mexican descent.Ally auditioned for The X Factor in Austin, Texas, singing a track from contemporary Christian and Latin pop singer Jaci Velasquez.[85] During a recap of Season 2 of the X Factor, the Huffington Post highlighted Ally's audition as one of the highlights of the season, stating that "it was a quiet but controlled performance, hitting some amazing grace notes".[86] Ally's biggest musical influence is Tejano music artist Selena.Normani HamiltonNormani Kordei Hamilton was born in Atlanta, Georgia on May 31, 1996 (age 19)[87] to parents Derrick and Andrea Hamilton. She spent her early years in New Orleans. Her family relocated to Houston, Texas after Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Normani has two older half-sisters, Arielle and Ashlee. Hamilton has been performing since she was three, and was an award-winning dancer and gymnast before recording her first single at age 13. She has also had a small role in the HBO series Treme.Hamilton considered herself a soul and gospel singer until she was incorporated in a girl group. Before The X Factor, she competed in the Miss Texas competition and made it to the final but decided to audition for the reality music competition. Like most of the other members, Hamilton's first bootcamp wasn't shown. She credits Beyoncé as her main artistic influence.[1]Lauren JaureguiLauren Michelle Jauregui was born in Miami, Florida on June 27, 1996 (age 19)[88] to parents Michael and Clara Jauregui. She has two siblings; Taylor and Chris. Jauregui is ofCuban descent. She cites Journey, Paramore, The Script, Alicia Keys, and Christina Aguilera as her influences.[1] She attended Carrollton School of the Sacred Heart since 7th grade.[citation needed]At 16, Jauregui auditioned for The X Factor in Greensboro, North Carolina with the song "If I Ain't Got You" by Alicia Keys. She was given four "yeses" and allowed to move on to bootcamp.Camila CabelloKarla Camila Cabello was born in Cuba on March 3, 1997 (age 18)[89] to parents Alejandro and Sinuhe Cabello. She has a sister named Sofía. She is of Mexican and Cubandescent. By the time she was five years old, Cabello had lived in Havana and Mexico before permanently relocating to Miami, Florida. Growing up she listened to Hispanic artists such as Celia Cruz and Alejandro Fernandez.[1]Cabello auditioned for The X Factor in North Carolina. She first auditioned for the producers' part of the audition and got the call back saying that she will audition for the judges as an alternative, meaning that if after the show, if they were to have time, she would be able to audition. After the show, Cabello was ready to sing for the judges, but then the producers told her that there was not any time left, then she went up to Simon Cowell and asked him if she could audition, and he said yes. After her audition, she got a 'yes' from all four judges. After elimination during bootcamp, Cabello was called back to the stage along with four other female contestants, to form the girl group that would later become known as Fifth Harmony.Dinah Jane HansenDinah Jane Milika Ilaisaane Hansen was born in Santa Ana, California on June 22, 1997 (age 18)[90] to parents Gordon and Milika Fot'aika. She is the oldest of six siblings. She is of Polynesian, Tongan and Danish descent.[1] Hansen auditioned for The X Factor singing "If I Were a Boy" by Beyoncé, during which L.A. Reid stated that she "took the song to places that even Beyoncé didn't". She cites Ciara, Beyoncé, Leona Lewis, Mariah Carey and Etta James as her musical influences.During the final round of bootcamp, Hansen sang "Stronger (What Doesn't Kill You)" by Kelly Clarkson with another contestant. She forgot the lyrics throughout the song. Due to this, Hansen was eliminated as a solo performer, but was later brought back into the competition to form Fifth Harmony.

A popular film favorite among lawyers and law students is the 1992 Oscar-winning comedy, My Cousin Vinny. 1 The film features Joe Pesci as a quick-witted but hapless attorney defending two innocent New York teens from a capital murder charge in the Deep South. 2 It was fitting, then, that a film about law and justice would be used as a guinea pig in Hollywood’s most aggressive attempt to enforce its copyrights against unauthorized Bollywood remakes of Hollywood movies. 3 In the spring of 2009, Twentieth Century Fox (“Twentieth Century”) took the unprecedented move of filing suit for copyright infringement in the Bombay High Court of India 4 against the Mumbai 5 -based film production company, BR Films. 6 BR Films was set to release Banda Yeh Bindaas Hai (This Guy Is Fearless) in June 2009. 7 Twentieth Century alleged that the producers and director of Banda Yeh Bindaas Hai blatantly created a “substantial reproduction” of My Cousin Vinny. 8 The Bombay High Court issued an injunction delaying the Indian film’s release while litigation ensued. 9 Both parties agreed to a settlement before the court could issue a decision. 10 The settlement left unanswered the question of whether Bollywood could continue to make unauthorized remakes of Hollywood movies with impunity. Nevertheless, in October of 2010, Twentieth Century presented the Bombay High Court with another opportunity to reach a holding regarding the legality of an unauthorized Bollywood remake. 11 This time, the court reached a decision and found that the accused Bollywood studio was liable for copyright infringement. 12 The court’s decision was the first judicial opinion in India holding a Bollywood studio liable for unlawfully copying a Hollywood film. 13The major player in the Indian film and entertainment industry, commonly referred to as Bollywood, has had a long tradition of taking Hollywood movies and music and remaking them to serve a primarily South-Asian audience. 14 Bollywood consists of the producers, directors, actors, and others who are responsible for most of the Hindi-language based films that are produced in cinema. 15 Its films are recognized for their romantic dramas and elaborate song-and-dance scenes that depart from the storyline of the script. 16 Bollywood has been recognized as the world’s largest film producer since the 1970s. 17 The annual growth rate of India’s film industry is several times the growth rate of India’s gross domestic product. 18 The industry’s annual revenues have consistently increased over the past decade. 19 Film distribution to international audiences in the forms of DVDs and satellite television has also helped Bollywood increase its profits. 20 In fact, approximately half of Bollywood’s multi-billion-dollar annual revenues come from overseas markets like the United States where growing South-Asian communities provide for large audiences. 21 This helps explain why “[f]ilms from India do more business in the United States than films from any other country.” 22 The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry estimated that by 2013, filmed entertainment in India will gross close to $3.8 billion annually. 23 Bollywood’s media caters to a subcontinent with over one billion people 24 and a growing international audience. 25 Bollywood’s increasing popularity, both internationally and within the United States, and rising commercial value have recently attracted the attention of Hollywood producers who no longer wish to remain tolerant or apathetic toward unauthorized Bollywood adaptations of Hollywood entertainment. 26This Comment emphasizes the notion that enforcing film copyrights is of interest to Hollywood and the United States because legally protected creativity and originality should be given proper international recognition, and unauthorized imitations should be subject to penalties. Furthermore, this Comment reveals that the economic incentives for Hollywood to aggressively enforce its copyrights against Bollywood copycats are now stronger than they ever were before. 27 This Comment also suggests that effective intellectual property enforcement may provide an incentive for Bollywood to explore its own creative potential rather than implicitly concede creative inferiority by engaging in unauthorized remakes.Part I of this Comment explores the underlying reasons driving entities in Bollywood to copy American entertainment. It then explores the nature, frequency, and extent of Bollywood’s copying. The repercussions of the copies and imitations on the American and Indian entertainment industries are briefly examined. Part II introduces relevant U.S. and Indian copyright law and analyzes whether any of Bollywood’s copying techniques and practices actually amount to actionable copyright infringement. It assesses the defenses and arguments raised by Bollywood’s noninfringement proponents and ultimately finds that the remake and adaptation techniques used by many Bollywood filmmakers do amount to an actionable claim for copyright infringement. Part III explains the problems with enforcing Hollywood copyrights in India and tracks recent positive developments in Indian copyright law regarding Hollywood. The final part of this Comment explains how the international intellectual property enforcement mechanism under the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (“TRIPS”) agreement 28 is effectively of little use to Hollywood plaintiffs. As a solution to the infringement, this Comment ultimately proposes a special contractual agreement between film production entities in Hollywood and Bollywood that deters unauthorized remakes and provides for transaction models to facilitate compensation for the owners of copyrighted works. Such an agreement would provide for more effective and prompt remedies and would lay a foundation for better relations and increased cooperation between the two film industry giants.I. Bollywood’s Copying: Why, How, and What Are the Consequences?A. Reasons for CopyingIt is helpful to understand why and how Bollywood copies Hollywood entertainment before assessing the need for remedies or the legal aspects of the copying in order to determine what the appropriate legal actions are. This Part identifies and discusses some of the underlying reasons behind Bollywood’s proclivity for copying and explains what their significance to Hollywood is. First, this Part looks at some of the different cultural attitudes in India and the United States regarding the ethics and legality of copying. The legal implications of these cultural differences are evident in some of the Indian case law regarding copyright infringement and are addressed later in this Comment. Second, Part I looks behind the scenes of Bollywood to reveal several financial pressures that play a substantial role in driving Bollywood studios to copy Hollywood films. It shows that while some of the pressures on Bollywood are less relevant today than they were in the past, the general pressure to increase box-office revenues remains constant, and is often seen by the industry as being most easily answered through copying. Next, this Part briefly explains the roles globalization and Westernization play in Bollywood’s imitations. This Part concludes by emphasizing that, in addition to helping Hollywood identify the best mode of legal recourse, an understanding of the underlying reasons can help Hollywood bring about uniformity in Indian and U.S. copyright laws and open new channels of financial opportunity.1. Culture ClashUntil recently, filmmakers and producers in Bollywood were often very candid in admitting that some of their works are remakes or adaptations of Hollywood movies or some other forms of American entertainment. 29 Their openness can be attributed in part to their understanding of what does and does not belong in the public domain. 30 A shared belief among many Bollywood filmmakers is that “once something is in the public domain, it is fair game.” 31 Many of them “think nothing wrong of being ‘inspired’ by a particular film.” 32 However, the concept of the public domain and its scope “is much more expansive in India than it is in the [United States].” 33 Although Western perceptions of the public domain and intellectual property, since their imposition by British colonialists, 34 have woven their way into India’s jurisprudence, “the prevalent cultural attitude [in India] is that borrowing cinema plotlines, musical tunes, or even patented technologies is not so egregious a violation as to warrant legal sanction.” 35 Thus, filmmakers in India have historically lacked an incentive to pursue licenses or express written authorizations before making remakes or adaptations because they have held a much broader conception of what is considered in the public domain and not protected by law.2. Money, Money, MoneyAside from different interpretations of the public domain, several financial factors have pushed and continue to push Bollywood filmmakers to copy American movies. As mentioned earlier, Bollywood is recognized as the world’s largest film producer. 36 In the past, a typical Bollywood studio’s financial success was more contingent on the quantity of films produced than on the quality or originality of the films. 37 Historically, most Bollywood movies made a profit even if they were poorly reviewed. 38 The films were generally low-budget productions, especially in comparison to Hollywood movies. 39 A modest attendance by India’s immense film-hungry population at the theaters was usually sufficient for the studio to make some form of profit. 40 Thus, copying was seen as a time-efficient tool for producing a large volume of films that amounted to substantial profits in the aggregate.Although Bollywood budgets have increased markedly from the past and box-office failures are more commonplace, many Bollywood filmmakers continue to copy because they operate under the assumption that an Indian remake of a financially or critically successful Hollywood film will also be successful, provided that the American movie can be remade to conform to Indian culture. 41 Studios are hesitant to invest in original works because they believe such works involve high financial risks in comparison to films that have already proven to be successful. 42 Studios are unwilling to take financial risks for a number of reasons. Competition among film studios is stiff. 43 A Bollywood film’s popularity is often as fleeting as a few short weeks. 44 Thus, the push for new releases is a constant pressure on Bollywood filmmakers if they wish to generate a steady stream of revenues. The sheer volume of movies released by Bollywood results in screenwriters faced with demanding deadlines. 45 The pressure on the screenwriters from studio executives to churn up new screenplays crushes the writers’ incentives to experiment with novel and original scripts.Additionally, financing of Indian films has a long, corrupt history. 46 Before the Indian government granted Bollywood “industry status” 47 in 2001, organized crime entities in Mumbai financed much of the production capital for Indian films. 48 A studio’s failure to generate a positive box-office return on a film meant that filmmakers would be indebted to organized crime bosses. 49 Stories of extortion and even murder taking place behind the scenes of a Bollywood movie’s set before Bollywood received industry status were commonplace. 50 Even after receiving governmental recognition, stories of underworld influence continued to make headlines every so often. 51 Thus, the threat of violence was enough for the studios to persuade filmmakers to copy in the hopes of duplicating Hollywood’s financial success.Although the pressure from organized crime has subsided to a certain extent, the pressure for studios to continue to bring in large revenues remains constant. Therefore, in an effort to maximize the probability of box-office success, Bollywood studios routinely look to copy successful American movies. 52 Some recent examples of Bollywood films that have been accused of copying successful Hollywood pictures include Partner (2007), Chocolate (2005), Phir Milenge (2004), and Kaante (2002). 53 The movies these films were accused of copying were Hitch (2005), The Usual Suspects (1995), Philadelphia (1993), and Reservoir Dogs (1992), respectively. 543. Globalization, Westernization, and What It Means to HollywoodGlobalization and Westernization have influenced Bollywood into assuming that imitating Hollywood can translate to financial success. Western culture has had a large role in shaping the stories and themes of Bollywood movies. 55 A comparative examination of Bollywood films from the 1960s and 1970s to contemporary films reveals substantial differences in plots, style, and dialogue among other things. 56 Contemporary Bollywood movies feature far more Western or American influences than the prior art. 57 These influences can be seen in everything from the clothes to the set of moral values depicted in the films. 58 The increase in the volume of Western themes in Bollywood movies is also a consequence of growing South-Asian populations in North America and Europe. 59 Further, Bollywood assumes that having substantial Western influences in their movies will appeal to South-Asian Americans and Americans in general and therefore help in bringing in more revenues from the United States. 60An understanding of the reasons for copying identified above will help Hollywood bridge cultural gaps in Indian and U.S. copyright laws when litigating and lobbying for legal reform. Cultural perspectives that view copying as innocuous or “fair game” are likely to evolve in light of contrary legal mandates. Also, because much of the copying is due to adulation for Hollywood and Western culture, it behooves Hollywood to explore financial opportunities in a market that it has already influenced heavily, albeit unknowingly.B. Extent and Nature of CopyingAt first glance, a non-Hindi speaking audience may find a Bollywood remake to bear little resemblance to its Hollywood source. Filled with outbreaks of song and dance and colorful garments, most Bollywood movies are certainly distinguishable from any form of contemporary entertainment generated by Hollywood. However, the imitations are far more noticeable to South-Asian populations familiar with Hollywood entertainment. While the musical routines and fashion may be unique to Bollywood, the plotlines and dialogues are often mere translations. 61 The extent of the copying ranges from lifting a few scenes from Hollywood movies to rewording entire plots into Hindi. 62Proponents of noninfringement often dismiss charges of copyright infringement because some Bollywood films lift only certain brief scenes as opposed to entire plotlines. For example, Tejaswini Ganti, a professor of anthropology at New York University whose research interests include Indian cinema, 63 held the position that accusations of infringement are often exaggerated. 64 For example, she explained that the Bollywood movie Darr (Fear) (1993) “is consistently described as a ‘copy’ of Cape Fear despite the vast differences in plot, characterization, and theme, because it portrays a dramatic fight sequence on a storm-swept boat.” 65 Although some films may lift only a brief sequence from another movie, copyright infringement may still be found for a substantially similar and unauthorized remake of a single scene or plotline from a copyrighted film. 66 Also, while some Bollywood films lift only certain brief sequences from a Hollywood movie, many other Bollywood films are composed of several copied scenes from multiple movies merged into a single film. 67 If the particular scenes that are lifted from Hollywood movies are removed from the Bollywood film, the Bollywood film may lack any meaningful substance and fail to stand on its own. 68 Thus, the amount of originality that goes into a Bollywood work is heavily criticized as far too insubstantial. 69Although some Bollywood studios employ a strategy of compiling various scenes from multiple Hollywood movies in an attempt to evade copyright infringement charges, the example cited by Ganti is not representative of the industry’s practice of copying. Several websites monitor and report incidents of Bollywood copying Hollywood. 70 One source estimates that, in 2008, forty-six percent of Bollywood films copied Hollywood films. 71 Of those 2008 copies, “only [two] were authorized ‘adapted’ screenplays.” 72 Another source states that “[i]n recent years, nearly eight out of every ten Bollywood scripts have been ‘inspired’ by one or more Hollywood films.” 73Due in part to globalization, Bollywood’s audience is becoming increasingly familiar with Hollywood entertainment. While Bollywood’s popularity continues to grow internationally, so too does Hollywood’s popularity with South-Asian communities across the world. 74 It is more common now for a fan of both cinemas to get a sense of déjà vu while watching a Hollywood or Bollywood movie and then notify the public by blogging, tweeting, or using other forms of the internet’s social media. Therefore, public notice, and more specifically, notice to Hollywood about the nature and extent of Bollywood’s copying is almost instantaneous.C. Repercussions of CopyingThe audiences’ prompt notice to Hollywood about the instances of copying has drawn more attention to understanding the repercussions of the copying for both Hollywood and Bollywood. This Subpart first addresses some of the repercussions the copying has on Hollywood. It explains how the consequences of the copying are largely financial in nature. Next, the consequences for Bollywood are discussed. This Subpart reveals how Bollywood suffers both reputational and financial consequences as a result of the copying.1. What the Copying Means for HollywoodThe repercussions of Bollywood’s copies on Hollywood are primarily financial in nature. Under both Indian and U.S. copyright laws, the owner of a copyrighted work retains the exclusive control to make copies and prepare derivatives 75 of his work. For the purpose of discussing the financial consequences, let us assume that Bollywood’s remakes and adaptations are either infringing copies or infringing derivative works of underlying Hollywood films. Even if the original Hollywood author did not contemplate entering the Bollywood market, he is entitled to a portion of the proceeds from that market if a derivative of his work is released there. 76 Although the exclusive right to prepare derivative works has been criticized for extending the scope of a copyright owner’s protection too far, 77 both the United States and India grant copyright owners such protection. 78 The policy and economic rationale for such protection is that providing exclusive rights for derivative works incentivizes creativity because authors may still be able to profit from their creativity when their works are translated into different forms. 79When the derivative remakes and adaptations are distributed in Bollywood’s markets with legal impunity, Hollywood filmmakers are denied the opportunity to exploit these markets. Although Hollywood may not have been able to capitalize off Bollywood’s market without the remakes or adaptations, Hollywood retains a right to collect from the market when its copyrighted works are transformed. 80 Therefore, Hollywood copyright owners are legally entitled to some portion of the profits generated from the remakes and adaptations. Absent such copyright enforcement, the economic incentives for Hollywood filmmakers to develop new works and explore new markets, such as India, are likely to be substantially diminished.Hollywood has good reason to pursue economic opportunities in what has traditionally been Bollywood’s market. As mentioned earlier, Bollywood revenues exceed billions of dollars a year. 81 The gross revenues for films continue to rise year by year. 82 A substantial portion of Bollywood’s income comes from outside of India, namely, the United States. 83 Therefore, the financial incentive for Hollywood filmmakers to enforce copyright protection is compelling.2. What the Copying Means for BollywoodThe repercussions of copying on Bollywood relate more to damage to reputation; however, financial detriments are also integrated into the consequences. When Bollywood filmmakers and screenwriters habitually copy and imitate Hollywood movies, styles, and culture, they are effectively conceding creative inferiority. What is really unfortunate is that some Bollywood filmmakers are content with being branded unoriginal and even go so far as to embrace copying and plagiarism. 84 Mahesh Bhatt, a prominent Bollywood director and producer, 85 proclaimed: “It’s only entertainment, for God’s sake, not some high art to be worshipped with incense sticks and hymns. Films aren’t about creativity, originality or vision. They are about entertaining audiences across the board.” 86 Director Vikram Bhatt took a rather disturbing position when he explained: “I’ll never forget what Mahesh Bhatt said. If you hide the source, you’re a genius. . . . There’s no such thing as originality in the creative sphere.” 87Fortunately, not all Bollywood directors and producers embrace the call for copying and conceding lack of creative talent. Directors Amol Palekar and Kalpana Lajmi expressed disgust with the rampant copying and lack of originality. They explained:It’s insecurity that drives people to plagiarism and not lack of material. We have a plethora of fascinating literature. It’s only blind faith that makes people believe that Hollywood is the last word in filmmaking. We neither read our classics nor do we keep in touch with our literature. We see only what stares us in the face and i.e. Hollywood with its gloss and glamour. . . . We have lost our vision and guts to experiment. We only want to see on [the] big screen what we have seen in video. New ideas are risky experiments. So all those who can make original films are home without any work. 88Continuing to make unauthorized adaptations of Hollywood films may also impede the progress of recent efforts for cooperation between Hollywood and Bollywood in the filmmaking industry. 89 The menacing positions on copying taken by some Bollywood directors, such as those discussed above, are likely to repulse prospective licensees or other Hollywood entities interested in venturing into the Indian entertainment business. Potential business partners are likely to be averse to the idea of investing in Bollywood when its filmmakers are disturbingly candid about their propensity and desire to commit intellectual property theft. Additionally, the recent slew of copyright infringement suits and enforcement mechanisms launched by Hollywood 90 could likely mean that the profitability of copying may no longer be so robust, thanks to litigation costs and adverse court judgments.