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Life insurance is a vital component of sound family planning. Whilst everyone around is aware of its importance, most only tend to purchase when there is a critical need in life that drives them towards it. Having life insurance early on can have some serious benefits.Benefits of Life InsuranceTake a look at the benefits galore of having a life insurance policy.1. Risk Coverage: In lieu of the premium paid, the life insurance policy offers risk coverage to the insured and his or her family in the form of financial compensation.2. Different Plans for Different Uses: You can custom design your plan depending on your immediate and future financial goals. However, the more premium you pay, the more benefits you get.3. Cover for Health Expenses: Some of the life insurance policies also have critical illness and hospitalisation expense coverage. Check with your service provider for these value adds.4. Promotes Savings & Helps in Wealth Creation: Life insurance ensures that you also create wealth as the insurance company invests the premium paid in profitable ventures.5. Guaranteed Income: Your beneficiaries receive a guaranteed sum assured amount in case you meet with any unforeseen eventuality.6. Loan Facility: If there is a need, you can use the life insurance policy as a guarantee to avail a loan from a financial institution. This is available on select life insurance policies only.7. Tax Benefits: The premium is tax deductible under Section 80C of the Income Tax Act, 1961.Whilst it is important to know the benefits of having a life insurance policy, you also need to know which type of policy will best suit your requirements and expectations.Types of Life Insurance PoliciesThese are the various types of life insurance policies available in the market.1. Term Insurance Plan:You buy a term insurance plan for a fixed time period, usually in blocks of 10, 20 or 30 years. A term life insurance does not carry any cash value. Therefore, you do not any maturity benefits either. This makes term life insurance policies more affordable in comparison to other types of life insurance plans.2. Endowment Policy:With an endowment policy, you have the added advantage of the policyholder receiving a lump sum of money if the insured survives beyond the maturity of the plan. That’s the only difference between a term life insurance and an endowment policy.3. Unit Linked Insurance Plan:If you are looking to build your wealth and finance your life goals, then a unit linked insurance plan is the way to go. The premium paid towards the plan partly goes towards the life insurance cover and the rest is invested in market linked products. You can partially withdraw funds post the lock-in period is over.4. Money Back Policy:Very similar to an endowment plan, the Money Back Policy too offers several survival benefits which are proportionately allotted over the tenure of the policy term.5. Whole Life Policy:The Whole Life Policy is the most expensive type of life insurance available as it extends up to the entire life of the policyholder. You also receive survival benefit with the policy and have the option to partially withdraw funds, if need be. Some types of whole life policies allow the insured to use it as a guarantee to avail a loan.6. Annuity/ Pension Plan:The premium that you pay is accumulated in the form of assets by the insurance company. It is subsequently distributed to the insured in the form of an income by way of an annuity. It can also be remitted as a lump sum as per the terms and conditions of the policy.Which brings you to the absolutely essential question of claim settlement.Claim Settlement ProcessIf an unforeseen eventuality does occur and your beneficiaries are required to file a claim on your life insurance policy, ideally you should ensure that the process is smooth and seamless for them as far as possible. To get an idea, read reviews online on the insurance provider’s claim process and their rate of honouring the claims raised.Other than that, the claim intimation must contain all the necessary details such as Date, Place, and Cause of Death. This should be accompanied by a claim intimation form and other supporting documents like:·Certificate of Death·Copy of Insurance Policy·Legal Evidence of title in case insured has not appointed a beneficiary·Deeds of assignmentThe insurance company will go through the claim submission and verify all the documents before settling the same.Principles of Life InsuranceBefore you invest in a life insurance policy, be aware of the principles on which it works. There are broadly four major insurance principles applied in India, these being:Insurable Interest:This principle basically gauges the individual’s interest with respect to a specific life insurance policy. The level of interest may be due to a personal relationship, a family bond or more. Depending on the level of interest, the insurance company may either accept or reject the prospective insurer’s application. This is typically done to prevent policy misuse.Law of Large Numbers:This principle works on the theory that reducing loses in the long term can ensure stability even when experiments are done with large numbers.Good Faith:By purchasing life insurance, you are entering into an agreement with your insurance provider. This should be done in good faith. Share all relevant information as masking any detail can result in serious repercussions in the future.The insurance company too must explain their terms and conditions of the policy to the policy applicant as transparently as possible.Risk & Minimal Loss:The principle of minimal risk says that the policyholder must take all the required precautions to minimise the possibility of any hazards. This includes following a healthy lifestyle, getting a regular health check-up and more.Points to Consider for Life InsuranceBefore you purchase your life insurance plan, make sure that you adequately research your options to make a well informed decision. Your aim should be to get a policy that offers maximum benefits and also allows you to save.Consider your premium payment options as most insurance providers will accept them either annual, semi-annual, quarterly or on a monthly basis. Choose a schedule that is best suited to your convenience of making payments.Always read the terms and conditions, fine print and any other information relevant to the policy before you purchase it. Remember that there generally is a lock-in period that you have to abide by. Some insurance providers may offer you a lock-in time frame which is around 15 days’ time within which you can return the policy if you are not happy with it in any way.Liked this answer? Here are a couple more questions answered by us:I just started earning. How do I start making a financial plan?Which term plan is best suited for a 31 year old in India?

Ramnarain Ruia Jr. College, Matunga05/09/2015Environmental studies ProjectHospital Waste Management in Kurla Area:ü1.Selection of Topic (10 marks)ü2.Objectives(4 marks)ü3.Review of literature(4 marks)ü4.Relevance(4 marks)ü5.Proposed methodology(8 marks)6..Description of the method followed(8 marks)ü7.Observation(2 marks)ü8.Analysis(4 marks)ü9.conclusion(2 marks)10.Report writing(4 marks)11.viva-voice(10 marks)“Hospital (Medicinal) Waste”An Environmental Hazard and Its ManagementSelection of topic:The proper management of biomedical waste has become a worldwide humanitarian topic today. Although hazards of poor management of biomedical waste have aroused the concern world over, especially in the light of its far-reaching effects on human, health and the environment.2Now it is a well-established fact that there are many adverse and harmful effects to the environment including human beings which are caused by the “Hospital waste” generated during the patient care. Hospital waste is a potential health hazard to the health care workers, public and flora and fauna of the area. The problems of the waste disposal in the hospitals and other health-care institutions have become issues of increasing concern.Hospital is a place of almighty, a place to serve the patient. Since beginning, the hospitals are known for the treatment of sick persons but we are unaware about the adverse effects of the garbage and filth generated by them on human body and environment. Now it is a well-established fact that there are many adverse and harmful effects to the environment including human beings which are caused by the "Hospital waste" generated during the patient care. Hospital waste is a potential health hazard to the health care workers, public and flora and fauna of the area. Hospital acquired infection, transfusion transmitted diseases, rising incidence of Hepatitis B, and HIV, increasing land and water pollution lead to increasing possibility of catching many diseases. Air pollution due to emission of hazardous gases by incinerator such as Furan, Dioxin, Hydrochloric acid etc. have compelled the authorities to think seriously about hospital waste and the diseases transmitted through improper disposal of hospital waste. This problem has now become a serious threat for the public health and, ultimately, the Central Government along with state government had to intervene for enforcing proper handling and disposal of hospital waste and an act was passed in July 1996 and a bio-medical waste (handling and management) rule was introduced in 1998.A modern hospital is a complex, multidisciplinary system which consumes thousands of items for delivery of medical care and is a part of physical environment. All these products consumed in the hospital leave some unusable leftovers i.e. hospital waste. The last century witnessed the rapid mushrooming of hospital in the public and private sector, dictated by the needs of expanding population. The advent and acceptance of "disposable" has made the generation of hospital waste a significant factor in current scenario.As I live in Kurla I am very much familiar with the present day conditions regarding the above topic. The area is much crowdy as compared to other areas of the city. It is the main site where one can find slum areas, so the chances of effects due to improper hospital waste management are more in this area. Also the people are not aware of the fact that there is something called hospital waste management. Most of the people categorize all the waste under same column and that’s the worst part of it.Therefore in order to catch people’s attention towards this problem I choose this topic under environmental studies.I am sure that it may contribute a little fraction in creating awareness among the citizens.Objectives:Need of biomedical waste management in hospitals:While selecting this topic, the question aroused in my mind was “why do we need to separate this waste from household waste?” I gone through various articles and the reports served by municipality officials and came to know that how dangerous it would be if we are not separating this waste. Still separating wasn’t enough. It has to be decomposed or manage properly in order make it safeHospital waste management is a part of hospital hygiene and maintenance activities. In fact only 15% of hospital waste i.e. "Biomedical waste" is hazardous, not the complete. But when hazardous waste is not segregated at the source of generation and mixed with nonhazardous waste, then 100% waste becomes hazardous. The question then arises that what is the need or rationale for spending so many resources in terms of money, man power, material and machine for management of hospital waste?The reasons due to which there is great need of management of hospital waste such as:1.Injuries from sharps leading to infection to all categories of hospital personnel and waste handler.2.Nosocomial infections in patients from poor infection control practices and poor waste management.3.Risk of infection outside hospital for waste handlers and scavengers and at time general public living in the vicinity of hospitals.4.Risk associated with hazardous chemicals, drugs to persons handling wastes at all levels.5.“Disposable” being repacked and sold by unscrupulous elements without even being washed.6.Drugs which have been disposed of, being repacked and sold off to unsuspecting buyers.7.Risk of air, water and soil pollution directly due to waste, or due to defective incineration emissions and ash3.To make people aware of the fact, what is hospital waste?Hospital waste refers to all waste generated, discarded and not intended for further use in the hospital.According to Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 of India “Any waste which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of biological.Review of literature:As this topic is very much familiar with metro cities like Mumbai I got a lot of information regarding above topic from following sources:ØRecent reports given by local municipality and state government officials.ØGuidelines given by WHO regarding hospital waste management and their disposal.ØInterviews of respected hospital officials (waste managers).ØEfforts carried out by various NGO’s in respective areas.ØAt the State level, many States are developing new standards to control medical waste disposal.ØBecause of the information need to support the implementation of the regulations, both the Federal Government and the States have conducted various studies. This paper represents a discussion of what has been learned as a result of these studies.ØEvaluation of medical waste treatment technologies conducted by private industries;ØCase study: hospital waste management (Kurla area)Relevance:Scientific Relevance:·In order to understand how this topic is related scientifically following points must be understood. The following information provides how this waste is classified:-(1) General waste: Largely composed of domestic or house hold type waste. It is non-hazardous to human beings, e.g. kitchen waste, packaging material, paper, wrappers, plastics.(2) Pathological waste: Consists of tissue, organ, body part, human foetuses, blood and body fluid. It is hazardous waste.(3) Infectious waste: The wastes which contain pathogens in sufficient concentration or quantity that could cause diseases. It is hazardous e.g. culture and stocks of infectious agents from laboratories, waste from surgery, waste originating from infectious patients.(4) Sharps: Waste materials which could cause the person handling it, a cut or puncture of skin e.g. needles, broken glass, saws, nail, blades, and scalpels.(5) Pharmaceutical waste: This includes pharmaceutical products, drugs, and chemicals that have been returned from wards, have been spilled, are outdated, or contaminated.(6) Chemical waste: This comprises discarded solid, liquid and gaseous chemicals e.g. cleaning, house keeping, and disinfecting product.(7) Radioactive waste: It includes solid, liquid, and gaseous waste that is contaminated with radionucleides generated from in-vitro analysis of body tissues and fluid, in-vivo body organ imaging and tumour localization and therapeutic procedures.·How this waste is disposed?Based on Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998, notified under the Environment Protection Act by the Ministry of Environment and Forest (Government of India).1. Segregation of wasteSegregation is the essence of waste management and should be done at the source of generation of Bio-medical waste e.g. all patient care activity areas, diagnostic services areas, operation theaters, labour rooms, treatment rooms etc. The responsibility of segregation should be with the generator of biomedical waste i.e. doctors, nurses, technicians etc. (medical and paramedical personnel). The biomedical waste should be segregated as per categories mentioned in the rules.2. Collection of bio-medical wasteCollection of bio-medical waste should be done as per Bio-medical waste (Management and Handling) Rules. At ordinary room temperature the collected waste should not be stored for more than 24 hours.Types of container and colour code for collection of bio-medical waste.CategoryWaste classType of containerColour1.Human anatomical wastePlasticYellow2.Animal waste-do--do-3.Microbiology and Biotechnology waste-do-Yellow/Red4.Waste sharpPlastic bag puncture proof containersBlue/White Translucent5.Discarded medicines and Cytotoxic wastePlastic bagsBlack6.Solid (biomedical waste)-do-Yellow7.Solid (plastic)Plastic bag puncture proof containersBlue/White Translucent8.Incineration wastePlastic bagBlack9.Chemical waste (solid)-do--do-3. TransportationWithin hospital, waste routes must be designated to avoid the passage of waste through patient care areas. Separate time should be earmarked for transportation of bio-medical waste to reduce chances of it's mixing with general waste. Desiccated wheeled containers, trolleys or carts should be used to transport the waste/plastic bags to the site of storage/ treatment.Trolleys or carts should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected in the event of any spillage. The wheeled containers should be so designed that the waste can be easily loaded, remains secured during transportation, does not have any sharp edges and is easy to clean and disinfect. Hazardous biomedical waste needing transport to a long distance should be kept in containers and should have proper labels. The transport is done through desiccated vehicles specially constructed for the purpose having fully enclosed body, lined internally with stainless steel or aluminium to provide smooth and impervious surface which can be cleaned. The drivers compartment should be separated from the load compartment with a bulkhead. The load compartment should be provided with roof vents for ventilation.4. Treatment of hospital wasteTreatment of waste is required:· to disinfect the waste so that it is no longer the source of infection.· to reduce the volume of the waste.· make waste unrecognizable for aesthetic reasons.· make recycled items unusable.4.1 General wasteThe 85% of the waste generated in the hospital belongs to this category. The, safe disposal of this waste is the responsibility of the local authority.4.2 bio-medical waste: 15% of hospital waste· Deep burial: The waste under category 1 and 2 only can be accorded deep burial and only in cities having less than 5 lakh population.· Autoclave and microwave treatment Standards for the autoclaving and microwaving are also mentioned in the Biomedical waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998. All equipment installed/shared should meet these specifications. The waste under category 3,4,6,7 can be treated by these techniques. Standards for the autoclaving are also laid down.· Shredding: The plastic (IV bottles, IV sets, syringes, catheters etc.), sharps (needles, blades, glass etc) should be shredded but only after chemical treatment/microwaving/autoclaving. Needle destroyers can be used for disposal of needles directly without chemical treatment.· Secured landfill:: The incinerator ash, discarded medicines, cytotoxic substances and solid chemical waste should be treated by this option.· Incineration: The incinerator should be installed and made operational as per specification under the BMW rules 1998 and a certificate may be taken from CPCB/State Pollution Control Board and emission levels etc should be defined. In case of small hospitals, facilities can be shared. The waste under category 1,2,3,5,6 can be incinerated depending upon the local policies of the hospital and feasibility. The polythene bags made of chlorinated plastics should not be incinerated.· It may be noted that there are options available for disposal of certain category of waste. The individual hospital can choose the best option depending upon the facilities available and its financial resources. However, it may be noted that depending upon the option chosen, correct colour of the bag needs to be used.5. Safety measures5.1 All the generators of bio--medical waste should adopt universal precautions and appropriate safety measures while doing therapeutic and diagnostic activities and also while handling the bio-medical waste.5.2 It should be ensured that:· drivers, collectors and other handlers are aware of the nature and risk of the waste.· written instructions, provided regarding the procedures to be adopted in the event of spillage/ accidents.· protective gears provided and instructions regarding their use are given.· workers are protected by vaccination against tetanus and hepatitis B.6. Training· each and every hospital must have well planned awareness and training programme for all category of personnel including administrators (medical, paramedical and administrative).· all the medical professionals must be made aware of Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998.· to institute awards for safe hospital waste management and universal precaution practices.· training should be conducted to all categories of staff in appropriate language/medium and in an acceptable manner.7. Management and administrationHeads of each hospital will have to take authorization for generation of waste from appropriate authorities as notified by the concerned State/U.T. Government, well in time and to get it renewed as per time schedule laid down in the rules. Each hospital should constitute a hospital waste management committee, chaired by the head of the Institute and having wide representation from all major departments. This committee should be responsible for making Hospital specific action plan for hospital waste management and its supervision, monitoring and implementation. The annual reports, accident reports, as required under BMW rules should be submitted to the concerned authorities as per BMW rules format.8. Measures for waste minimizationAs far as possible, purchase of reusable items made of glass and metal should be encouraged. Select non PVC plastic items. Adopt procedures and policies for proper management of waste generated, the mainstay of which is segregation to reduce the quantity of waste to be treated. Establish effective and sound recycling policy for plastic recycling and get in touch with authorised manufactures.Social relevance:This project completely focuses on why do we need to separate this waste and why do we need to dispose them effectively.§It has a great impact on health of local citizens. So it is completely socially relevant.§A major issue related to current Bio-Medical waste management in many hospitals is that the implementation of Bio-Waste regulation is unsatisfactory as some hospitals are disposing of waste in a haphazard, improper and indiscriminate manner. Lack of segregation practices, results in mixing of hospital wastes with general waste making the whole waste stream hazardous. Inappropriate segregation ultimately results in an incorrect method of waste disposal.§Inadequate Bio-Medical waste management thus will cause environmental pollution, unpleasant smell, growth and multiplication of vectors like insects, rodents and worms and may lead to the transmission of diseases like typhoid, cholera, hepatitis and AIDS through injuries from syringes and needles contaminated with human.6§Various communicable diseases, which spread through water, sweat, blood, body fluids and contaminated organs, are important to be prevented. The Bio Medical Waste scattered in and around the hospitals invites flies, insects, rodents, cats and dogs that are responsible for the spread of communication disease like plague and rabies. Rag pickers in the hospital, sorting out the garbage are at a risk of getting tetanus and HIV infections. The recycling of disposable syringes, needles, IV sets and other article like glass bottles without proper sterilization are responsible for Hepatitis, HIV, and other viral diseases. It becomes primary responsibility of Health administrators to manage hospital waste in most safe and eco-friendly manner6.The problem of bio-medical waste disposal in the hospitals and other healthcare establishments has become an issue of increasing concern, prompting hospital administration to seek new ways of scientific, safe and cost effective management of the waste.· Municipal authority : As quite a large percentage of waste (in India upto 85%), generated in Indian hospitals, belong to general category (non-toxic and non-hazardous), hospital should have constant interaction with municipal authorities so that this category of waste is regularly taken out of the hospital premises for land fill or other treatment.· Co-ordination with Pollution Control Boards: Search for better methods technology, provision of facilities for testing, approval of certain models for hospital use in conformity with standards 'aid down.· Development of non-PVC plastics as a substitute for plastic which is used in the manufacture of disposable items• Establishment of training programs for workers to improve the quality and quantity of work.• Protection of workers against occupational risks.·Economic Relevance:Medical waste requires more amount of money as compared to household waste or any other waste as it has to be decomposed very efficiently and carefully. Regardless of how much money is being spent we need to check for whether the money spent is being used properly or not for that we need to search for cost effective and environmental friendly technology for treatment of bio-medical and hazardous waste. Also, to search for suitable materials to be used as containers for bio-medical waste requiring incineration/autoclaving/ microwaving. This project mainly focuses on reducing expenditure regarding waste management.Cost reductions can be achieved by taking particular measures at different stages in the management of wastes: On-site management• Comprehensive management of chemicals and pharmaceuticals stores.• Substitution of disposable medical care items by recyclable items.• Adequate segregation of waste to avoid costly or inadequate treatment of waste that does not require it.• Improved waste identification to simplify segregation, treatment, and recycling. Comprehensive planning• Planning collection and transport in such a way that all operations are safe and cost-efficient. • Possible cooperative use of regional incineration facilities, including private sector facilities where appropriate.• Selection of a treatment and disposal option that is appropriate for waste type and local circumstances.• Use of treatment equipment of appropriate type and capacity. Measures at personnel levelPROPOSED METHODOLOGY:In order to collect all the information and to have a descriptive look on the topic stated above, the best way was to take interviews of the respective people in the field of waste management. As most of the people in this area are not that much familiar with the things like how waste in managed and how all things take place, there was no use of taking interviews of local people. So most important task in front of me was to collect all information and put this in front of local citizens so that they would understand what this thing is.Interviewee:Hospital waste managers.Workers or handlers.Transporters.BMC officials in respective areas.Local people facing problems regarding the same.Medical students in the area stated above.Active NGO’s in above area.Citizens in damping areas.Requirements:As I have to conduct interviews I have to be prepared with all the questions.A camera is must for recording all statements given by respective people.List of prestigious hospitals in the area.List of hospital waste managers in respective hospitals.Sufficient information regarding the questions which I need to ask.Permission of hospital authorities to conduct interviews.A guide.How to proceed?As stated earlier, my motto was to conduct interviews of officials and put them in front of local citizens:Questions to officials:1.What are Biomedical wastes?2.What are biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes?Questions to workers:3.What is the quantum of waste that is generated by a hospital?4.What are disinfection and sterilization?5.What are the colour codes and type of containers used for disposal of biomedical waste?6.What materials can be recycled?7.How long can bio medical waste be stored?Questions to BMC officials:8.What are the hazards associated with poor health care waste management?9.Who are the persons at risk of the hazards of medical procedures?10.What are the rules and regulations governing the disposal of these wastes?Questions to medical students:11.What are the responsibilities of health care institutions regarding biomedical waste management?Questions to NGO’s:12.What are the different hospital waste categories?13.What is Biosafety?14.What are the disinfectants commonly used for disinfection of materials contaminated with blood and body fluids?15.How is disinfection of the various items commonly used in the hospital carried out?Thus, this is how I need to proceed in order to complete my project work. Along with that I may require methods like mouth publicity, pamphlets regarding the same. And most important in order to complete it effectively I need to be guided by my EVS teacher.DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD FOLLOWED:Answers to the questions asked:1.Biomedical wastes are defined as waste that is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings or animals, or in research activities pertaining thereto, or in the production of biological.2.Biodegradable waste means any waste that is capable of undergoing anaerobic or aerobic decomposition, such as food and garden waste, and paper and paperboard. It also includes waste from households, which because of its nature and composition is similar to biodegradable waste from households.Non-biodegradable wastes are the wastes that cannot be decomposed by bacteria eg.plastics, bottles and tins.3.The quantum of waste that is generated in India is estimated to be 1-2 kg per bed per day in a hospital and 600 gm per day per bed in a general practioner’s clinic. e.g. a 100 bedded hospital will generate 100 – 200 kgs of hospital waste/day. It is estimated that only 5 – 10% of this comprises of hazardous/infectious waste (5 – 10kgs/day)4.Proper disposal of biomedical waste is of paramount importance because of its infectious and hazardous characteristics. Improper disposal can result in the following:· Organic portion ferments and attracts fly breeding· Injuries from sharps to all categories of health care personnel and waste handlers· Increase risk of infections to medical, nursing and other hospital staff· Injuries from sharps to health workers and waste handlers· Poor infection control can lead to nosocomial infections in patients particularly HIV, Hepatitis B & C· Increase in risk associated with hazardous chemicals and drugs being handled by persons handling wastes· Poor waste management encourages unscrupulous persons to recycle disposables and disposed drugs for repacking and reselling· Development of resistant strains of microorganisms5.ProcedurePerson at riskMode of TransmissionCollection of blood samplesPatient Health workerContaminated needle, gloves, Skin puncture by needle or container,Contamination of hands by bloodTransfer of specimens (within laboratory)Laboratory personnelContamination of exterior of specimen container, Broken container,Splash of specimenHIV serology and virologyLaboratory personnelSkin puncture, splash of specimen,6.The Government of India has promulgated the Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998. They are applicable to all persons who generate, collect, receive, store, transport, treat, dispose or handle biomedical wastes. This includes hospitals, nursing homes, clinics, dispensaries, veterinary institutions, animal houses, pathological laboratories and blood banks.7.It is mandatory for such institutions to:Set up biomedical waste treatment facilities like incinerators, autoclave and microwave systems for treatment of the wastesMake an application to the concerned authorities for grant of authorizationSubmit a report regarding information about the categories and quantities of biomedical wastes handled during the preceding year by 31 Jan every yearMaintain records about the generation, collection, reception, storage, transportation, treatment, disposal and/or any form of handling bio medical wasteReport immediately any accident to the prescribed authority8.Biosafety is essentially a preventive concept and consists of wide variety of safety precautions that are to be undertaken, either singly or in combination, depending on the type of hazard by all medical, nursing and paramedical workers as well as by patients, attendants, ancillary staff and administrators in a hospital.9.Disinfection and sterilization are important procedures in biosafety. Disinfection refers to procedures which reduce the number of microorganisms on an object or surface but not the complete destruction of all microorganism or spores. Sterilisation on the other hand, refers to procedures, which would remove all microorganisms, including spores, from an object. Sterilisation is undertaken either by dry heat (for 2 hours at 1700C in an electric oven – method of choice for glass ware and sharps) or by various forms of moist heat (i.e. boiling in water for an effective contact time of 20 min or steam sterilization in an autoclave at 15 lb/sq inch at 1210C for 20 min)Name of DisinfectantAvailable chlorineRequired chlorineRequired chlorine Contact periodAmount of disinfectant to be dissolved in 1 ltr of waterSodium hypochlorite5%0.5%30 min100 mlCalcium hypochlorite70%0.5%30 min7.0 gmNa OCl powder-0.5%30 min8.5 gm10.OBSERVATION:Amount and composition of hospital waste generated(a) AmountAreaQuantity (kg/bed/day)SionDadarAndheriKurla2.54.52.53.0b) (Hazardous/non-hazardous)Hazardous15%a) Hazardous but non-infective5%b) Hazardous and infective10%Non-hazardous85%c) Composition(By weight):Plastic14%CombustibleDry cellublostic solid45%Wet cellublostic solid18%Non-combustible20%ANALYSIS:Following observations were made during my visit to respective clinics and hospitals in Kurla area.Major Sources§Govt. hospitals/private hospitals/nursing homes/ dispensaries.§Primary health centers.§Medical colleges and research centers/ paramedic services.§Veterinary colleges and animal research centers.§Blood banks/mortuaries/autopsy centers.§Biotechnology institutions.§Production units.Minor Sources§Physicians/ dentists’ clinics§Animal houses/slaughter houses.§Problems relating to biomedical waste§advances in this area. The need of proper hospital waste management system is of prime importance and is an essential component of quality assurance in hospitals§Blood donation camps.§Vaccination centers.§Acupuncturists/psychiatric clinics/cosmetic piercing.§Funeral services.§Institutions for disabled personsCONCLUSION:Medical wastes should be classified according to their source, typology and risk factors associated with their handling, storage and ultimate disposal. The segregation of waste at source is the key step and reduction, reuse and recycling should be considered in proper perspectives. We need to consider innovative and radical measures to clean up the distressing picture of lack of civic concern on the part of hospitals and slackness in government implementation of bare minimum of rules, as waste generation particularly biomedical waste imposes increasing direct and indirect costs on society. The challenge before us, therefore, is to scientifically manage growing quantities of biomedical waste that go beyond past practices. If we want to protect our environment and health of community we must sensitize our selves to this important issue not only in the interest of health managers but also in the interest of community.

Lets start with some videosHow Is Uranium Mining Conducted in the United States?How It's Made Uranium Part 1How It's Made Uranium Part 2Uranium — How Is It Mined?Uranium resources can be extracted from the ground in three ways: open pit, underground, and in-situ leach (ISL).Open Pit MiningOpen pit mining, also known as strip mining, is the removal of surficial soils and uneconomic rock to get at the ore below. Ore grades are normally less than 0.5%. This is type of mining is only possible if the uranium ore is near the surface (normally less than 400 ft).…Waste rock or overburden (the material removed over the ore body) usually is stored near the open pit. Once the ore horizon is exposed, a series of benches or steps are cut into it to make removal of the ore easier. Within the pit, depending on the size of the mine, there maybe one or more roads cut into the sides for the huge earth/ore haulers to navigate the area. Pumps maybe utilized to dewater the pit.Rabbit Lake Uranium Mine, CanadaSource: Saskatchewan SchoolsPositivesLess expensive than underground mining.Better ventilation (open-air).New mines must follow much stricter environmental, safety and health guidelines than were in place during the last uranium boom. For example a new open pit would require a mine and reclamation plan with phased mining, backfill, and then final reclamation to minimize the dimensions of the footprint on the landscape. Bonding is required on the front end to assure all of reclaimation and safety costs will be covered. Tailings piles have to be built to completely different standards than the past with lower subgrades, synthetic liners, leak detection wells, and 40 acres maximum size. Dust control is required on new operations, and radon will be subject to strict MSHA working level requirements.NegativesHUGE footprintWaste rock piles can be enormous.Waste rock may be uneconomic to effectively mine, but once exposed to the atmosphere, they become hazardous to the environmentRemediation is extremely costly and time consuming. Groundwater restoration can be extremely costly.Mine workers’ health can be compromised due to dust and radon exposure. Nearby communities can suffer negative health impacts due to the dust, noise and other issues (drainage ponds breaking).Underground MiningUnderground mining is used to get at higher concentrations of uranium that are too deep to get at from open-pit. The ore is drilled, then blasted to create debris which is then transported to the surface, then on to a mill.An example of a uranium mine schematic from McArthur River, CanadaSource: Cameco Corp.'s filing to US Securities & Exchange Commission, March, 2008PositivesHas a smaller surface footprint.Less waste rock.Advances in mining technology and safety monitoring makes many of the radiation/health issues associated with previous mining unlikely. These include better ventilation systems, possible robotic mining, and monitoring badges to make sure workers do not exceed the allowable radiation dosages.NegativesExpensive.Potential to seriously impact local aquifers and expensive to remediate.In old underground mines, dust, radon and diesel fumes were a serious threat to miners’ health because of poor ventilation.MillingFor both traditional underground and open pit mining, the rocks may have only a few percent (normally <0.3%) uranium in them. The uranium then has to be removed from the rock and concentrated. The milling process involves crushing and pulverizing the rock into very fine fragments and adding water to create a slurry. This slurry is then mixed with sulfuric acid or an alkaline solution to release the uranium from the host rock. Normally approximately 95 - 98% of the uranium can be recovered from the host rock. From this acid or alkaline solution, uranium oxide or yellowcake is precipitated. This is still not the purest form, and the uranium has to be sent to another plant to enrich it. The remaining rock slurry is pumped to a tailings dam. These tailings are exposed to the surface and heavy metals can be released into the environment.Uranium Mill ProcessSource: Energy Information Administration, Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels.PositivesOnly effective method to extract uranium from conventionally mined ores.Modern mills have more stringent laws governing their operation than old mills.NegativesTailings are exposed to the environment and any remaining uranium or heavy metals can be released.Very expensive to remediate.Formerly placed on porous units to help remove the water from the tailings slurry. Potential for severe impairment of local groundwaters.In-situ Recover (ISR) Mining (also known as In-situ Leach or ISL)While not all uranium ore deposits are amendable to ISR, it is the preferred method to extract uranium since it is far cheaper to get the ores out of the ground and it is considered more environmentally friendly than traditional underground or open pit mines.In the United States, ISR involves:pumping water from the formation and adding oxidant such as gaseous oxygen. For some units, a carbonate phase such as sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is added to the solution to make ieasier for uranium to go into solution. Ideally, the pH of the solution is somewhere between 6.5 - 7.0 (close to neutral). This solution oxidizes the uranium in porous sandstones and make it easier to go into solution.the oxygen-rich solution is pumped down injection wells within a wellfield pattern,the solution moves through the rock dissolving the uranium in the ground,wells at prescribed distance from the injection wells pump uranium-enriched waters to the surface, These wells pump more fluid than is put down the hole to create a "cone of depression," This is to minimize the chance of off-site migration of these uranium- and mineral-enriched waters, There are monitoring wells surrounding these wells to check on break through of uranium- and mineral-enriched waters,these waters are treated and filtered to remove the uranium, andthe treated waters are refreshed with oxidant and cabonates (if needed) and sent back down hole to start the process again.after uranium has been depleted to its economic limits, regulations require ISR operations in the United States to be restored to prescribed standards to try to assure that potable sources of water are not impacted.An ISL OperationSource: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf27.htmlElsewhere in the world, like Australia and Kazakhstan, sulfuric acid is used, and remediation has not been required. This is not an acceptable technology in the U.S., and U.S. reclamation requirements would make it technically and economically impossible to allow sulfuric acid (or ammonia bicarbonate) systems here.In the USA, alkaline solutions are the preferred, and sulfuric acid and peroxide solutions are used at ISL operations in Australia. The New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources has produced a article on the next uranium boom and ISL.The positives of ISR aresmall surface footprint,very little waste rock (created in drilling the wells),inexpensive startup,less expensive to remediate than traditional mining and milling operations,less radiation exposure for the workers, andsmaller, higher trained workforce.The negatives of ISR arepossible local contamination of aquifers (though in the US, solutions are usually near neutral),waters have to be pumped and monitored, even after active extraction has stopped, andwaste water disposal and the public fears.How is it Mined?Environmental Aspects of Uranium Mining(Updated April 2017)In most respects the environmental aspects of a uranium mine are the same as those of other metalliferous mining.Most uranium mines in Australia and Canada have ISO 14001 certification.Radioactivity associated with the uranium ore requires some special management in addition to the general environmental controls of any mine.The uranium itself has a very low level of radioactivity, comparable with granite. Virtually all the radioactive material from the associated minerals in the ore processed ends up in the tailings dam.In many respects uranium mining is much the same as any other mining. Projects must have environmental approvals prior to commencing, and must comply with all environmental, safety and occupational health conditions applicable. Increasingly, these are governed by international standards, with external audits.Once approved, open pits or shafts and drives are dug, waste rock and overburden is placed in engineered dumps. Tailings from the ore processing must be placed in engineered dams or underground. Finally the whole site must be rehabilitated at the end of the project. Meanwhile air and water pollution must be avoided.These processes are common to all metalliferous mining, and are well recognised and understood.…Environmental approvalsAt an early stage of the feasibility study, environmental studies of the site begin. These escalate in detail and progressively focus on issues of concern in relation to the proposal, in consultation with state authorities (who in Australia generally operate under an agreement with the Commonwealth to ensure that its concerns are addressed).Depending on the government jurisdiction, an environmental effects or impact statement is published and made available for public comment. After consideration of comments and in the light of judgements by a wide range of state authorities, approval may then be given by the state government for the project to proceed.International standards and certificationThe International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has published a guide for both technical and non-technical aspects of environmental matters in uranium mining (and other mining involving radioactive materials): Lessons Learned from Environmental Remediation Programmes, IAEA Nuclear Energy Series, 2014.The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), based in Geneva, has developed a number of world standards for quality management (9000 series) and for environmental management (14000 series). The latter relate to minimising harmful effects and achieving continual improvement through a formal environmental management system (EMS) which is subject to external audit.ISO 14001 is the world's most recognised EMS framework, enabling organisations to demonstrate sound environmental management. Many mining companies have been certified as conforming to its requirements. In Australia and Canada, major uranium mining companies either have or are close to having ISO 14001 certification. This is also the basis of other ISO certification, such as for audits, reporting and life cycle assessment.ERA's Ranger mine for instance is audited every six months by an accredited external body and undergoes full re-certification every three years.The basic EMS under ISO 14001 is under four linked headings: Plan-Do-Check-Act. It must take into account both routine hazards and abnormal situations.Wastes from mining & millingIn most respects, conventional mining of uranium is the same as mining any other metalliferous ore, and well-established environmental constraints apply in order to avoid any off-site pollution.From open cut mining, there are substantial volumes of barren rock and overburden waste. These are placed near the pit and either used in rehabilitation or shaped and revegetated where they are. At Ranger mine, the development of the first orebody involved a waste to ore ratio of slightly over 2:1.However, uranium minerals are always associated with more radioactive elements such as radium and radon in the ore which arise from the radioactive decay of uranium over hundreds of millions of years. Therefore, although uranium itself is not very radioactive, the ore which is mined, especially if it is very high-grade such as in some Canadian mines, is handled with some care, for occupational health and safety reasons.Mining methods, tailings and run-off management and land rehabilitation are subject to Government regulation and inspection. For instance in Australia the Code of Practice and Safety Guide: Radiation Protection and Radioactive Waste Management in Mining and Mineral Processing was published in 2005. It is simpler than its two predecessors (on health & wastes) and moves away from undue prescription to performance-based and audited regulatory approach.Mining operations are undertaken under relevant national health and radiation protection codes of practice. These set strict health standards for exposure to gamma radiation and radon gas. Standards apply to both workers and members of the public. See associated paper: Occupational Safety in Uranium Mining.Tailings & radonSolid waste products from the milling operation are tailings. They comprise most of the original ore and they contain most of the radioactivity in it. In particular they contain all the radium present in the original ore. At an underground mine they may be first cycloned to separate the coarse fraction which is used for underground fill. The balance is pumped as a slurry to a tailings dam, which may be a worked-out pit as at Ranger and McClean Lake.When radium undergoes natural radioactive decay one of the products is radon gas. Because radon and its decay products (daughters) are radioactive and because the tailings are now on the surface, measures are taken to minimise the emission of radon gas. During the operational life of a mine the material in the tailings dam is often kept covered by water to reduce surface radioactivity and radon emission (though with lower-grade ores neither pose a hazard at these levels).On completion of the mining operation, it is normal for the tailings dam to be covered with some two metres of clay and topsoil to reduce radiation levels to near those normally experienced in the region of the orebody, and for a vegetation cover to be established. At Ranger and Jabiluka in North Australia, tailings will be returned underground, as was done at the now-rehabilitated Nabarlek mine. In Canada, ore treatment is often remote from the mine that the new ore comes from, and tailings are emplaced in mined out pits wherever possible, and engineered dams otherwise.The radon gas emanates from the rock and tailings as the radium or thorium decays. It then decays itself to (solid) radon daughters, which are significantly alpha radioactive.*…Radon occurs in most rocks and traces of it are in the air we all breathe. However, at high concentrations it is a health hazard.A 1998 paper looks at the long-term population dose due to radon from uranium mining and shows that it is insignificant.WaterRun-off from the mine stockpiles and waste liquors from the milling operation are collected in secure retention ponds for isolation and recovery of any heavy metals or other contaminants. The liquid portion is disposed of either by natural evaporation or recirculation to the milling operation. Most Australian and many other mines adopt a "zero discharge" policy for any pollutants.Process water discharged from the mill contains traces of radium and some other metals which would be undesirable in biological systems downstream. This water is evaporated and the contained metals are retained in secure storage. During the operational phase, such water may be used to cover the tailings while they are accumulating.With in situ leach (ISL) operations, the orebody stays in the ground, in a contained aquifer, and uranium is recovered by circulating oxygenated and acidified groundwater through it, using injection and recovery wells. The saline quality of this groundwater in Australian ISL mines makes it far from potable in the first place, and after the uranium is recovered, oxygen input and circulation are discontinued, leaving the groundwater much as it was.The main environmental consideration with ISL is avoiding pollution of any groundwater away from the orebody, and leaving the immediate groundwater no less useful than it was initially.Descriptions of how environmental management is undertaken at Australia's three uranium mines, Ranger, Olympic Dam, and Beverley are under the Environmental Management headings of Australia's Uranium Mines, in the sections on the respective mines.In relation to Ranger, the Office of the Supervising Scientist was established by the Commonwealth Government in 1979 to oversee environmental protection at uranium mines in the Alligator Rivers region of the Northern Territory.RehabilitationApart from tailings, other solid wastes at a mine include equipment which is not able to be sold at the end of the operation. This is usually buried with the tailings.At the conclusion of mining, tailings are covered permanently with enough clay and soil to reduce both gamma radiation levels and radon emanation rates to levels near those naturally occurring in the region, and enough rock to resist erosion. A vegetation cover is then established.Mary Kathleen in Queensland was the site of Australia's first major rehabilitation project of a uranium mine. It involved the plant site, a 28 hectare tailings dam, and a 60 ha evaporation pond area. All this has now returned to being a cattle station, with unrestricted access. The rehabilitation project was completed at the end of 1985 at a cost of some $19 million, and won an award for engineering excellence.The Nabarlek uranium mine in the Northern Territory, c 270 km east of Darwin, was the first of the "new generation" of uranium mines to commence operations and the first to be rehabilitated. Environmental protection was stressed at Nabarlek since before mining commenced, and everything proceeded with eventual rehabilitation very much in mind. During the life of the operation the company worked together with government agencies, the Northern Land Council (NLC) and Aboriginal land owners to ensure a high standard of environmental management, culminating in its decommissioning and successful rehabilitation.At Ranger the planning of final restoration is well-established, and each year the company prepares a full-costed plan which assumes that mining could cease that year. All rehabilitation objectives must be achieved, including ecosystem viability, radiological safety, and landform stability (re erosion). This plan has been used as the basis for calculating the financial provision required for eventual closure at the end of mine life. In 2013 the net present value of the closure model for the Ranger project area and surrounds was estimated at A$640 million, fully provided for in the balance sheet. After substantial work had been commenced, at the end of 2016 the company had a rehabilitation provision of A$511 million plus provision for another A$100 million if required.A simpler model which can be applied is for the basic estimated cost of rehabilitation upon closure to be a bond held by the government, and such bonds are a routine requirement for any mines today. In the case of Ranger, ERA is obliged to secure funds for certain costs of rehabilitation in case of any need for premature closure. An annually amended plan is submitted to government outlining this provision, which is reviewed by an independent auditor. Money for this purpose is partly in a trust fund administered by the Commonwealth government and partly covered by bank guarantee.Apart from groundwater considerations discussed above, rehabilitation of ISL mines is very straightforward, making this a technique with remarkably low environmental impact. Upon decommissioning, wells are sealed or capped, pipes and process facilities removed, any evaporation pond revegetated, and the land can readily be returned to its previous uses.Experience at many mine sites is networked throughout the industry and available to present and future operators.Health of workersIn Australia all uranium mining and milling operations are undertaken under the Code of Practice and Safety Guide: Radiation Protection and Radioactive Waste Management in Mining and Mineral Processing, which sets strict health standards for radiation and radon gas exposure, for both workers and members of the public.In Canada the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission is responsible for regulating uranium mining as well as other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle. In Saskatchewan, provincial regulations also apply concurrently, and set strict health standards for both miners and local people. Similar standards are set in other countries.While uranium itself is only slightly radioactive, radon, a radioactive inert gas, is released to the atmosphere in very small quantities when the ore is mined and crushed. Radon is one of the decay products of uranium and radium, and occurs naturally in most rocks – minute traces of it are present in the air which we all breathe.Australian uranium mines have mostly been open cut and therefore naturally well ventilated. The Olympic Dam and Canadian underground mines are ventilated with powerful fans. Radon levels are kept at a very low and certainly safe level in uranium mines. (Radon in non-uranium mines also may need control by ventilation.)Gamma radiation may also be a hazard to those working close to high-grade ores. It comes principally from radium in the ore, so exposure to this is regulated as required. In particular, dust is suppressed, since this represents the main potential exposure to alpha radiation as well as a gamma radiation hazard.At the concentrations associated with uranium (and some mineral sands) mining, radon is a potential health hazard (actually due to its short-lived decay products), as is dust. Precautions taken during the mining and milling of uranium ores to protect the health of the workers include:Good forced ventilation systems in underground mines to ensure that exposure to radon gas and its radioactive daughter products is as low as possible and does not exceed established safety levels.Efficient dust control, because the dust may contain radioactive constituents and emit radon gas.Limiting the radiation exposure of workers in mine, mill and tailings areas so that it is as low as possible, and in any event does not exceed the allowable dose limits set by the authorities. In Canada this means that mining in very high-grade ore is undertaken solely by remote control techniques and by fully containing the high-grade ore where practicable.The use of radiation detection equipment in all mines and plants.Imposition of strict personal hygiene standards for workers handling uranium oxide concentrate.At any mine, designated employees (those likely to be exposed to radiation or radioactive materials) are monitored for alpha radiation contamination and personal dosimeters are worn to measure exposure to gamma radiation. Routine monitoring of air, dust and surface contamination is undertaken.Canadian mine and mill facilities are designed to handle safely ore grades of up to 26% U.If uranium oxide is ingested it has a chemical toxicity similar to that of lead oxide. Similar hygiene precautions to those in a lead smelter are therefore taken when handling it in the drying and packing areas of the mill.The usual radiation safeguards are applied at an ISL mining operation, despite the fact that most of the orebody? radioactivity remains well underground and there is hence minimal increase in radon release and no ore dust.See also WNA information paper on Occupational Safety in Uranium Mining.Environmental Aspects of Uranium Mining