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Names can be misleading.“Theory” in this case is simply meant to be the best explanation given the evidence for a set of known variables.MMT calls into question neoclassical assumptions about how economies work and because of this, MMT as an explanation of how sovereign economies work undermines years of research and understanding.Imagine learning neoclassical theories and dedicating your life to learning it. Then others come along and tell you that your understanding is mistaken. This is the source, IMO, of much of the contention from the orthodox schools of economics that MMT conflicts with.For those not familiar with MMT, it’s important to remember not to conflate MMT as a description of the economy with people who understand MMT and support certain prescriptive policies. For instance a person that understands and accepts MMT might support and even recommend a Job Guarantee. MMT as a theory has nothing to say about a Job Guarantee other than to evaluate potential results of the policy any more than physics, as an explanation of how objects interact, has anything to say about whether we should or should not construct a building, though a person that understand physics might support the creation of a building given potential desired outcomes.A few links to MMT sources for those serious about understanding.Think Tanks Publishing MMT Research:Center for Full Employment and Price Stability (www.cfeps.org)Jerome Levy Economics Institute (www.levyinstitute.org)Centre of Full Employment and Equity (http://e1.newcastle.edu.au/coffee/)Some Pages with Publications by Individual MMT Researchers:L. Randall WraySSRN http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=55043 Levy Institute http://www.levyinstitute.org/publications/?auth=287Warren MoslerMoslerEconomics http://moslereconomics.com/mandatory-readings/ EPICoalition http://www.epicoalition.org/papers_current.htmStephanie KeltonSSRN http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=96846 Levy Institute http://www.levyinstitute.org/publications/?auth=362Mathew ForstaterSSRN http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=57674 Levy Institute http://www.levyinstitute.org/publications/?auth=92Scott FullwilerSSRN http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=444041Eric TymoigneSSRN http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=361251 Levy Institute http://www.levyinstitute.org/publications/?auth=326Pavlina TchernevaSSRN http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=450541 Levy Institute http://www.levyinstitute.org/publications/?auth=431Jan KregelSSRN http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=47062 Levy Institute http://www.levyinstitute.org/publications/?auth=151Bill MitchellCofFEE http://e1.newcastle.edu.au/coffee/publications.cfmBill BlackSSRN http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=658251Books Published by MMTers:Wray, L. Randall. Modern money theory: A primer on macroeconomics for sovereign monetary systems. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.Wray, L. Randall, Theories of Money and Banking Volume 1, Edward Elgar Publising, 2013Wray, L. Randall. Understanding modern money. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003.Wray, L. Randall. Money and credit in capitalist economies: the endogenous money approach. Edward Elgar Publishing, 1990.Wray, Larry Randall, and Alfred Mitchell Innes, eds. Credit and state theories of money: The contributions of A. Mitchell Innes. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2004.Mosler, Warren. Soft Currency Economics. 1994Michael J. Murray and Mathew Forstater (eds.), 2013, The Job Guarantee: Toward True Full Employment, New York: Palgrave Macmillian.Michael J. Murray and Mathew Forstater (eds.), 2013, Employment Guarantee Schemes: Job Creation and Policy in Developing Countries and Emerging Markets, New York: Palgrave Macmillian.Eric Tymoigne and L. Randall Wray (2014) The Rise and Fall of Money Manager Capitalism: Hyman P. Minsky’s Half Century. London: Routledge.Mosler, Warren. Seven Deadly Innocent Frauds of Economic Policy. Davin Patton, 2010.Kelton, Stephanie. The State, the Market and the Euro: Chartalism versus Metallism in the Theory of Money. Eds. Stephanie A. Bell, and Edward John Nell. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003.Black, William, The Best Way to Rob a Bank Is to Own One: How Corporate Executives and Politicians Looted the S&L Industry, University of Texas Press, 2005.Mitchell, William, and Joan Muysken, Full employment abandoned: shifting sands and policy failures, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2008.Mathew Forstater and Pavlina Tcherneva (eds.) Full Employment and Price Stability: The Macroeconomic Vision of William S. Vickrey Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 2004.Edward J. Nell and Mathew Forstater (eds.): Reinventing Functional Finance, Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 2003.Aaron Warner, Mathew Forstater, and Sumner Rosen (eds.) Commitment to Full Employment, Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2000.Eric Tymoigne Central Banking, Asset Prices and Financial Fragility, London: Routledge, 2009. [I*]Some Important MMT-Related Papers Published in Journals, as Chapters in Books, and/or as Working Papers and ReportsOn MMT itself:Fullwiler, Scott, Stephanie Kelton, and L. Randall Wray. “Modern Money Theory: A Response to Critics.” Political Economy Research Institute Working Paper 279 (2012).Fullwiler, Scott. “Modern Monetary Theory-A Primer on the Operational Realities of the Monetary System.” Available at SSRN 1723198 (2010).Mathew Forstater, “Lerner, Abba Ptachya (1903-1982)” in Ross B. Emmett (ed.), The Biographical Dictionary of American Economists, London: Thoemmes/Continuum, 2006Tymoigne, Eric and L. Randall Wray “Modern Money Theory 101: A Reply to Critics.” Levy Economics Institute of Bard College WP 778 (2013).Money:Bell, Stephanie. “The role of the state and the hierarchy of money.” Cambridge Journal of Economics 25.2 (2001): 149-163.Bell, Stephanie. “The hierarchy of money.” Levy Economics Institute of Bard College WP 231 (1998).Wray, L. Randall. “Alternative approaches to money.” Theoretical Inquiries in Law 11.1 (2010): 29-49.Wray, L. Randall. Introduction to an alternative history of money. Levy Economics Institute of Bard College. WP_717. 2012.Tcherneva, Pavlina R. “Chartalism and the tax-driven approach to money.” A Handbook of Alternative Monetary Economics 69 (2006).Tcherneva, Pavlina R. “The Nature, Origins, and Role of Money: Broad and Specific Propositions and Their Implications for Policy.” Center for Full Employment and Price Stability, Kansas City, MO, Working Papers 46 (2005).Forstater, Mathew. “Taxation and primitive accumulation: the case of colonial Africa.” Research in Political Economy 22 (2005): 51-64.Wray, L. Randall. “A Meme for Money.” Levy Economics Institute of Bard College Working Papers 736 (2012).Mathew Forstater, “Tax-Driven Money,” in M. Setterfield, ed., Complexity, Endogenous Money, and Exogenous Interest Rates, Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 2005.Warren Mosler and Mathew Forstater, “A General Framework for the Analysis of Currencies and Commodities” , in Paul Davidson and Jan Kregel (eds.): Full Employment and Price Stability in the Global Economy, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1999.Inflation:The topic of inflation appears in many other works as part of larger discussions. Rather than repeat all of those works here, they have been marked with [I*] elsewhere in this list to denote that they provide significant discussion on inflation. Inflation specific works are listed below.Papadimitriou, Dimitri and L. Randall Wray. “Targeting Inflation” No. 27. Public Policy Brief at Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 1996.Fullwiler, Scott and Geoffrey Allen, “Can the Fed Target Inflation? Toward and Institutionalist Approach.” Journal of Economic Issues, XLI, No 2 (2007): 485-494.Job Guarantee/Full Employment:Mitchell, William, and L. Randall Wray. “In defense of employer of last resort: a response to Malcolm Sawyer.” Journal of Economic Issues 39.1 (2005): 235-244.[I*]Wray, L. Randall. “The employer of last resort programme: could it work for developing countries?”. International Labour Organization, 2007.Wray, L. Randall. “Zero unemployment and stable prices.” Journal of Economic Issues 32.2 (1998): 539-545.Tcherneva, Pavlina, and L. Randall Wray. “Gender and the Job Guarantee: The impact of Argentina’s Jefes program on female heads of poor households.”Kansas City: Center for Full Employment and Price Stability (2005).Tcherneva, Pavlina, and L. Randall Wray. “Employer of Last Resort: A Case Study of Argentina’s Jefes Program.” Available at SSRN 1010145 (2005).Tcherneva, Pavlina R. “Permanent on-the-spot job creation—the missing Keynes Plan for full employment and economic transformation.” Review of Social Economy 70.1 (2012): 57-80.Tcherneva, Pavlina. “Job or income guarantee?.” Centre for Full Employment and Price Stability Working Paper (2003).Tcherneva, Pavlina R., and L. Randall Wray. “Common Goals-Different Solutions: Can Basic Income and Job Guaranteed Deliver Their Own Problems.”Rutgers JL & Urb. Pol’y 2 (2005): 125.Tcherneva, Pavlina. “The art of job creation: promises and problems of the Argentinean experience.” Special Report 5.03 (2005).Tcherneva, Pavlina R., and L. Randall Wray. “Is Jefes de Hogar an Employer of Last Resort program?. An assessment of Argentina’s ability to deliver the promise of full employment and price stability.” C-FEPS Working Paper 43 (2005).Tcherneva, Pavlina R. Keynes’s approach to full employment: aggregate or targeted demand?. No. 542. Working papers//The Levy Economics Institute, 2008.Tcherneva, Pavlina R. “The Job Guarantee: Delivering the Benefits That Basic Income Only Promises–A Response to Guy Standing.” Basic Income Studies7.2 (2013): 66-87.Tchnerva, Pavlina R. “Inflationary and Distributional Effects of Alternative Fiscal Policies: An Augmented Minskyan-Kaleckian Model.” No. 706. Working Papers//The Levy Economics Institute, 2012. [I*]Fullwiler, Scott. “The Costs and Benefits of a Job Guarantee: Estimates from a Multi-Country Econometric Model.” Available at SSRN 2194960 (2012).Mitchell, William, and Joan Muysken. “Full employment abandoned: shifting sands and policy failures.” International Journal of Public Policy 5.4 (2010): 295-313.Mitchell, William F., and Joan Muysken. “The myth of employment enhancing flexible labour markets.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity, University of Newcastle, 2010.Welters, Riccardo, and William F. Mitchell. “Locked-in casual employment.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity, University of Newcastle, 2009.Mitchell, William F. “The job guarantee and inflation control.” Economic and Labour Relations Review 12 (2001): 10-25. [I*]Mitchell, William F. “The buffer stock employment model and the NAIRU: The path to full employment.” Journal of Economic Issues 32.2 (1998): 547-555. [I*]Mitchell, William F., and Warren B. Mosler. “Fiscal policy and the job guarantee.” Previous issue date: 2004-05-19T10: 21: 54Z (2004).Allen, Emma, et al. “The job guarantee in practice.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity, University of Newcastle, 2006.Forstater, Mathew. “Flexible full employment: structural implications of discretionary public sector employment.” Journal of Economic Issues 32.2 (1998): 557-563.Forstater, Mathew. “Functional finance and full employment: lessons from Lerner for today.” The Jerome Levy Economics Institute Working Paper 272 (1999).Forstater, Mathew. “Public employment and economic flexibility: The job opportunity approach to full employment.” No. 50. Public policy brief at Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 1999.Forstater, Mathew. “Public employment and environmental sustainability.”Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 25.3 (2003): 385-406.Scott Fullwiler. 2007. “Macroeconomic Stabilization through an Employer of Last Resort.” Journal of Economic Issues (March). Working Paper version available at SSRN 1722991 [I*]William Mitchell and Anthea Bill. 2005. “A Spatial Econometric Analysis of the Irreversibility of Long-Term Unemployment in Australia.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper no. 05-05.William Mitchell, Jenny Myers, and James Juniper. 2005. “The Dynamics of Job Creation and Destruction in Australia.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper No. 05-13.William Mitchell. 2013. “Full Employment Abandoned–The Triumph of Ideology Over Evidence.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper No. 02-13.William Mitchell. 2000. “The Job Guarantee and Inflation Control.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper No. 00-01. [I*]William Mitchell and Joan Muysken. 2008. “Full Employment Abandoned–Shifting Sands and Policy Failures.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper No. 08-01.William Mitchell and Joan Muysken. 2007. “Full Employment Does Not Mean Low Unemployment.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper No. 07-07.Victor Quirk, et al. 2006. “The Job Guarantee in Practice.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper No. 06-15Warren Mosler, “Full Employment and Price Stability.” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, Vol. 20, No. 2, Winter 1997-98Mathew Forstater, “Reply to Malcolm Sawyer,” Journal of Economic Issues. Vol. 39, No. 1, pp. 245-255, 2005. [I*]Mathew Forstater, “Jobs and Freedom Now! Functional Finance,Full Employment, and the Freedom Budget”, Review of Black Political Economy, January, 2012.Mathew Forstater, “From Civil Rights to Economic Security: Bayard Rustin and the African American Struggle for Full Employment, 1945-1978” International Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 36, No. 3, 2007.Mathew Forstater, “Green Jobs: Public Service Employment and Environmental Sustainability” Challenge Vol. 49, No. 4, pp. 58-72, 2006.Mathew Forstater, “The Case for an Environmentally Sustainable Jobs Program,” Policy Note 2005/1, The Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 2005.Mathew Forstater and Pavlina Tcherneva, “Introduction” in Mathew Forstater and Pavlina Tcherneva (eds.) Full Employment and Price Stability: The Macroeconomic Vision of William S. Vickrey,Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 2004. [I*]Mathew Forstater, “‘Jobs for All’: A Fitting Tribute to the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.,” in D. Menkart, A. D. Murray, and J. L. View (eds.) Putting the Movement Back into Civil Rights Teaching, Washington, D.C.: Teaching for Change and Poverty & Race Research Action Council, 2004.Mathew Forstater, “Green Jobs: Addressing the Critical Issues Surrounding the Environment, Workplace and Employment,” Int. J. Environment, Workplace and Employment, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 53-61, 2004Mathew Forstater, “Full Employment and Social Justice,” in D. P. Champlin and J. T. Knoedler (eds.) The Institutionalist Tradition in Labor Economics, Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2004.Mathew Forstater, “Functional Finance and Full Employment: Lessons from Lerner for Today,” in E. J. Nell and M. Forstater (eds.): Reinventing Functional Finance, Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 2003.Mathew Forstater, “Public Employment and Environmental Sustainability,” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 385-406, 2003.Mathew Forstater, “Unemployment,” in The Elgar Companion to Post Keynesian Economics, John King (ed.), Edward Elgar, 2002.Mathew Forstater, “Full Employment and Environmental Sustainability” in Ellen Carlson and William Mitchell (eds.) The Urgency of Full Employment The Centre for Applied Economic Research, University of New South Wales Press.Mathew Forstater, “‘Jobs for All’: Another Dream of the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.,” Forum for Social Economics, Vol. 31, No. 2, Spring, 2002.Mathew Forstater, “Full Employment Policies Must Consider Effective Demand and Structural and Technological Change,” in A Post Keynesian Perspective on Twenty-First Century Economic Problems, Paul Davidson (ed.), Edward Elgar, 2002.Mathew Forstater, “Savings-Recycling Public Employment: Vickrey’s Assets-Based Approach to Full Employment and Price Stability,” in A. Warner, M. Forstater, and S. Rosen (eds.): Commitment to Full Employment, Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2000. [I*]Mathew Forstater, “Full Employment and Economic Flexibility”in Ellen Carlson and William F. Mitchell (eds.) The Path to Full Employment and Equity Economic and Labour Relations Review, 2000. [I*]Mathew Forstater, “Savings-Recycling Public Employment: An Assets-Based Approach to Full Employment and Price Stability,” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, 22, Spring, pp. 437-450, 2000. [I*]Mathew Forstater, “Robert Eisner’s Common-Sense Commitment to Full Employment and Activist Fiscal Policy,” Journal of Economic Issues, 33, June, 1999.Mathew Forstater, “Functional Finance and Full Employment: Lessons from Lerner for Today,” Journal of Economic Issues, 33, June, 1999.Mathew Forstater, “Public Employment and Economic Flexibility,” Policy Brief No. 50, The Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, February, 1999. [I*]Mathew Forstater, “Institutionalist Approaches to Full Employment Policies,” Journal of Economic Issues, 32, December, pp. 1135-1139, 1998.Mathew Forstater, “Flexible Full Employment: Structural Implications of Discretionary Public Sector Employment,” Journal of Economic Issues, 32, June, pp. 557-564, 1998.Dimitri B. Papadimitriou, L. Randall Wray, and Mathew Forstater, “Toward Full Employment Without Inflation: The Job Opportunity Program,” Report, The Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 7-12, 1998. [I*]Mathew Forstater, “Selective Use of Discretionary Public Employment and Economic Flexibility,” Working Paper No. 218, The Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, December, 1997.Inequality:Tcherneva, “Reorienting Fiscal Policy: A Bottom up Approach”, Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, September, 2014 (forthcoming)Tcherneva, P. ““The Role of Fiscal Policy: Lessons from Stabilization Efforts in the U.S. During the Great Recession,”International Journal of Political Economy, Spring 2012, 41(2): 5-26.”Tcherneva, P. “Inflationary and Distributional Effects of Alternative Fiscal Policies: An Augmented Minskian-Kaleckian Model.”, Working Paper #706, Levy Economics Institute, Annandale-on-Hudson, February 2012.Minsky:Papadimitriou, Dimitri B., and L. Randall Wray. “The economic contributions of Hyman Minsky: varieties of capitalism and institutional reform.” Review of Political Economy 10.2 (1998): 199-225.Papadimitriou, Dimitri B., and L. Randall Wray. Minsky’s Analysis of Financial Capitalism. Jerome Levy Economics Institute, Bard College, 1999.Wray, L. Randall, and Eric Tymoigne. “Macroeconomics meets Hyman P. Minsky: The financial theory of investment.” (2008).Wray, L. Randall. “Minsky’s approach to employment policy and poverty: employer of last resort and the war on poverty.” (2007).Eric Tymoigne (2011)“Engineering Pyramid Ponzi Finance: The Evolution of Private Finance from 1970–2008 and Implications for Regulation.” In J. Leclaire, T.-H. Jo, and J. Knodell (eds.) Heterodox Analysis of Financial Crisis and Reform. 2011.Eric Tymoigne (2010) “Minsky and Economic Policy: ‘Keynesianism’ all over again?” In Papadimitriou, D. and L.R. Wray (eds.), The Elgar Companion to Hyman P. Minsky. Northampton: Edward Elgar.Eric Tymoigne (2007) “A Hard-Nosed Look at Worsening U.S. Household Finance.” Challenge, 50 (4), July-August 2007: 88-111Money Manager Capitalism:Wray, L. Randall. “The rise and fall of money manager capitalism: a Minskian approach.” Cambridge Journal of Economics 33.4 (2009): 807-828.Minsky, Hyman P., and L. Randall Wray. Securitization. No. 08-2. Levy Economics Institute, The, 2008.Wray, L. Randall. The commodities market bubble: money manager capitalism and the financialization of commodities. No. 96. Public policy brief//Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 2008.Wray, L. Randall. Money manager capitalism and the global financial crisis. No. 578. Working paper, Levy Economics Institute, 2009.Wray, L. Randall. “Saving, profits, and speculation in capitalist economies.”Journal of Economic Issues 25.4 (1991): 951-975.Mitchell, William F. “A Modern Monetary Perspective on the Crisis and a Reform Agenda.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity, University of Newcastle, 2009.Tymoigne, Éric. “Detecting Ponzi finance: An evolutionary approach to the measure of financial fragility.” (2010).Social Security/Healthcare:Bell, Stephanie, and L. Randall Wray. “Financial aspects of the social security” problem”.” Journal of Economic Issues (2000): 357-364.Kelton, Stephanie. “An Introduction to the Health Care Crisis in America: How Did We Get Here?.” Special Series on Health Care. Kansas City, Mo.: Center for Full Employment and Price Stability. September (2007).Semenova, Alla, and Stephanie Kelton. “Are Rising Health Care Costs Reducing US Global Competitiveness?” Working paper. Kansas City, Mo.: Center for Full Employment and Price Stability. March, 2008.Semenova, Alla, and Stephanie Kelton. “The Business Sector’s Response to Rising Health Care Costs: Implications for a Demand-Driven Economy.” Center for Full Employment and Price Stability: University of Missouri-Kansas City, MO(2008).Semenova, Alla, and Stephanie Kelton. “Health Care Reform, Universal Coverage and Financial “Basics” A Functional Finance Perspective August 2008.” (2008).Galbraith, James K., L. Randall Wray, and Warren Mosler. “The case against intergenerational accounting: The accounting campaign against social security and Medicare.” No. 98. Public policy brief at Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 2009.William Mitchell and Warren Mosler. 2005. “Essential elements of a modern monetary economy with applications to social security privatisation and the intergenerational debate.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper No. 05-01.William Mitchell and Warren Mosler. 2003. “The Intergenerational Report–Myths and Solutions.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper No. 03-10.Banking/Finance:Wray, L. Randall. “Lessons from the subprime meltdown.” Challenge 51.2 (2008): 40-68.Wray, L. Randall. “Commercial banks, the central bank, and endogenous money.” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 14.3 (1992): 297-310.Nersisyan, Yeva, and L. Randall Wray. “The global financial crisis and the shift to shadow banking.” No. 587. Working paper, Levy Economics Institute, 2010.Minsky, Hyman P., et al. “Community development banking: A proposal to establish a nationwide system of community development banks.” No. 3. Public policy brief at Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 1993.Wray, L. Randall. “What do banks do? What should banks do?” No. 612. Working paper, Levy Economics Institute, 2010.Central Banking:Bell, Stephanie, and L. Randall Wray. “Fiscal effects on reserves and the independence of the Fed.” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 25.2 (2003): 263-272.Bell-Kelton, Stephanie. “Behind closed doors. The political economy of central banking in the United States.” International Journal of Political Economy 35.1 (2006): 5-23.Wray, L. Randall. “A Post Keynesian view of central bank independence, policy targets, and the rules versus discretion debate.” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 30.1 (2007): 119-141.Wray, L. Randall. “The Fed and the New Monetary Consensus: The case for rate hikes, part two.” No. 80. Public policy brief at Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 2004.Tcherneva, Pavlina R. “Bernanke’s paradox: can he reconcile his position on the federal budget with his recent charge to prevent deflation?.” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 33.3 (2011): 411-434.Fullwiler, Scott, and L. Randall Wray. “Quantitative easing and proposals for reform of monetary policy operations.” Bard College Levy Economics Institute Working Paper 645 (2010).Fullwiler, Scott T. “An endogenous money perspective on the post-crisis monetary policy debate.” Review of Keynesian Economics 1.2 (2013): 171-194.Fullwiler, Scott. “Treasury Debt Operations: An Analysis Integrating Social Fabric Matrix and Social Accounting Matrix Methodologies.” Available at SSRN 1825303 (2011).Fullwiler, Scott T. “The Social Fabric Matrix Approach to Central Bank Operations: An Application to the Federal Reserve and the Recent Financial Crisis.” Institutional Analysis and Praxis. Springer New York, 2009. 123-169.Scott Fullwiler. 2008. “Modern Central Bank Operations–The General Principles” Available at SSRN 1658232Scott Fullwiler. 2005. “Paying Interest on Reserve Balances–It’s More Significant than You Think.” Journal of Economic Issues (June). Working Paper version available at SSRN 1723589Scott Fullwiler. 2003. “Timeliness and the Fed’s Daily Tactics.” Journal of Economic Issues (December)Government Spending/Debt/Deficits:Bell, Stephanie. “Do taxes and bonds finance government spending?.” Journal of Economic Issues (2000): 603-620.Kelton, Stephanie, and L. Randall Wray. “What a long, strange trip it’s been: Can we muddle through without fiscal policy?.” Post-Keynesian Principles of Economic Policy (2006): 101-119.Kelton, Stephanie. “Limitations of the government budget constraint: Users vs. issuers of the currency.” Panoeconomicus 58.1 (2011): 57-66.Wray, L. Randall. “A Keynesian presentation of the relations among government deficits, investment, saving, and growth.” Journal of Economic Issues 23.4 (1989): 977-1002.Nersisyan, Yeva, and L. Randall Wray. “Does Excessive Sovereign Debt Really Hurt Growth? A Critique of’This Time is Different’, by Reinhart and Rogoff.” A Critique of’This Time is Different’, by Reinhart and Rogoff (June 21, 2010). The Levy Economics Institute Working Paper 603 (2013).Wray, L. Randall. “Deficits, inflation, and monetary policy.” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 19.4 (1997): 543-571.Nersisyan, Yeva, and L. Randall Wray. “Deficit hysteria redux? Why we should stop worrying about US government deficits.” No. 111. Public policy brief at Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 2010.Tcherneva, Pavlina R. “The return of fiscal policy: can the new developments in the new economic consensus be reconciled with the Post-Keynesian view?.”Levy Economics Institute, Working Papers Series (2008).Fullwiler, Scott. “Functional Finance and the Debt Ratio.” Available at SSRN 2196482 (2012).Fullwiler, Scott. “What If the Government Just Prints Money?.” Available at SSRN 1731625 (2009).Fullwiler, Scott. “Helicopter Drops are FISCAL Operations.” Available at SSRN 1725026 (2010).William Mitchell and Warren Mosler. 2002. “Public Debt Management and Australia’s Macroeconomic Priorities.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper no. 02-13.James Juniper and William Mitchell. 2008. “There Is No Financial Crisis So Deep That It Cannot Be Dealt with by Public Spending.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper No. 08-10.William Mitchell. 2007. “Econometrics, Realism, and Policy in Post Keynesian Economics.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper No. 07-02Mathew Forstater, “Taxation and Primitive Accumulation: The Case of Colonial Africa,” Research in Political Economy, Vol. 22, pp. 51-64, 2005.Mathew Forstater, “Preface” in E. J. Nell and M. Forstater (eds.): Reinventing Functional Finance, Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 2003.Mathew Forstater, “Toward a New Instrumental Macroeconomics,” in E. J. Nell and M. Forstater (eds.): Reinventing Functional Finance, Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 2003. [I*]Mathew Forstater, “Bond Sales,” in Cynthia Northrup (ed.) History of U.S. Economic Policy, 1600s-2000: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, p. 30, ABC-Clio, 2003.Fadhel Kaboub and Mathew Forstater, “Government Budgets,” in Cynthia Northrup (ed.) History of U.S. Economic Policy, 1600s-2000: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, p. 134, ABC-Clio, 2003.Mathew Forstater, “Toward a New Instrumental Macroeconomics: Abba Lerner and Adolph Lowe on Economic Method, Theory, History and Policy,” Working Paper No. 254, The Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, October 1998. [I*]Poverty:Bell, Stephanie A., and L. Randall Wray. “The war on poverty after 40 years: A Minskyan assessment.” No. 78. Public policy brief at Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 2004.Fullwiler, Scott T., and Susan Meyeraan. “Confronting Poverty with Jobs and Job Training: A Northeast Iowa Case Study.” Journal of Economic Issues 44.4 (2010): 1073-1084.The Euro:Kelton, Stephanie A., and L. Randall Wray. “Can Euroland Survive?” No. 106. Public policy brief at Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 2009.Pilkington, Philip, and Warren Mosler. “Tax-backed Bonds–A National Solution to the European Debt Crisis.” No. 12-04. Levy Economics Institute, The, 2012.Wray, L. Randall. “The euro crisis and the job guarantee: A proposal for Ireland.” Levy Economics Institute of Bard College Working Paper 707 (2012).Mathew Forstater, “The European Economic and Monetary Union: Introduction,” Eastern Economic Journal, 25, April. 1999.Interest Rates:Wray, L. Randall. “Alternative theories of the rate of interest.” Cambridge Journal of Economics 16.1 (1992): 69-89.Wray, L. Randall. “Alternative approaches to money and interest rates.” Journal of Economic Issues 26.4 (1992): 1145-1178.Wray, L. Randall. “When are interest rates exogenous? Complexity, Endogenous Money and macroeconomic Theory: Essays in Honour of Basil J. Moore”, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar (2006).Forstater, Mathew, and Warren Mosler. “The natural rate of interest is zero.”Journal of Economic Issues (2005): 535-542.Scott Fullwiler. 2007. “Interest Rates and Fiscal Sustainability.” Journal of Economic Issues (December). Working Paper version available at SSRN 1722986Scott Fullwiler. 2006. “Setting Interest Rates in the Modern Money Era.” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics (Spring). Working Paper version available at SSRN 1723591Economic Geography:Mitchell, William, and Martin Watts. “Identifying functional regions in Australia using hierarchical aggregation techniques.” Geographical Research 48.1 (2010): 24-41.Mitchell, William F., and Robert Stimson. “Creating a new geography of functional economic regions to analyse aspects of labour market performance in Australia.” Ed. P. Dalziel. Centre of Full Employment and Equity, University of Newcastle, 2010.Mitchell, William. “Exploring Regional Disparities in Employment Growth.” Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2011.William Mitchell and James Juniper. 2005. “Towards A Spatial Keynesian Economics.” Centre of Full Employment and Equity Working Paper no. 05-09.External Sector:Wray, L. Randall. “Twin Deficits and Sustainability.” No. 06-3. Levy Economics Institute, The, 2006.Wray, L. Randall. “Imbalances? What Imbalances?” Levy Economics Institute, The, 2012.Videos:Stephanie Kelton Nov 2013Warren Mosler at Occupy Dallas June 2012Link to source for the collection of all the links above

Back in the day, I ended my emails to a physics list at MIT with a random fact. Here's the list:The highest temperature ever reached on earth was 4 trillion degrees Celsius. This was in quark-gluon plasma at Brookhaven RHIC.Prof. Seth Lloyd of MIT, a proponent of the idea that the universe is a computer, calculated that the universe can hold a maximum of 10^120 bits. This bound was calculated by considering the amount of information (entropy) that one can store in a volume before it has the properties of a black hole, whose entropy is proportional to its surface area. The second paragraph of his paper on this result has the most hilarious string of citations I have ever seen (85 in a row): http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v406/n6799/full/4061047a0.html.Air near the surface of the ocean moves slower than air at higher altitudes due to friction with the water. Albatross can use the a north-south wind speed gradient to fly without flapping their wings when going east-west by moving downwind at higher altitudes to gain speed relative to ground and then moving to a lower altitude before going in their intended direction. (Fact courtesy of Prof. Allan Adams.)The hypothetical sterile neutrino does not interact via any of the fundamental interactions in the Standard Model except gravity.The Biot-Savart law is used in aerodynamics to calculate the velocity induced by vortex lines when induced air currents form solenoidal rings around a vortex axis that plays the role of electric current.Water in the liquid state possesses many molecular interactions which broaden the absorption peak and allow people to eat foods like Pizza Bagels after microwaving them. In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules absorb at around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the microwave oven.Quantum effects in the specific heat capacity of hydrogen gas were observed by Maxwell 50 years before quantum theory was developed.A record high of 83 exoplanets were discovered in 2009 (out of around 531 total). See List of extrasolar planets.Plasma was first named "plasma" in 1928 by Irving Langmuir because it reminded him of blood plasma.The sun fuses 620 million metric tons of hydrogen per second.Since 1967, a second has been defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom. In 1977, the second was lengthened by about 1×10-10 to correct for general relativistic effects above mean sea level. In 1997, the definition was refined to include the phrase, "This definition refers to a caesium atom at rest at a temperature of 0 K."Assuming that the Universe continues to expand, it is thought that in 10^19 to 10^20 years the galaxies will evaporate. However, white dwarfs should be able to survive this process. Their subsequent lifetime is on the order of the proton lifetime, which is at least 10^32 years.Some theories of quantum gravity propose a discrete model of time. One such model suggests the chronon as the basic quantum of time (around 7×10-24 s for an electron)On March 1, 2010, NASA announced that the moon's northern pole contains millions of tons of water ice.The standard value of gravitational acceleration on earth g is from an object in free fall at sea level at a latitude of 45 degrees." . . . Additionally, flammable metals with relatively low boiling points such as zinc, whose boiling point of 907°C (1,665°F) is about 1,370°C (2,500°F) below the temperature at which thermite burns, could potentially boil superheated metal violently into the air if near a thermite reaction, where it could then burst into flame as it is exposed to oxygen." [Wikipedia article on thermite]Ketchup is a thixotropic, meaning that that the fluid viscosity decreases over time given a constant shear. In other words, fluid motion is initially difficult to start, but once flowing will continue to do so freely. (via Wikipedia)The energy cost of sending a payload to the stars (i.e., d = infinity) is only 10% more than the cost of sending a payload to Saturn (i.e., d = around 1.2 billion km). See How hard is space travel, in principle? for the calculation.The approximate power of Galileo space probe's radio signal (when at Jupiter) as received on earth by a 70-meter DSN antenna is a zeptowatt (10-21 watts). In comparison, the power consumption of a human cell is 10^12 times greater. (via Wikipedia)The 100 dinar Serbian banknote has Tesla on the front. Check it out! File:100RSD front.jpgThe latest abstract on my physics arxiv RSS feed describes the use of artificial neural network simulation to conclude that the temperature in Antarctica during Captain Robert F. Scott's death in 1912 was 13 degrees F higher than Scott reported. The last sentence reads, "On the basis of the mentioned evidence I concluded that the real minimum near surface air temperature data was altered by Lt. Bowers and Captain Scott to inflate and dramatize the weather conditions."Numerical integrals used to be calculated by drawing the curve and measuring the area underneath using a planimeter. This is how Johnson originally evaluated the voltage gain integrals in his paper on Johnson shot noise (1928).The sun radiates as a 6000 K blackbody in the optical range but can have a blackbody temperature of over 10^6 K at radio frequencies.In 1999, Jaffe, Busza, and Wilczek at MIT (along with Jack Sandweiss at Yale) co-wrote a paper discussing apocalyptic situations that could arise from high energy relativistic heavy ion collisions, including miniature black holes and the production of a dangerous "strangelet" particle. The abstract ends with the sentence, "Given minimal physical assumptions the continued existence of the Moon, in the form we know it, despite billions of years of cosmic ray exposure, provides powerful empirical evidence against the possibility of dangerous strangelet production." (Seehttp://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9910333.)The sun has cycles of 11, 22, 87, 210, 2300, and 6000 years. (Only the 11 and 22 year cycles are clearly observed.)In 1996, NASA conducted an experiment with a 20,000-meter conducting tether in space. When the tether was fully deployed during this test, the orbiting tether generated a potential of 3,500 volts. This conducting single-line tether was severed after five hours of deployment. It is believed that the failure was caused by an electric arc generated by the conductive tether's movement through the Earth's magnetic field.George Zweig, one of the physicists who proposed the quark model, originally preferred the name "ace" to "quark."In 1997, scientists used a 16 tesla magnetic field to levitate a frog with no apparent ill effects on the frog. (The strongest continuous magnetic field yet produced in a lab is 45 teslas).The sun is actually yellow, just like everyone thinks it is.A human being continuously radiates about 1000 watts. A nude person indoors absorbs about 900 watts. Wearing clothes reduces the outgoing heat flux, as observed by rapper Nelly in "Hot in Herre" (2002).There is not enough mass in the universe to build a Gott time machine.Velociraptors may have been able to run at 40 mph for short bursts.The universe is accelerating. (According to Alan Guth when I asked, this is he most important thing one can learn from him.)In 1912, mathematician Karl Fritof Sundman proved that there exists a series solution in powers of t^(1/3) for the 3-body problem. Unfortunately, this was after Poincare already won King Oscar II's prize for solving the problem, even though he didn't.The coldest measured temperature (450 pK) has a peak black body emittance wavelength of 6400 km.The raman laser operates by raman scattering of photons. When light hits a substance, it causes the atoms in the substance to vibrate sympathetically. The collision of photons with the substance causes some of the photons to gain or lose energy, resulting in a secondary light of a different wavelength. A Raman laser takes this secondary light and amplifies it by reflecting it and pumping energy into the system to emit a coherent laser beam.Tycho Brahe lost the bridge of his nose in a duel in 1566 and was said to have pasted a replacement nose of either gold, silver, or copper to his face for the rest of his life.The Space Pen, used by NASA astronauts since the 1970s, operates from -35 to 120 degrees Celsius and has an estimated shelf life of a century. The ink is forced out by compressed air at nearly 35 psi. (Space Pen)A subatomic particle with kinetic energy equal to a baseball traveling at 60 mph was observed in 1991. See Oh-My-God particle.The theory of doubly-special relativity predicts that the speed of light is energy-dependent. (Doubly special relativity)In 1783, geologist John Michell published a letter postulating that if "the semi-diameter of a sphere of the same density as the Sun were to exceed that of the Sun in the proportion of 500 to 1 . . . all light emitted from such a body would be made to return towards it by its own proper gravity." He suggested the idea of gravity influencing light nearly 130 years before Einstein but apparently predicted spectral shifts in the wrong direction because he thought that blue light had less energy than red.A small herd of American bison lives on the grounds of Fermilab, a symbol of Fermilab's "connection to the American prairie." [Wikipedia]The current record for coldest temperature ever achieved by man was set in 1999 by cooling a piece of rhodium metal to 100 picokelvin. While we're on the topic of rhodium, 1 kg of rhodium costs nearly 2x the MIT yearly tuition, making it the most precious metal.This one deserves direct quotation. "If a spaghetti stick is uniformly bent until it fractures and ejects a third piece, then the third piece is always ejected outwards from the convex side. When the spaghetti fractures for the first time, the two remaining pieces then spring outwards, and providing there is a sufficiently weak potential fracture site on the opposite side a second fracture occurs, resulting in a third piece being ejected away from the initially convex side." (Nickalls, Oliver and Richard; "Linear Spaghetti," New Scientist, p. 52, 1995)Air spontaneously ionizes at 2500 kV/m. Fields in lightning storm clouds are usually 10 times less.The youngest person to receive the Nobel Prize in Physics was William L. Bragg at age 25. I wonder if he Bragged about it.The largest pinhole camera in the world was built from an abandoned F-18 hangar in California. The resulting photograph measured 108 feet by 85 feet and was developed in an Olympic-sized swimming poolJohn A. Wheeler, Feynman's mentor, believed that all electrons had the same observed mass and charge because they were all the same electron traveling backwards and forwards in time.The sun's magnetic poles reverse every 11 years. The next reversal is in 2012.Researchers at the University of Minnesota have experimentally verified that humans swim in syrup at the about same speed as humans swim in water. Reference: http://it.umn.edu/news/inventing//2004_Winter/goingforthegoo.html.Sir David Brewster, best known for being the guy who has a "magic" angle named after him ("magic" is the precise terminology used by Prof. Gedik of 8.03), also invented the sea thermometer. Most people, including myself, do not know what a sea thermometer is because nobody has written a Wikipedia article about it yet.The Leonids meteor shower of 1833 may have reached 200,000 counts per hour in eastern North America. In Independence, Missouri, the shower was interpreted as a sign that the Mormons should leave.1 attoparsec per microfortnight is roughly equal to 1 inch per second. (1 parsec = 3.26 light-years, atto- = 10^-18, fortnight = 14 days)"Tokomak" is a transliteration of the Russian word "tokomak." (Okay, it looks like the same word but it's supposed to be written in the Russian alphabet.) "Tokomak" is either short for "toroidal chamber with magnetic coils" or "toroidal chamber with axial magnetic field".Dr. Tom Gutierrez at UC Davis wrote a Standard Model Lagrangian that basically summarizes everything that mankind has ever measured in one equation with, like, 29319393 terms. See it here: http://nuclear.ucdavis.edu/~tgutierr/files/sml.pdfGamma ray bursts were discovered accidentally while the US government was searching for evidence of the Soviets testing nuclear weapons in space. Their discovery was kept secret for years. (This fact courtesy of Prof. Chakrabarty.)One (serious) explanation of sonoluminescence is that the light bursts generated by imploding bubbles in a liquid excited by sound are actually due to quantum vacuum radiation. If I'm not mistaken, this means that pistol shrimp (which produce sonoluminescent light by snapping their claws) have the impressive ability to convert virtual photons into real photons.The radiation from the Crab Nebula (at visible wavelengths!) is actually from electrons moving in a circle of radius 2 AU with a period of 2 hours. Each flash of observable radiation, however, only lasts 10^-15 seconds.Feynman diagrams are also called Stueckelberg diagrams.Maxwell's original formulation of E&M contained 20 equations in 20 variables and probably didn't fit on a t-shirt.Oliver Heaviside coined the terms admittance, conductance, impedance, and inductance in E&M theory. More obscurely, he also coined reluctance, which is defined as either magnetic resistance or what you feel before manually computing any integral that involves Coulomb's law and weirdly shaped wires.The plot of how much time it takes a double pendulum to flip over as a function of initial angle displacements looks like this:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:All.png. (I think my grandmother used to wear a shirt that looked like this, incidentally.)Microwaves are more efficient on frozen water than liquid water because the molecules aren't free to rotate in frozen water.The fastest object ever made by man is the Helios 2, a spacecraft that orbited the sun with an estimated velocity of 153,800 mph at perihelion. That's 0.0002 times the speed of light.The shortest time interval ever measured is on the order of 100 attoseconds (10^-16 seconds). In a brilliantly non-obvious article about this in 2004, the BBC wrote, "The advance opens up the possibility of more accurate timekeeping."Supposedly the oldest thing ever observed in the universe is a star that exploded 13 billion years ago, when the universe was 600 million years old, which is only slightly older than Harvard.Metal detectors create magnetic fields, which induce eddy currents in metal objects, which create magnetic fields, which induce annoying beeping sounds in metal detectors.Ferroliquids are used for cooling in loudspeakers without extra energy input. They're less magnetic at higher temperatures, so a strong magnet placed near the heat-producing voice coil will attract cold ferrofluid more than hot ferrofluid.Electric toothbrushes recharge without any exposed contacts. The brush unit and the charge unit each contain half of a transformer. When brought together, a varying magnetic field in one coil induces a current in the other coil, charging the battery by induction.Homing pigeons can't navigate on Mercury because Mercury has no magnetic field. Or atmosphere. That's another reason. (Today is extra special because this fact incorporates both biology and physics, which is like half of the MIT general institute requirements.)Physics fact of the day: There is current research in the use of nonthermal plasmas to decontaminate fresh produce.Lightning can reach temperatures five times that of the surface of the sun

For the first part of this answer, I will list incidents significant enough to be reported in Wikipedia, from April 2009-April 2019:June 19, 2009 – United States – A major downpour of rain in Rockford, Illinois, causes 14 of the 114 ethanol tankers of a Canadian National freight train to leave the track and explode into flames. One person at a rail crossing dies, several others are burned.[210][211]June 22, 2009 – United States – June 2009 Washington Metro train collision – On the Washington Metro, in Northeast Washington, D.C., an electronic track-circuit module fails, causing a train to go undetected by the automatic train control system. A second train crashes into it, killing 9 people, the deadliest incident in the subway system's 33-year history.[212][213]July 9, 2009 – United States – The Amtrak Wolverine hits the side of a car in Canton Township, Michigan, near Detroit. All five people in the vehicle die.[219]November 24, 2009 – United States – 116 cars of a Union Pacific Railroad train derail in southwest Houston, Texas, forcing the closure of several lanes of Alternate U.S. Highway 90 for several days.[238]12 February 2010 – United States – At 10.13, a train derails in the pocket track just north of Farragut North Washington Metro station when the front car leaves the tracks. Of the nearly 400 passengers on board, one person was taken to hospital.[9][10] The NTSB concluded that the train operator (driver) was at fault for rule violations, including continuing past a red signal without authorization. Contributing factors were poor supervision of the operator which prevented correct configuration of the train for the signal and control system. There were also difficulties with the radio systems.[10]15 March 2010 – United States – A METRO bus collides with a light rail METRO train in Houston, Texas, injuring nearly 20 people.[13] Police and METRO investigators claim that the bus ran a traffic light that was red for ten seconds before the bus passed it at 29 miles per hour (47 km/h).[14][15]13 May 2010 – United States – A northbound Amtrak Piedmont collides with a truck towing a low loader in Mebane, North Carolina. 11 are injured.[21] The reports from the railroads involved collected by the Federal Railroad Administration indicate that there were 17 injuries and $3.3 million of damage. The accident was caused by the truck driver.[22]10 September 2010 – United States – A conductor loses his arm when two trains collide in Fontana, California.[50]30 September 2010 – United States – Two Canadian National ore trains collide head-on twelve miles north of Two Harbors, Minnesota, injuring all five crew members.[55]13 March 2011 – United States – 2011 California BART train derailment – two cars of a ten car BART train derail in Northern California. Three minor back injuries are reported.[67]28 March 2011 – United States – A CSX train travelling through Newton Falls, Ohio with an estimated 100-cars of mixed freight (including hoppers and tankers), suffers a 12-car derailment at approximately 07.00 (local time) Eastern Daylight Time. Three rail cars fall off a bridge and onto Center Street.17 April 2011 – United States – A BNSF Railway freight train hauling 130-cars of coal from Wyoming to Chicago rear-ends a stationary maintenance equipment train near Red Oak, Iowa at 6:55 am.[74] The lead locomotive on the coal train derails and fire engulfs the cab. The crew of two, the conductor and engineer, on the coal train are killed. Ten cars on the maintenance train derail. The two crew members on the maintenance train are not injured.3 June 2011 – United States – A Burlington Northern commuter train from Aurora, Illinois and an Amtrak train heading to Carbondale, Illinois collide at Chicago's Union Station at about 08.15, injuring at least five people. One of the trains derails.[79]24 June 2011 – United States – Miriam (near Reno), Nevada: Despite the working signals on the track, a semi, driving on a rural stretch of U.S. Route 95 near Reno and Sparks, strikes one of the cars of a west-bound California Zephyr Amtrak passenger train, killing at least six people (the truck driver and 5 others on the train)11 July 2011 – United States – An Amtrak Downeaster passenger train from Boston, Massachusetts heading to Portland, Maine is struck by a garbage truck at a crossing in North Berwick, Maine, killing the driver of the truck and setting the locomotive and one passenger car on fire.[86]7 October 2011 – United States – 26 cars of a 131-car freight train derail and explode near Tiskilwa in Bureau County, Illinois, approximately 160 kilometres (99 mi) west of Chicago. No injuries are reported; 800 people are evacuated.[101][102]12 October 2011 – United States – In Oakland, California a southbound Amtrak San Joaquin train passes a red signal and collides with a stopped Coast Starlight train at low speed, injuring seventeen people.[103]6 January 2012 – United States – Three CSX freight trains collide in a remote section of Porter County, Indiana resulting in a fire and possible HAZMAT situation. Two injuries are reported.[112] The NTSB report placed the blame on the second train which failed to obey signals, causing it to run into the first train. The third train ran into the derailed trains shortly thereafter.[113]17 January 2012 – United States – A BNSF Railway freight train collides with a tractor trailer in northeast Montana, causing ten rail cars to derail, including four locomotives and blocking the traffic on the rail line.[116]1 February 2012 – United States – The Amtrak Wolverine train from Pontiac, Michigan to Chicago, carrying 71 passengers and 5 crew, strikes a stalled tractor trailer (carrying equipment for oil production) on tracks in Leoni Township, Michigan. The lead engine and at least two cars derail. There are no fatalities, and six people suffer non-life-threatening injuries24 June 2012 – United States – Three crew members were killed when two Union Pacific trains slammed into each other just east of Goodwell, about 480 kilometres northwest of Oklahoma City. The crash triggered a diesel-fueled fireball that appeared to weld the locomotives together.[136][137]4 July 2012 – United States – A Union Pacific Railroad coal train heading to Wisconsin derails, collapsing an overpass on Shermer Road in Glenview, Illinois at about 13.45. A day later, a couple, having been crushed by the falling coal and cars, are found dead in their car buried beneath the rubble.[138]11 July 2012 – United States – A Norfolk Southern train with 2 locomotives and 98 cars derails in Columbus, Ohio, near the Ohio State Fairgrounds at 02.05 CDT. The resulting explosion, caused in part due to the burning of 76,000 litres (17,000 imperial gallons) of ethanol, causes a mile-wide evacuation. At the time of the explosion, two nearby individuals are injured; they drive themselves to hospital.[139]21 July 2012 – United States – A Kansas City Southern freight train collides with a BNSF coal train and derails in Barton County, MO, injuring two railway workers.[143]6 August 2012 - United States - 32 cars derail from mixed-freight train that was traveling from Lynwood to Macon, Ga. on the Norfolk Southern Railway line running aside Eighth Avenue in Cramerton, North Carolina. 31 homes are evacuated. Among the cars that derailed are tanker cars carrying phosphoric acid. Cleanup from the accident lasts approximately two months.[146]21 August 2012 – United States – Two women celebrating the night before their return to university on a railway bridge die shortly after midnight when a CSX coal train derails on the bridge in downtown Ellicott City, Maryland, burying the women under coal.[147] The NTSB investigation attributed the probable cause of the derailment to a broken rail.[148]1 October 2012 – United States – In California Amtrak Train 712, travelling from Oakland, CA to Bakersfield, CA, is hit by a truck carrying cotton at a gated level crossing. Three of the train's five cars as well as the trailing GE P42DC locomotive, #94, derailed. No deaths, 50 injuries.29 October 2012 – United States – Thirteen cars of a 57-car Paducah & Louisville (P&L) freight train derail near West Point, Kentucky. A tank car loaded with butadiene leaked and later caught fire while workers were repairing the track. No deaths, 5 injured. On 31 October, the train derailment exploded at 13:30 causing evacuations to be ordered in a 2 kilometre radius and an 8 kilometre radius to stay indoors. 3 were seriously burned in the explosion.15 November 2012 – United States – Midland train crash – Around 16.30 four people die and 16 others are injured when a Union Pacific train strikes a parade float headed to an event honouring wounded veterans in Midland, Texas.[162][163]29 November 2012 – United States, Amtrak train 91 The Silver Star carrying 153 people to Miami slams into a dump truck in Orlando, Florida splitting it in half. The dump truck driver dies and the engine of The Silver Star is damaged. 10 passengers are hospitalized for minor injuries. Witnesses say that the truck driver failed to stop at a stop sign, and authorities claim the train was not speeding at the time of the impact. The rest of the passengers are taken to a downtown Orlando station.30 November 2012 – United States – One of three daily trains that cross an old style swing bridge derails near Paulsboro, New Jersey, resulting in one car leaking vinyl chloride into the air. The NTSB Report found the conductor was not trained how to tell if the bridge was locked after it had malfunctioned. About 100 people were treated for exposure to the chemical. Equipment damage estimates were $451,000. The emergency response and remediation costs totaled about $30 million.[168]17 December 2012 – United States – A BNSF intermodal train from Chicago derails when a landslide strikes it in Everett, Washington. This event is captured on video.[169][170]26 April 2013 – United States – At a rural Buffalo & Pittsburgh Railroad crossing, in Butler County, Pennsylvania (near Pittsburgh), an Allegheny Valley Railroadfreight train carrying asphalt (with 2 locomotives, 29 cars; traveling at the 25 mph limit) strikes an Alliance for Nonprofit Resources Inc. Butler Area Rural Transit Authority bus carrying impaired seniors and younger adults at the Maple Street intersection. It's unclear whether the bus stopped on or before the tracks; the train's brakes are believed to have been applied and the horn to have sounded. Two people are flown by helicopter to area trauma centres–one was in critical condition, and a 91-year-old woman dies later at Allegheny General Hospital. Ten others, including the bus driver, are also hospitalised.[199]17 May 2013 – United States – Fairfield train crash – Sixty people are injured (five critically) and rail traffic from New York City to Boston is shut down after a Metro-North commuter train derails and plows into a second train in Fairfield, Connecticut.[205]25 May 2013 – United States – Seven people are injured when two freight trains collide early in the morning at a rail intersection in southeast Missouri, causing a highway overpass to collapse (this occurred shortly after a bridge collapse in Washington state and the above-mentioned Fairfield, Connecticut commuter train collision). The accident occurs when a Union Pacific train T-bones a Burlington Northern Santa Fe train outside of Scott City, Missouri about 190 kilometres (120 mi) south of St. Louis, Missouri. One of the trains derails, sending rail cars smashing into an overpass support pillar. Five of the injured are in automobiles, and two are on the train. All but one of the injured are treated and released from the hospital. 37.209636°N 89.745727°W[208][209]28 May 2013 – United States – A freight train derails outside Rosedale, Maryland, just outside Baltimore after colliding with a garbage truck. Fifteen cars from the CSX train Q409 derail and two catch fire. An explosion damages nearby buildings. Only the truck driver is injured. Those within a 20-block radius of the crash site are asked to evacuate.18 July 2013 – United States – July 2013 Spuyten Duyvil derailment – A CSX freight train carrying New York City municipal waste to an out-of-state landfill derails between the Marble Hill and Spuyten Duyvil stations on Metro-North Railroad's Hudson Line along the Harlem River the New York City borough of The Bronx. There are no injuries or deaths; however thousands of commuters are inconvenienced when that section of the line is closed for four days while the cars are rerailed and the spilled garbage cleaned up5 August 2013 – United States – More than 20 cars of Union Pacific train derail in Louisiana near Lawtell.[224]16 September 2013 – United States – A freight train derails near Seville, Illinois when a bridge over the Spoon Rivercollapses under it.[228]19 September 2013 – United States – A CSX train derails in Southampton County, Virginia injuring two engineers and starting a fire.[230]30 September 2013 – United States – An out-of-service Chicago Transit Authority train crashes head-on into a stopped train in Forest Park, Illinois, injuring 33 people.[231]9 October 2013 – United States – A Union Pacific train hits a stalled tractor trailer carrying pipes in Odessa, Texas. The accident caused the pipes to go flying and 100 gallons of diesel fuel from the locomotive to leak. Accident was caught on tape. No injuries.[232]11 October 2013 – United States – A truck carrying logs collides with a Durbin and Greenbrier Valley Railroad train carrying 63 people in Randolph County, West Virginia. The driver of the truck dies, and 23 on the train are injured, six of them seriously.[233]24 October 2013 – United States – One person dies when four freight cars loaded with gravel derail at the SunRail station on State Road 46 in Sanford, Florida.[237]8 November 2013 – United States – A 90-car freight train carrying crude oil from the Bakken shale patch in North Dakota (possibly similar to the type carried in the July 2013 Lac-Mégantic derailment in Quebec, Canada), from Amory, Mississippi to a refinery in Walnut Hill, Florida, derails and explodes in the morning in Pickens County, Alabama (west AL)30 November 2013 – United States – A Southwestern Railroad (New Mexico) train derails outside Silver City, New Mexico, resulting in the deaths of the conductor, engineer, and a ride-along female passenger aged 50. The train is leaving a mine on a 6% slope when it experiences braking failure and travels out of control for miles. The locomotive eventually leaves the track on a curve, completely disconnecting from the eight cars heavily loaded with magnetite and slides into an arroyo (creek). All three occupants of the locomotive are killed on impact. The eight freight cars continue on the track a short distance before stopping. It is originally reported that the three victims were male employees,[241] but a correction later specifies that the female ride-along passenger was not an employee.[242]Spuyten Duyvil derailment.1 December 2013 – United States – December 2013 Spuyten Duyvil derailment - Derailment at Spuyten Duyvil, the Bronx, New York City – The engineer of a Metro-North Railroad passenger train from Poughkeepsie to Grand Central Terminal falls asleep with the train at full throttle. It enters a 30 mph (48 km/h) curve just before Spuyten Duyvil station at 82 mph (132 km/h) and derails, killing 4 and injuring 63. It is the first Metro-North accident with passenger fatalities.[243] The engineer's fatigue was caused by severe, undiagnosed sleep apnea in combination with a recent shift change.[244]30 December 2013 – United States – Casselton train derailment – Several cars from westbound BNSF grain train 6990 derailed after a reused axle broke on the 45th car in the train. One minute and 15 seconds later, eastbound crude oil train 4934, operating on the adjacent eastbound track near Casselton, North Dakota, struck the derailed grain car, derailing locomotive 4934 and several of the oil tank cars.7 January 2014 – United States– A CTA Yellow Line passenger train derails in the Rogers Park neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois. The two-car train derailed in the early afternoon, briefly disrupting late afternoon rush hour traffic. No injuries were reported.[256]13 January 2014 – United States– A BNSF train derails near Kent, Washington after a landslide. The landslide also disrupted Amtrak and Sound Transit passenger rail service.[258]17 January 2014 – United States – A BNSF train hauling fruits, vegetables and empty intermodal cars derails near Williston, North Dakota. The derailment also disrupted Amtrak passenger rail service between Minot, North Dakota and Havre, Montana. No injuries were reported.[259]27 January 2014 – United States – A Union Pacific train carrying scrap paper derails near Pollard Flat, California. Only one box car in the four-car train was carrying cargo, with no cargo spillage. The derailment caused disruption to Amtrak passenger rail service, resulting in riders being transported via buses between Oregon and California.[262]28 January 2014 – United States – A CN train carrying plastic pellets derails near Mundelein, Illinois. One set of wheels on a hopper in a 110-car train derailed on a single lane track, resulting in disruptions of service over two days for several passenger and freight services as trains needed to be rerouted.[263]28 January 2014 – United States – A CSX train carrying phosphoric acid derails near McDavid, Florida. 23 of the 69 cars derailed, resulting in the destruction of the tracks and bridge over Fletcher Creek, and chemicals leaking into the water. No injuries were reported.[264]31 January 2014 – United States – A CN train carrying crude oil, methane and liquid fertilizer derails near New Augusta, Mississippi. 18 to 24 cars of the 85-car train derailed and began leaking. The derailment occurred in a rural area, but resulted in 12 families being evacuated and four lanes of U.S. 98 closed as emergency responders began to clean up the spill. No injuries were reported.[265]24 March 2014 – United States – O'Hare station train crash - A train in Chicago, Illinois overruns the buffers and goes up the escalator at O'Hare International Airport, injuring 32 people.[270]30 April 2014 – United States – CSX derailment: 15 tankers carrying crude oil derail and catch fire in Lynchburg, Virginia, striking fears of water contamination in the local area and beyond.[273]4 July 2014 – United States – 19 cars of a Montana Rail Link train, carrying manufactured plane parts, soybeans, and alcohol from Kansas City, Kansas to Renton, Washington, derail. 3 airplane fuselages spill into a local river. No injuries are reported, and the nearby river pass and fishing gorge is closed to remove debris.[280]17 August 2014 – United States – two Union Pacific locomotives hit head-on, in Hoxie, Arkansas, killing two crewmen and injuring two others. Several cars derail, resulting in a fire that causes the evacuation of 500 residents.[287]4 September 2014 - United States - A switch glitch causes a minor coach derailment at the Strasburg Rail Road. No one was injured and the coach was back on the rails a few hours later, completely undamaged.[289]5 October 2014 – United States – a Norfolk Southern freight train slams into a lowboy trailer in Mer Rouge, LA, seriously injuring both railroad crew and causing two engines along with 17 cars to derail. 50 homes are evacuated for about two hours due to the leakage of argon gas from the tank car.[291]16 October 2014 – United States – An excursion train of the Arkansas-Missouri Railroad stalls on the mainline near West Fork, Arkansas; the crew of the locomotive sent to help the train does not have the precise location of the stalled train and runs into the stalled train's locomotive after rounding a curve. 44 people are injured in the collision, 5 critically.[293][294] An NTSB team was dispatched to investigate.[295]28 October 2014 – United States – 24 were injured when an Amtrak train collides with a semi truck on U.S. Route 421.[296]14 January – United States – A Texas Department of Criminal Justice bus with 12 inmates and three officers is traveling from Abilene, Texas to El Paso, Texas when it collides with a train, near Odessa, Texas, killing 10.[301]3 February – United States – Valhalla train crash - A Metro-North Railroad train strikes one car at a crossing near Valhalla, New York, and catches fire, killing six people.[302]16 February – United States – 2015 Mount Carbon train derailment - A CSX freight train derails in West Virginia. A broken rail caused nineteen Bakken crude oil tank cars to catch fire, with over 1,100 people evacuated from their homes nearby.[306]24 February – United States – 2015 Oxnard train derailment - A Metrolink train hits a road vehicle at Oxnard, Californiaand derails.[309] The train engineer dies and 29 others are injured.25 February – United States – A CN freight train traveling from Winnipeg, Manitoba to Superior, Wisconsin derails 25 miles northwest of Duluth, Minnesota. Thirteen of the 107 cars in the train derail, some of which contain naphthalene. No injuries or spills were reported.[310][311]2 March – United States – A Union Pacific train hauling hazardous material derails near Meacham, Oregon; 10 cars jump the tracks in a narrow canyon overlooking Meacham Creek.[312]5 March – United States – A BNSF oil train derails in a rural area near Galena, Illinois. Twenty-one of the 105 cars, containing Bakken formation crude oil, leave the track and catch fire, which continues to burn. No injuries are reported.[313]9 March – United States – 2015 Halifax train crash - An Amtrak passenger train collides with a tractor trailer in Halifax, North Carolina. No life-threatening injuries were reported. The accident was caught on video.[317]15 March – United States – A car ignores warning signals at an open grade crossing in Louisville, Kentucky. A Norfolk Southern freight train with leased locomotives from Union Pacific Railroad crashes into the car with four Bhutanese passengers in it where they were returning from soccer practice. Two passengers sitting on the right side were killed in the crash while two were critically injured and taken to a nearby hospital.28 March – United States – 2015 Los Angeles train crash - An Expo Line train collides with an automobile at an intersection, injuring 12.[326]6 May – United States – A BNSF train derails near Heimdal, North Dakota, which ignites a crude oil fire in six tanker cars and forces the evacuation of approximately 40 nearby residents. No injuries or fatalities were reported.[332]Philadelphia.12 May – United States – 2015 Philadelphia train derailment - an Amtrak passenger train from Washington, D.C. to New York City derails in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Eight people are killed and more than 200 injured.[333]13 May – United States – A CSX freight train collides with a MARTA bus in East Point, Georgia that was trapped on a railroad crossing by traffic while stopped at a traffic light. Six people were injured in the wreck. The accident was caught on tape by cameras inside the bus.[334][335]11 June – United States – Nine cars (and a locomotive) of an 84-car Kansas City Southern freight train derail in Houston, Texas. Two cars fall from the track, with one falling onto a road below. No injuries were reported and no cargo was spilled.[339]2 July – United States – 2015 Tennessee train derailment - A train carrying hazardous materials goes off of its tracks near Knoxville, Tennessee.[343]5 October – United States – An Amtrak passenger train strikes rocks on the line and derails near Northfield, Vermont.[355][356]24 October – United States – A southbound Union Pacific freight train hauling 64 cars of gravel and concrete materials is swept off the tracks by flood waters just north of Corsicana, Texas, after Hurricane Patricia's weak remnants dumped 18 inches of rain on the area over a two-day period. Both crew members were rescued from the flood waters uninjured.[357]4 January – United States – A Tri-Rail passenger train collides with a garbage truck which had broken down on a grade crossing at Lake Worth station, Florida and is derailed. Twenty-two people are injured.[366]28 January – United States – A northbound Tri-Rail train derails in Pompano Beach, Florida. One person is injured.[370]14 March – United States – Cimarron train derailment; Amtrak's Southwest Chief derails about 20 miles (32 km) west of Dodge City in Kansas; five cars are derailed. Thirty-two people are injured.[379]25 March – United States – Callaway train crash; A collision between a train and a tractor-trailer transporting propane causes a large explosion and injures two train crew members.3 April – United States – 2016 Chester, Pennsylvania, train derailment: Two people die and thirty-one suffer injuries when an Amtrak train collides with a backhoeon the tracks and a car derails in Chester, near Philadelphia.[381]1 May – United States – A freight train derails in northeast Washington D.C., spilling hazardous chemicals. Nobody is injured, but metropolitan and Amtrak service to and from Washington is disrupted.[392]3 June – United States – A crude oil train derails due to defective track and catches fire at Mosier, Oregon. The town was evacuated.[397]26 June – United States – An Amtrak passenger train collides with a van on a grade crossing in southern Colorado. Five of the six persons in the van die.[399]28 June – United States – Two BNSF Railway freight trains collide head-on near Panhandle, Texas. Three crewpeople were killed, and one was injured when they jumped from one of the trains. The wrecked locomotives caught fire following initial impact. The event recorders in the locomotives were completely destroyed and unrecoverable, rendering actions by crew members unaccountable before the crash.[400]14 July - United States - Early in the morning, Norfolk Southern train 164 strikes a tractor-trailer in Chattanooga, Tennessee, resulting in the train derailing and the lead locomotive overturning.[404]28 July - United States - 9:10pm, Norfolk Southern coal train experiences derailment in Spring City, Tennessee. 49 cars experienced derailment and lost their contents in the middle of city limits, almost hitting the historic train depot in town. Cause was determined to be a fault wheel on one of the privately owned coal cars.[406]29 September – United States – 2016 Hoboken train crash; A NJ Transit train entering Hoboken Terminal overruns the end-of-track bumper block and smashes into a wall, causing structural damage to the terminal building. A woman on the platform is killed by falling debris, and 114 others are injured.[419]8 October – United States – A Long Island Railroad train derails near New Hyde Park. Thirty-three people are injured—26 passengers and 7 employees, four seriously, when an LIRR commuter train struck a work train that was partially fouling the track near a switch.[420][421]4 January – United States – 2017 Brooklyn train crash - A Long Island Rail Road commuter train derails in Brooklyn, New York. At least 103 people are injured.[433]24 January – United States – A FrontRunner passenger train collides with a semi-trailer truck on a grade crossing in North Salt Lake, Utah. Weather caused the crossing arms to remain down and safe but responding employee disabled the crossing safety system so when the train approached, the gates did not activate. No one was injured.[435]21 February – United States – A train on SEPTA's Market-Frankford Line derails in a rail yard loop in Upper Darby, PA when it crashes into a stopped train, seriously injuring one of the operators and injuring three others. Cars from the derailed train collide with a third train on an adjacent track.[443]7 March – United States – Three locomotives and 20 cars of a CSX freight train on the River Subdivision partially derail at Newburgh, New York, after striking a disabled construction vehicle stuck on the tracks at a grade crossing in a steel-fabrication plant. There are no injuries and hazardous materials the train was carrying are not spilled; however a neighboring road is closed to traffic for several days during cleanup of spilled diesel fuel.[444]7 March – United States – Four people are killed in Biloxi, Mississippi, when a CSX freight hits their charter bus after it gets stuck on the tracks at a grade crossing. The wreck was caught on video.[445]Graettinger, Iowa10 March – United States – A freight train convoying ethanol derails and bursts into flames as it crosses a trestle bridge near Graettinger, Iowa. At least 27 of 101 cars derail.[446]15 May – United States – A freight train carrying automobiles, industrial chemicals and other materials derailed 18 of 77 cars in Elkhart, Illinois with no injuries reported.[457]20 June – United States – Three refrigerated cars carrying butter on an East Penn Railroad train derailed in Sellersville, Pennsylvania.[458]27 June – United States – A southbound New York City Subway train derailed then caught on fire near 125th Street.[459] The derailment, caused by improperly secured replacement rails,[460] resulted in 39 minor injuries.[461]28 June - United States - A Norfolk Southern train slams into a truck at Bangor, Pennsylvania. The driver ignored the crossing, and said that the crossing was deactivated, but it was active when the train hit the truck. No injuries or deaths occurred. The driver was charged.2 July – United States – An Amtrak passenger train derails at Steilacoom, Washington. A few of the 267 passengers on board sustain minor injuries.[462][463]21 July – United States – The second set of wheels on a southbound New York City Subway train jumped the track near Brighton Beach. Nine people suffered injuries[464] due to improper maintenance of the car in question.[465][466]22 August – United States – A SEPTA Norristown High Speed Line remain runs into the rear of an out of service Norristown High Speed Line train at 69th Street Terminal in Upper Darby, Pennsylvania. Thirty-three people are injured, four seriously.[474]2 December – United States – A Mount Hood Railroad passenger train derails 3 miles (4.8 km) from Hood River, Oregon. There are no injuries amongst the 214 people on board. The line is closed until 8 December.[491]18 December - United States - 2017 Washington train derailment: Amtrak Cascades passenger train #501, the inaugural run of the Cascades service on a new rail line designed for higher speeds than the previous route, fails to slow down when approaching a 30 mph speed restriction and derails on a bridge over I-5 in Pierce County, Washington. Three people are killed and over 80 injured.[494][495]28 January - United States - A freight train collides with a truck in Harrodsburg, Kentucky. The accident occurred after 8:30pm EST between a Norfolk Southernfreight train and a CMV truck at a grade crossing with US 127.[505] The truck reportedly spilled 40 gallons (150 L) of fuel, and NS 8104, a heritage unit, was involved.31 January - United States - 2018 Crozet, Virginia train crash: A chartered Amtrak train carrying Republican Party lawmakers from Washington, D.C. to a retreat in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia collides with a garbage truck at a grade crossing near Crozet, Virginia. One person on the truck is killed and six people are injured.[506]4 February - United States - Cayce, South Carolina train collision: Amtrak Silver Star train #91 traveling from New York City to Miami collided with a CSX freight train early Sunday in Cayce, South Carolina, killing at least two people, injuring at least 100 others, and spilling thousands of gallons of fuel.[507][508]18 March — United States — Two Norfolk Southern freight trains are in a head-on collision in Scott County, Kentucky. Four people are injured. Norfolk Southern blames the engineer and conductor of one of the trains for the accident and sues them.[512]23 March — United States — A Long Island Railroad train collides with a car that drove onto the tracks because of a GPS in Mineola, New York. No injuries or deaths are reported.[512]17 June — United States — A freight train consisting of 89 cars derails and causes an explosion outside of the city of Princeton, Indiana. Of the 23 derailed cars, 5 contain propane. Authorities evacuate homes within a 1-mile radius of the derailment.[521]22 June — United States — A BNSF oil train was derailed near Doon, Iowa. An estimated 230000 gallons (870 600 L) of oil spilled.[522][523]4 October — United States - A Union Pacific freight train loses its brakes and collides with the rear of a stationary train in Granite Canyon, Wyoming. Preliminary NTSB reports have put the cause at a kink or pinched air hose along with a communication failure between the head end and the train's end-of-train device. The crew of the runaway train were killed.6 January – United States – A Norfolk Southern freight train carrying hazardous chemicals derailed in Jefferson County, Georgia near Bartow, prompting the evacuation of all addresses within a 7-mile (11 km) radius of the crash site due to tanker leakage. No injuries from the derailment were reported; however, at least 26 people, including a firefighter and three law enforcement officers, were treated for chemical exposure.[540]26 February – United States – Two separate Long Island Rail Road trains hit a pickup truck at the School Street railroad crossing in Westbury, New York on the LIRR Main Line, causing the driver and two passengers to be ejected from the vehicle resulting in their deaths, numerous injuries, and damage to the nearby LIRR station platform.[547]16 April – United States – Six cars of a Norfolk Southern freight train carrying trash derail in Wyomissing, Pennsylvania. The train was traveling westbound from Oak Island, New Jersey to Mingo Junction, Ohio. The derailment backed up train traffic as far away as Chicago.[551]… Phew, there were quite a few, huh?The largest overall cause, especially with passenger trains, seems to be cars on the tracks or hitting a passing train. Other incidents include head-on collisions, faulty maintenance, or speeding. For many of these, Positive Train Control (PTC) would have helped prevent these accidents from occurring, as long as it was working properly.