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Women Scribes: The Technologists of the Middle AgesThe setting is a damp, drafty chamber, candlelit with a smoldering fire. A solitary figure is bent over a sheet of parchment, dipping their quill into a small pot of brilliant blue ink preparing to illuminate the text in front of them.Typically, many assume that this activity occurred in a monastery. That is until this week, when a team scholars from the University of York and the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History released their findings, challenging assumptions that male monks were the sole producers of books throughout the Middle Ages.[1]Recent historical research reveals that religious women were not only literate but also prolific producers and consumers of books.[2] In Germany and Austria, religious women played a particularly active role in book production, and their work as scribes and illuminators can be traced to as early as the late eighth century [3]. Although surviving examples of these early works are rare and relatively modest, there is a growing body of evidence that women’s monasteries were actively producing books of the highest quality by the 12th century.[4]Dalheim archaeological site in Germany, where individual B78 was buried (Blue pigment found on a medieval woman's teeth suggests she was a skilled, literate artist | CBC Radio)Archaeologists from York University, have been excavating the remnants of a small convent or monastery in Dalheim, Germany., occupied in the 10th to the 14th century.[5] The convent was destroyed by fire during a civil war,[6] leaving only its foundations and a small burial ground.The monastery is known only from a few scraps of text, the earliest of which date to 1244.[7]While investigating the health of individuals from the Middle ages, the team encountered one set of skeletal remainst that has revolutionized scholar's understanding of women in religious life nine centuries ago. B78 belonged to a woman, estimated to be between 45 and 60 years old when she died sometime between 997 and 1162.[8] The skeleton itself was unremarkable, lacking visible signs of trauma or infections. It suggests that she never engaged in hard physical labor and was a member of the upper strata of society, a common occurrence within religious communities. Her teeth however, are a different story.The tartar of the female individual known as B78 can be seen deposited on her teeth (A Blue Clue In Medieval Teeth May Bespeak A Woman's Artistry Circa A.D. 1000)Experts discovered something very unusual, over 100 particles of blue paint in the form of small crystals and flecks on her teeth in her fossilised dental plaque.[9] It suggested a repeated exposure to an unknown blue dust or powder.In most societies today, oral hygiene practices are part of our daily routine, meaning that dental plaque is regularly removed and doesn’t have a chance to build up on our teeth. This was not the case in the past. Plaque built up and mineralised over the course of people’s lives.A key characteristic of dental plaque is that while it forms it has the ability to entrap a wide range of microscopic and molecular debris that comes into contact with a person’s mouth.[10] When dental plaque becomes “tartar” it can entomb and preserve these particles and molecules for hundreds or thousands of years.[11] With the right scientific and archaeological analysis, tartar provides insight on the individual level, of the diet and living conditions of ancient people.Until recently, the bulk of analyses conducted on ancient tartar has centred on reconstructing diet. [12] Besides the ingestion of food, the human mouth is subject to a constant influx of particles of varying types directly from the environment. Tree and grass pollen, spores, cotton and bast fibres, medicinal plants, as well as diatoms, sponge spicules and micro-charcoal have all been reported among the finds from ancient tartar. [13] Despite this promising evidence, the value of dental calculus as environmental evidence has been under-utilized.Blue particles observed embedded within archaeological dental calculus. ( A) Archaeological tooth from individual B78 showing attached dental calculus deposits before sampling. Images (B) to (I) are shown to the same scale, as indicated in (I). (Medieval women’s early involvement in manuscript production suggested by lapis lazuli identification in dental calculus)But a multidisciplinary collaborative team from the University of York, the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History and Yale University have demonstrated the potential for human dental calculus to reveal an unprecedented level of insight into the lives and working conditions of our ancestors.Multiple spectrographic analyses revealed the blue pigment to be lazurite/ultramarine, a rare pigment made from crushed lapis lazuli stones.[14] It was as expensive, if not more as gold at the time, mined from a single region in Afghanistan and the ultimate luxury trade good then.[15] Preparation of the pigment required an intricate skill known by few.Lazurite in calculus of female B78. Photo by Monica Tromp, CC BY-NCCreating a vivid blue pigment from lapis lazuli required an Arabic method of oil flotation that did not appear in European artist manuals until after the 15th century.[16] So it’s more likely that ultramarine pigment was imported into the region as a finished product.Ultramarine was only used in the production of artistic works for the elite and especially for religious art.[17] Most artists could not afford it even in the Renaissance, where it was one of the most revered shades used by artists to color the Virgin Mary clothing.[18] Michelangelo ordered large quantities of ultramarine for his work on the Sistine Chapel, but reportedly couldn't afford enough to finish his painting The Entombment.[19]This pigment was used in the production of illuminated manuscripts . An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented with such decoration as initials, borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations.[20] In the strictest definition, the term refers only to manuscripts decorated with either gold or silver;[21] but in both common usage and modern scholarship, the term refers to any decorated or illustrated manuscript from Western traditions.[22] Islamic manuscripts may be referred to as illuminated, illustrated or painted, though using essentially the same techniques as Western works.The Entombment (or Christ being carried to his Tomb)Until the 13th century, manuscripts were created solely under the devotion of monks and nuns across Europe.[23] In exchange for arduous labor, monastic life offered the comfort of meditation, ascetic discipline, and eternal peace. In many instances, the monastery was the foremost intellectual, religious, and agricultural facility in a medieval city center.[24] By extension, the ability to serve within a monastery was deemed a privilege.The process of creating manuscripts required both physical and mental stamina, as the work was incredibly tedious, detailed, and demanding.Larger monasteries commonly housed scriptoriums, which were reclusive spaces built for the purpose of writing, copying, illuminating, and binding manuscripts. As a testament to their devotion, it was not uncommon for scribes and illuminators to work in solitude from morning until night.[25]While the use of gold is by far one of the most captivating features of illuminated manuscripts,[26] the bold use of varying colors provided multiple layers of dimension to the illumination. From a religious perspective, "the diverse colors wherewith the book is illustrated, not unworthily represent the multiple grace of heavenly wisdom."[27]While religious authors view themselves as instilling a part of God's vast glory on the work, many illustrations can be linked to the history of the texts that were required to be illustrated and the needs and tastes of the readers of those manuscripts.[28] Color brought the images on the page to life and captivated the readers. Without color the impact of the image would have been completely lost.Given the destruction at the site due to the fire, this woman's skeleton may be the only record of the activity at the monastery.The scribe was an active participant in a vast global commercial network that stretched from the mines of Afghanistan to her community in medieval Germany through the trading metropolises of Islamic Egypt and Byzantine Constantinople. The growing economy of 11th century Europe fired demand for the precious and exquisite pigment that traveled thousands of miles via merchant caravan and ships to serve this woman artist's creative ambition.[29]Self portrait of Guda, a 12th century nun. The inscription she holds reads, “Guda, peccatrix mulier scripsit et pinxit hunc librum,” translated as “Guda, a sinful woman, wrote and painted this book.”(Guda - Wikipedia)The community of nuns at the site was not large, only about 15 or twenty.[30] It seemed that they had more than adequate funds to acquire this expensive artistic material. Convents received massive support from the local elite and were powerful and influential in the local society.Medieval dental plaque suggests women played important role as scribesGiven the size of the community, the woman was probably the only scribe.[31] She would have worked in isolation in a room in the convent known as a scriptorium, painstakingly producing beautiful books for the community and local patrons among the aristocracy.[32] Sadly, the dead women’s art was most likely destroyed in the fire that gutted the monastery.Researchers struggled to comprehend how this precious material end up deposited on this woman’s teeth? A variety of reasons were possible, from painting to accidental ingestion during pigment preparation, perhaps the woman had kissed an image containing lapis as part of a devotional ritual, or engaged in “lapidary medicine,” a medieval practice of ingesting precious stones as curatives.[33] Researchers discounted the later.[34]Perhaps, she kissed an image containing lapis as part of a devotional ritual.[35]The way in which the blue particles were found in tartar – single flecks in different areas – pointed to a repeated exposure, not a single ingestion.[36] The most likely explanation, then, is that this was an artist who repeatedly used her lips to shape her brush into a fine point in order to paint intricate detail on manuscripts, a practice commonly attested through the early twentieth century.[37]This finding suggests that women were more involved in the production of books throughout the Middle Ages than previously considered. Manuscripts found in the libraries of women's monasteries have fewer than 15% of female names on them[38] , and before the 12th century, that number drops to fewer than 1%.[39] A few rare surviving works from as early as the eighth century reveal that women were scribes.[40]Artists are largely invisible in both the historic and archaeological records as they rarely signed their work as a gesture of humility before the 15th century. There have been no known skeletal markers directly associated with producing art.[41]But this study makes identifying historical artists a realistic possibility, using microscopic particles entombed in their ancient tartar. Expanding the methodology should make possible to track other crafts using this a variety of pigments, thereby revealing the artist behind the masterpiece.Footnotes[1] Medieval woman artist unmasked by her teeth[2] Blue tooth reveals hidden medieval artist[3] http://A. I. Beach, Women as Scribes: Book Production and Monastic Reform in Twelfth-Century Bavaria (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004).[4] Women Scribes: The Technologists of the Middle Ages[5] Medieval dental plaque suggests women played important role as scribes[6] Blue teeth reveal medieval nun's artistic talent[7] A Blue Clue In Medieval Teeth May Bespeak A Woman's Artistry Circa A.D. 1000 [8] Blue Pigment Found on Medieval Teeth Reveals Secret Existence of Female Scribes[9] Medieval women’s early involvement in manuscript production suggested by lapis lazuli identification in dental calculus[10] Medieval dental plaque suggests women played important role as scribes[11] Tracking ancient diseases using ... plaque[12] Beyond food: The multiple pathways for inclusion of materials into ancient dental calculus[13] Medieval Dental Plaque Suggests These Lavish Manuscripts Were Actually Written By Women[14] Medieval women’s early involvement in manuscript production suggested by lapis lazuli identification in dental calculus[15] Why a Medieval Woman Had Lapis Lazuli Hidden in Her Teeth[16] A Journey with Lapis Lazuli Pigment[17] Medieval women’s early involvement in manuscript production suggested by lapis lazuli identification in dental calculus[18] Lapis Lazuli: A Blue More Precious than Gold[19] A Brief History of Ultramarine—The World’s Costliest Color[20] Illumination History[21] Illuminated Manuscripts[22] A Brief Introduction to the History of the Illuminated Manuscript[23] What Are Illuminated Manuscripts and How Were They Created?[24] Life in a Medieval Monastery[25] What Are Illuminated Manuscripts and How Were They Created?[26] Illuminated manuscript - Wikipedia[27] http://Putnam A.M., Geo. Haven. Books and Their Makers During The Middle Ages. Vol. 1. New York: Hillary House, 1962[28] http://Calkins, Robert G. "Stages of Execution: Procedures of Illumination as Revealed in an Unfinished Book of Hours." International Center of Medieval Art 17.1 (1978): 61–70[29] Why Priceless Lapis Lazuli Was Found in a Medieval Nun's Mouth[30] We found lapis lazuli hidden in ancient teeth – revealing the forgotten role of women in medieval arts[31] Female Scribes in Early Manuscripts[32] Scriptorium - Wikipedia[33] http://medieval[34] Medieval women’s early involvement in manuscript production suggested by lapis lazuli identification in dental calculus[35] Medieval woman artist unmasked by her teeth[36] Art Is Beautiful. It Could Also Kill You. Here Are 7 Deadly Art Materials to Watch Out For | artnet News[37] Blue tooth reveals hidden medieval artist[38] Women Scribes: The Technologists of the Middle Ages[39] The Scribes For Women's Convents in Late Medieval Germany[40] Women as Scribes Throughout History[41] How Important Is Lead Poisoning to Becoming a Legendary Artist?

TL;DR: Amalgam filling is OK. Composite restoration can be preferable given the right conditions (proper moisture control, good wear resistance, affordability etc)There has been some controversy over a kind of dental filling. Some claim that it is toxic because it contains mercury. These dental fillings are dental amalgam, which is 50% mercury.Take a look at your mouth in the mirror. Do you see any gray or silver fillings in your back teeth? Those are most likely to be dental amalgam. You’re probably thinking, “Mercury! Isn’t that the toxic heavy metal that pollutes the environment and makes us cautious about certain kinds of seafood?” If you’re starting to panic…don’t!This article will hopefully answer the following questions:Are dental amalgams safe?What should you do if you have dental amalgams?What should you consider when getting any future tooth fillings?Before we dive into those questions, let’s explore a little history.Dental amalgam fillings are not a new innovation in dentistry. They might have been first used by the Chinese as early as 659 AD. In Europe, they were likely used by the 16th century. Modern dentists have been using it for more than 150 years.Throughout history, there have been “amalgam wars” and ongoing controversy over the use of mercury, but these it has consistently been used. Its reliability in load bearing situations and low cost is unmatched by other forms of dental restorative material. It is the no.1 choice for patching the back teeth.Are dental amalgams safe?In recent years, there has been research suggesting that mercury vapor is released from silver fillings. However, do they pose an actual health risk? Does enough mercury escape from amalgam restorations to cause adverse health effects? Up till now, there is insufficient evidence to label amalgam as hazardous to the human body and halt its use.Here are three facts to support the use of amalgam:After the dentist places the filling and the reaction is complete, only a tiny amount of mercury is released, which is far below the current health standards.Mercury does not collect in human tissues. It takes an average of 55 days for mercury to move through the body to the point of excretion.Mercury acts as a bacteriostatic agent. Since there are many bacteria in the oral cavity, this is a desirable characteristic as it stops current decay and prevents future decay.Reputable regulatory bodies such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), American dental Association (ADA) and Malaysian Dental Council (MDC) also back the use of dental amalgams.ADA: “The scientific evidence supports the position that amalgam is a valuable, viable and safe choice for dental patients.”FDA: “While elemental mercury has been associated with adverse health effects at high exposures, the levels released by dental amalgam fillings are not high enough to cause harm in patients.”MDC: “The Malaysian Dental Council (MDC) continues to support dental amalgam as a restorative material especially in load-bearing areas of the mouth such as for posterior permanent teeth.”What should you do if you have dental amalgams?Some people in the “holistic dentistry” circle have successfully convinced a number of individuals with perfectly good amalgam fillings to have them removed and replaced with composites. There is actually no need to remove those fillings as the process of removal may release more mercury vapour.Removal is not recommended unless there is a true hypersensitivity to mercury. Mercury allergy is rare but may cause skin rash or dermatitis. This affects a tiny subset of the population. So don’t rush to remove any existing amalgam fillings unless you are confirmed to be allergic to mercury.What should you consider when getting any future tooth fillings?We live in an age of choices, therefore it’s best to start with knowing what kind of options we have. Although amalgam is hardly harmful, there are benefits of using other materials. These days, the focus if on aesthetic dentistry and the use of tooth-coloured fillings is on the rise. In fact, it is the benchmark for most developed countries. If your dentist can offer an excellent quality tooth-colored filling to ensure long-term sustainability, go for it. If not, there is good old-fashioned amalgam.With many improvements in other dental materials like composites, they are a viable option to be considered especially if fillings can be seen when you smile or talk. They are great aesthetically – matching and mimicking teeth shade to the extent that it cannot be identified as restoration.There will always be people with opposing views when it comes to dental fillings. Those against amalgam are usually “naturalist” and “holistic”. However, the scientific community as a whole still believes in the use of silver fillings.Fact is, large amalgam fillings will probably last for more than 20 years and cost less than ½ of a crown. They may not look pretty, but patients can chew with confidence. The peace of mind of having a restored tooth to safely eat your favourite food is priceless!In the end, though some people have the misconception that dental amalgam is toxic, evidence has shown otherwise. They are safe and practical. That’s how we know it will stand the test of time for many, many years to come.p/s: original article here

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India, 1984Madhya Pradesh, India, the evening of December 2, 1984. All is quiet in the state capital. But behind the scenes, events are coming to a head that will put this city on the map for all the wrong reasons.That city is Bhopal.Victims of the Bhopal Disaster, 1984 (image source)At the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) production facility, located near one of Bhopal’s residential districts, operators are manning the facility’s control room for what they assume will be a normal, uneventful shift. The plant is responsible for the production of pesticides, primarily the carbamate pesticide Sevin. The process used at the plant involves the reaction of 1-naphthol with methyl isocyanate (hereafter referred to as MIC) to produce Sevin:[math]C_{10}H_7OH + CH_3NCO → C_{10}H_7OC(O)NHCH_3[/math]As any decent chemist on here would be aware, methyl isocyanate is one of those compounds that needs to be handled in the same way as one would handle dental work on an angry tiger: with great caution.To that end, UCIL had installed the MIC storage tanks underground, some distance from the Sevin unit, and equipped them with a Freon cooling system, to maintain the temperature of the liquid MIC at or around 5 degrees Celsius, where it isn’t so touchy, as well as establishing plant regulations stating that none of the three storage tanks (E609, E610 and E619) should be filled to more than 50% capacity (30 tons). Each tank was also to be pressurised with nitrogen gas, both to allow the liquid MIC to be pumped from the tank and to prevent the ingress of anything that the liquid MIC would disagree with.Economic conditions being what they were, in the lead up to December 2nd 1984 the demand for pesticides had dropped off, meaning that production at the plant was scaled back but the production of MIC was not, leading to an accumulation of the material in the storage tanks. In October of that year, tank E610 lost its ability to maintain nitrogen pressure in the tank ullage, meaning that it could not be pumped out. At this point, there were some 42 tons in the tank, in violation of plant safety regulations. MIC production was halted shortly afterwards and parts of the plant were shut down for maintenance, including the plant’s flare tower in order to replace a corroded pipe. Despite this, production of Sevin was continued using the stores of MIC in the other two tanks in November of that year. Subsequent attempts to restore pressure to tank E610 also failed, meaning that the MIC contained within could not be pumped out.This brings us to the night of the disaster. By this point, the safety systems related to MIC production and storage were mostly non-functional, and the plant itself was in poor condition, with many valves and lines blocked, corroded or stuck open or closed. The plant’s steam boiler, intended for use in cleaning the plant pipework, was also offline, as well as the crucial vent gas scrubbers. Wave after wave of layoffs and redundancies had had a devastating effect on worker morale, as well as leading to a worrying decline in the plant’s safety culture.The exact chain of events that led to the disaster is unclear, but the generally accepted chronology goes as follows:8-9 pm: Second-shift production superintendent orders MIC plant supervisor to flush several pipes running from the phosgene system to the scrubber via the MIC storage tanks. MIC unit workers are in charge of the flushing, but the maintenance department is responsible for inserting the slip bind (a solid disc) into pipe above the water washing inlet as the plant manual requires. These take 30 minutes - 2 hours to install. The MIC unit workers were apparently not aware that installation is a required safety procedure, and they do not install the slip bind first. The temperature of MIC in the tanks is between 15 and 20 degrees C, which is significantly above what it should be.9.30pm: Water washing begins. One bleeder valve (overflow device) downstream from the flushing was blocked so water did not come out as it was supposed to, instead it accumulated in the pipes. A worker shut off the water flow but the plant supervisor ordered that the washing resume. By then water had risen past a leaking isolation valve in the lines being washed and got into the relief valve pipe 20 feet above ground.~10.30 pm Water has flowed from the relief valve pipe through the jumper pipe into the process pipe through valves normally kept open. Water infiltrates through an open blow-down valve that is part of the nitrogen pressurization system; it is unclear whether the valve had been left open or had failed to fully seal when last closed. Water then flows into tank E610 via a normally-open isolation valve.10.30-10.45 pm Second shift goes off work; third shift comes on. Washing continues after second shift worker briefs third shift worker on progress of the job.11pm: The third shift control room operator notices that the pressure gauge connected to tank E610 has risen from a reading of about about 2 psi at the start of the shift to 10 psi. This is within the normal 2-25 psi range, so arouses no concern. Control room lacks any reliable way of monitoring tank temperature, as the temperature monitoring system had long since been disconnected. What no-one is yet aware of is that the water infiltrating tank E610 has begun to react violently with the liquid MIC in what is becoming a thermal runaway.~11.30 pm: Workers in the area begin to notice the distinct MIC smell and see a MIC leak near the scrubber, as well as finding MIC and dirty water coming out of a branch of the relief valve pipe on the downstream side of the safety valve, away from the tank area. They set up a water spray to neutralize the leaking MIC and inform control room personnel of situation and their actions. They then take their regular tea break, continuing to discuss the situation and what they should do next. The thermal runaway continues to build.~12.15 am: The control room operator notices that the control room pressure indicator for tank E610 now reads 25-30 psi. The runaway has reached a critical point, and accelerates beyond any control at this point as the tank temperature climbs uncontrollably.~12.30 am: Control room operator notices that needle on pressure indicator for tank E610 is pinned to the maximum reading of 55 psi. Understandably worried, the control room operator goes out to the tank area to check the gauges on the tank directly. While in tank area he hears a safety relief valve pop, hears rumbling in the tank, and feels heat emanating from the concrete slab covering the tank farm. He hastily returns to the control room to engage the vent gas scrubber, but the caustic soda does not flow as it should. A rush of gaseous MIC blasts through the inactive scrubber, bypassing the inactive flare tower, and roars out into the atmosphere. In the next two hours, some forty tons of MIC will be expelled along with other toxic gases formed as side products, such as chloroform, dichloromethane, hydrogen chloride, methylamine, dimethylamine, trimethylamine and carbon dioxide. The heavier than air gas cloud hugs the ground, driven southwest away from the plant by the prevailing winds straight towards the Chola neighbourhood, 2 kilometres from the plant.As anyone who has had the misfortune of exposure to methyl isocyanate gas will attest, it is a most unpleasant experience: initial effects include coughing, severe eye irritation and a feeling of suffocation, burning in the respiratory tract, blepharospasm (contraction of the eyelids), breathlessness, stomach pains and vomiting.Now imagine this happening to an entire residential district, with no-one knowing what is happening, since the plant alarms have been switched off, in order to prevent panic among the residents, and local hospitals have been given no information about what is used at the plant, such as immediate remedial measures and potential antidotes in the event of a leak.By morning, the devastating immediate impact of the release was clear: over two thousand five hundred people were dead. The primary causes of death were found to be choking, reflexogenic circulatory collapse and pulmonary oedema. The death toll was highest among children and those of small stature, as the cloud would have been denser at ground level, meaning they would have inhaled more gas. Madhya Pradesh government sources later confirmed a total of three thousand, seven hundred and eighty seven deaths directly attributed to the release. A 2006 government affidavit states that the number of injuries related to the release was 558,125, including 38,478 temporary partial injuries and approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling injuries.By anyone’s standards, that has to qualify as one of the most dangerous accidental chemical reactions in history.Sources:Bhopal disaster - Wikipediahttps://www.umass.edu/sts/pdfs/Bhopal_AChrono.pdfEDIT: I am amazed and humbled by the response this answer has got from fellow Quorans - over 830 upvotes and six sharesEDIT TO THE EDIT: Wow! Over two thousand upvotes! Seems that people are liking what I have to say!